Block 2

MGGL-001
Indira Gandhi National Open University

CARTOGRAPHY
School of Sciences
Vol
1
BLOCK 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF CARTOGRAPHY
BLOCK 2
THEMATIC MAPPING
MGGL-001
Indira Gandhi National Open University CARTOGRAPHY

School of Sciences
BLOCK
2
THEMATIC MAPPING
UNIT 5
TERRAIN ELEMENTS
Exercise 6: Landform Mapping
Exercise 7: Geo-Visualization
Exercise 8: Drainage Basin Analysis – Linear Aspects
Exercise 9: Drainage Basin Analysis – Areal Aspects
Exercise 10: Drainage Basin Analysis – Relief Aspects
UNIT 6
LANDUSE AND LANDCOVER
Exercise 11: Analogue Mapping
Exercise 12: Digital Image Mapping
Exercise 13: Change Detection
UNIT 7
REPRESENTING SOCIO-ECONOMIC DATA
Exercise 14: Data Processing
Exercise 15: Maps and Diagrams
Exercise 16: Single and Composite Maps
GLOSSARY
Programme Design Committee
Prof. K. R. Dikshit Prof. K. Kumaraswamy Prof. Subhakanta Mohapatra

Retd. Professor in Geography, Retd. Professor in Geography Discipline of Geography,
University of Pune, Bharathidasan University, School of Sciences,
Pune, Maharashtra Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Gopal Krishan Prof. Sachidanand Sinha Prof. Vijay Kumar Baraik
Emeritus Professor in Geography, Centre for the Study of Regional Discipline of Geography,
Panjab University, Chandigarh, Development, Jawaharlal Nehru School of Sciences,
Punjab University, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. H. S. Sharma Prof. Nina Singh Dr. Satya Raj
Retd. Professor in Geography, Department of Geography, Discipline of Geography,
University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Maharshi Dayanand University, School of Sciences,
Rajasthan Rohtak, Haryana IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Harjit Singh Prof. D. K. Nayak Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao
Centre for the Study of Regional Department of Geography, Discipline of Geography,
Development, Jawaharlal Nehru North-Eastern Hill University, School of Sciences,
University, New Delhi Shillong, Meghalaya IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. S. Padmaja Prof. M. S. Nathawat Dr. Vishal Warpa
Retd. Professor in Geography Former Director, Discipline of Discipline of Geography,
Osmania University, Hyderabad Geography, School of Sciences, School of Sciences,
Telangana IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Course Design Committee
Prof. H. S. Sharma Prof. Milap C Sharma Faculty of Geography Discipline

Retd. Professor, Dept. of Centre for the Study of Regional
Prof. M. S. Nathawat (Retd.)
Geography, University of Development, Jawaharlal Nehru
Prof. S. Mohapatra
Rajasthan, Jaipur, Rajasthan University, New Delhi
Prof. V.K. Baraik
Prof. G.K. Panda Dr. S. Raj
Retd. Professor, Department of Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao
Geography, Utkal University, Dr. V. Warpa
Bhubneswar, Odisha
Programme Coordinators: Dr. S. Raj, Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao, & Dr. V. Warpa
Course Preparation Team
Course Contributors
Dr. Ramashay Prasad (Unit 1) Dr. Rameshwar Thakur (Unit 2 & 3)
Associate Professor Associate Professor (Retd.)
Department of Geography Department of Geography
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar College, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar College,
University of Delhi, Delhi University of Delhi, Delhi
Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao (Unit 2, 5 & 6) Dr. Krishna Kumar (Unit 4)
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Discipline of Geography, School of Sciences, Discipline of Geography, School of Sciences,
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Vijay Kumar Baraik (Unit 7) Prof. K. N. Prudhvi Raju (Unit 5 & 6)
Professor Retd. Professor
Discipline of Geography, School of Sciences, Department of Geography
IGNOU, New Delhi Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
Content Editor
Prof. Anupam Pandey (Block 1) Prof. Ashis Sarkar (Block 2)

Department of Geography Retd. Professor
Allahabad University Department of Geography
Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh Presidency University, Kolkata, West Bengal
Transformation, Wetting and Coordination (Vol. I) - Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao,

Assistant Professor (Stage III),Geography Discipline, School of Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi
Course Coordinators - Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao & Dr.Vishal Warpa
Print Production
Sh. Rajiv Girdhar Sh. Hemant Parida
A.R., MPDD, IGNOU S.O., MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgements: Mr. Anil Kumar for word processing. Should any infringement have occurred, the publishers
and editors apologize and will be pleased to make the necessary corrections in future editions of this course.
Photographs/diagrams/maps/drawings and other academic materials and text used in this course for academic
purposes are gratefully acknowledged and credited. Special thanks to Survey of India and India Meteorological
Department for providing topomaps and other related maps.
Cover page designed by Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao
July, 2023
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2023
ISBN-
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s office at
Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in. Printed and published on behalf of
Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi. Printed at:
COURSE INTRODUCTION: CARTOGRAPHY
The art and science of map-making is known as cartography. It forms the backbone of
geography subject by lending it an effective means of visual expression. Various scientific
disciplines of knowledge like geodesy, surveying, photogrammetry, remote sensing, geographic
information systems (GIS), global positioning systems (GPS), mathematics and statistics,etc.
provide the sound underpinnings for the practice of cartography. Cartography-MGGL 001 is a
Laboratory Course of First Semester. It is an integrated part of the theoretical components dealt
in different units of this course. It consists of 04 blocks. The aim of this course is to introduce the
learners to the fundamentals of cartography, thematic mapping, data models, along with map
design and output. This course comprises of 26 Laboratory Exercises, with solutions. These
exercises are mainly based and related to the contents already explained in respective units.
You are required to complete all the exercises given in the Geography Laboratory book and
submit the same to the Academic Counsellor in your study centre. It is expected that after the
completion of these exercises, you will gain hands-on experience and skills for reading,
constructing and solving various aspects of geographical inquiry related to this laboratory
course. The mesh of theory embedded with practical exercises will definitely help in training the
post-graduate learners and acquisition of critical skills to obtain a competitive edge in the
processional world.
This course is printed in two volumes. Volume-1 consists of first two blocks namely: Block 1:
Fundamentals of Cartography and Block 2: Thematic Mapping combined with 16 Laboratory
Exercises; and the other two blocks namely: Block 3: Data Models and Block 4: Map Design
and Output covering with 10 Exercises are printed in Volume-2.
Cartography encompasses a wide range of geographical dimensions, from mapping and

representation of Earth’s features to data analysis and presentation. The history of cartography
may be traced back to the ancient and classical periods of Greek and Roman scientists and
thinkers.
Block 1 is divided in to 04 Units covering with 05 Exercises. The history and development of
cartography, scope, and representing the Earth are discussed. You will also learn about types,
classification and significance of maps and maps projections along with development trends in
cartography in this block. Exercise 1 and 2 deals with the map scales whichconsist of plain,
comparative, and diagonal. The next three exercises are dealing with the construction of
cylindrical projections (Exercise 3), zenithal projections (Exercise 4) and conical projections
(Exercise 5).
Block 2 describes the thematic mapping. It has 03 Units dealing with 11 Exercises. Landforms
identification and mapping along with drainage analysis are explained under terrain elements,
land use and land cover classification and mapping, and representation of socio-economic data
in details under Block 2. We have developed a total of 11 Exercises namely Exercise 6:
Landform Mapping, Exercise 7: Geovisualization, Exercise 8: Drainage Basin Analysis – Linear
Aspects; Exercise 9: Drainage Basin Analysis – Aerial Aspects, Exercise 10: Drainage Basin
Analysis – ReliefAspects, Exercise 11: Analogue Mapping, Exercise 12: Digital Image Mapping,
Exercise 13: Change Detection, Exercise 14: Data Processing, Exercise 15: Maps and
Diagrams, and Exercise 16: Single and Composite Maps under this Block 2 of Volume I.
Volume-2 includes two blocks: Block 3 deals with Data Models and Block 4 deals with Map
Design and Output. Block 3 contains 03 Units, with 09 Exercises (from 17 to 25) in total. It deals
with regional analysis and characterization, spatial data models, along with applications. All the
nine Exercises are discussed with solutions on diverse themes of data models of contemporary
importance. These themes are differentiation through patterns, terrain pattern and facets,
synthesis, slope processes, soil erosion, weather map reading and interpretation, land surface
temperature, flood hazard, and landslides hazard.
Block 4 consists of 03 Units, with 01 Exercise (Exercise 26) only. This last Block deals with
basics of design, map composition, and symbolization. In this Exercise, a very important and
core theme of map design and output has been discussed i.e., layout preparation of physical
and social aspects.
DAY Session 1 Session 2

1. Exercise 1: Construction of Map Scales: Exercise 2: Construction of Map Scales:
Plain and Comparative Diagonal
2. Exercise 3: Construction of Cylindrical Exercise 4: Construction of Zenithal
Projections Projections
3. Exercise 5: Construction of Conical Exercise 6: Landform Mapping
Projections
4. Exercise 7: Geovisualization Exercise 8: Drainage Basin Analysis –
Linear Aspects
5. Exercise 9: Drainage Basin Analysis – Exercise 10: Drainage Basin Analysis –
Aerial Aspects ReliefAspects
6. Exercise 11: Analogue Mapping Exercise 12:Digital Image Mapping
7. Exercise 13: Change Detection Exercise 14: Data Processing
8. Exercise 15: Maps and Diagrams Exercise 16: Single and Composite Maps
9. Exercise 17: Differentiation through Exercise 18: Terrain Pattern and Facets
Patterns
10. Exercise 19: Synthesis Exercise 20: Slope Processes
11. Exercise 21: Soil Erosion Exercise 22: Weather Map Reading and
Interpretation
12. Exercise 23: Land Surface Temperature Exercise 24: Flood Hazard
13. Exercise 25: Landslides Hazard Exercise 26: Layout Preparation of
Physical and Social Aspects
14. Evaluation and Viva-Voce
We hope that after studying and performing the exercises of this course, you will acquire the
practical knowledge and skills to identify, draw and interpret various themes and sub-themes of
geographical inquiry and will also be able to construct different types of map projections,
statistical diagrams and thematic maps. The skills which you would acquire in this course would
not only help to learn the basics of cartography and highlight different types of problems but also
visualize the same through the art and science of cartography for holistic solutions.
Our best wishes are with you in this endeavour always.
We suggest for any assistance regarding this course, you can contact at: knrao@ignou.ac.in
and vishalwarpa@ignou.ac.in
MGGL-002: CARTOGRAPHY
VOLUME- 1
BLOCK 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF CARTOGRAPHY
Unit 1 Introduction to Cartography

Exercise 1: Construction of Map Scales - Plain and Comparative
Exercise 2: Construction of Map Scales – Diagonal
Unit 2 Map Projections

Exercise 3: Construction of Map Projection – Cylindrical
Exercise 4: Construction of Map Projection – Zenithal
Exercise 5: Construction of Map Projection – Conical
Unit 3 Maps
Unit 4 Development Trends
BLOCK 2 THEMATIC MAPPING
Unit 5 Terrain Elements

Exercise 9: Drainage Basin Analysis – ArealAspects
Unit 6 Land Use and Land Cover

Unit 7 Representing Socio-Economic Data

BLOCK 2: THEMATIC MAPPING
This block introduces you to thematic mapping dealing with terrain elements, land use and land
cover, and representing socio-economic data in three units. A total of 11 laboratory exercises
are also introduced for enhancing the learner skills in understanding map making process.
Unit 5: Terrain Elements
This unit explains landform mapping, geovisualization of data, and drainage basin morphometry.
The following five exercises are given at the end of this unit for providing hands on experience
to carry out them in the laboratory.

Exercise 9: Drainage Basin Analysis – Areal Aspects
Unit 6: Land Use and Land Cover
In this unit, we discussed about land use and land cover. You are introduced three important
exercises to understand land use and land cover analysis and mapping different features. The
following laboratory exercisesare explained here.

Unit 7: Representing Socio-Economic Data
This Unit describes representation of socio-economic data. We explained primarily the sources
of data, techniques of data processing and analysis, single purpose and composite maps,
cartograms and diagrams. The following three exercises are given at the end of this unit for
providing hands on experience to carry out them in the laboratory.

We hope after studying this block, you will better understand the terrain elements, land use and
land cover and representing socio-economic data in the subject of cartography. Our best wishes
are with you in this endeavour.
We suggest for any assistance regarding this course, you can contact at: knrao@ignou.ac.in
and vishalwarpa@ignou.ac.in
UNIT 5
TERRAIN ELEMENTS
Structure
5.1 Introduction 5.7 Laboratory Exercises
Expected Learning Outcomes Exercise 6: Landform Mapping
5.2 Landform Exercise 7: Geo-Visualization
Identification and Measurement Exercise 8: Drainage Basin Analysis-
Classification Linear Aspects
Visualization 2D-3D Exercise 9: Drainage Basin Analysis-
5.3 Drainage Analysis Aerial Aspects
5.4 Summary Exercise 10: Drainage Basin Analysis-
5.5 Answers Relief Aspects
5.6 References and Suggested
Further Reading
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Terrain refers to “a tract of country considered with regard to its natural
features and configuration”. The natural features of surface of the earth are
‘landforms’ which give to a tract a distinct topography. In other words, it is the
manifestation of a portion of the earth's surface geometry, geological
character, and soil in general. A landscape—mountains, valleys, plains,
plateaus--is a large natural unit within a physical region. A landform—an
alluvial fan, a river terrace, a terrace bluff--is the smallest part ofa landscape.
The terrain can have its own elements or parts—a certain lithology, a certain
landform, a certain soil etc. A landform can have its own elements or parts—
the crest of a hill, the side slope of a hill, the foot slope of a hill. There have
been attempts to understand the surface of the earth with varieties of
lithologies, soils, and shapes. As there are lot of differences and similarities,
there were attempts to identify the various features of the earth and to group
them into classes depending on similarities based on form, process of
formation and material compositions. After such classifications, there were
attempts to measure their properties quantitatively and to relate them to their
evolution. And, finally there were attempts to evaluate the terrain
quantitatively. Form, process and material measurements and evaluations
come under the ambit of morphometry. Morphometry carried out taking the
drainage basin as a unit is called drainage morphometry. Terrain can be
studied in all its aspects through direct surveys, topographic maps, aerial
K. N. Prudhvi Raju & K. Nageswara Rao 101
Block 2 Thematic Mapping
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photos and satellite data. Analysis, classification and evaluation of terrain is
the core of geographical and/or geomorphological research. As the terrain is
basically a part of the surface of the Earth, which is made up of many
landforms. Section 5.2 will deal with landform identification, its
measurements, and classification, as well as landform visualization in two and
three dimensions.
Drainage basin morphometry helps to comprehend the drainage basin's

varied lithology, slope, structural controls, geological and geomorphic history
(Strahler, 1964). A drainage basin is an area/catchment with a clear
perimeter/boundary receiving waters which flow through an interconnected
network of channels/streams and finally flow through a master channel to
enter into another master channel or lake of sea. You will learn about
drainage analysis in Section 5.3.
Further, we have a dedicated Section 5.4, which facilitate to learn the skills in
doing laboratory exercises. You will be introduced to some exercises with
suitable examples. Exercise 6 will enable you to delineate landforms using
topographical maps. Visualization of data can be understood from Exercise 7.
We have listed and explained various drainage basin parameters in Exercises
8, 9 and 10.
Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Understand a landform as one of the terrain elements;
 Identify and map the landforms;
 Explain drainage characteristics; and
 Get hands-on experience in landform mapping (Exercise 6), geo-
visualization (Exercise 7); and drainage morphometry analysis by
performing laboratory Exercises 8 to 10.
5.2 LANDFORM
A landform is a part of the surface of the earth having a certain shape,
composed of distinct materials and shaped by a specific process or
processes. On the Earth's surface, we see a variety of large features such as
mountains, valleys, plains and plateaus--landscapes. Landscapes are
ensemble of landforms. Topography in general refers to the arrangement of
landforms in a landscape. The evolution of the surface of the earth forms the
objective of the branch of geomorphology which in turn is an ‘interface’
between subjects of geology and geography. The surface of the earth which
is composed of landforms can be studied through qualitative (evolution and
history) as well as quantitative approaches (specific characteristics of
materials and configuration). The quantitative approach comes within the
ambit of ‘morphometry’ or ‘geomorphometry’.
Terrain analysis is the collection, analysis, evaluation and interpretation of

geographic information on the natural and man-made features of the terrain
combined with other relevant factors like weather and hydroglogy to predict
the effect of terrain for various purposes by earth scientists, civil and military
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engineers, agriculturalists, foresters and hydrologists etc. Actually, terrain
mapping and analysis, has its origin for military operations.
5.2.1 Identification and Measurement

The requirement of various specialists’ interests concerned with terrain
analysis and evaluation vary. For example, the earth scientists including
pedologists and ecologists are less concerned about immediate practical
applications and more concerned with past processes and future possibilities.
As for agriculture, location and properties of land like soil fertility (nutrient
status, texture, moisture regime, the absence of soil and topographic
limitations), soil manageability (consisting of tilth, hardness, permeability,
relief, gradient and other determining conditions) and the nature of existing
vegetation are of prime concern. Civil engineers need to go for preparatory
excavations for building roads, railways, airfields, dams, bridges, canals,
drains and for quarries for borrow, lime, building stone and brick. They also
have to consider the suitability of ground for load bearing which can be
derived from the particle size distribution, compressibility and shear strength
of the soil under different moisture conditions, and from its liability to erosion
and flash flooding which is a function of slope, permeability and surface
roughness. Military activities include almost all the operations of civil
engineers for the sake of temporary works unlike civil engineers.
Military interest in terrain also focuses on such aspects as artillery lines of

sight, suitability of ground for excavating trenches, making fortifications,
holding tent pegs, laying mine fields, accepting parachute drops, and
sustaining the passage and repassage of troops and of vehicles and tanks.
Meteorology and climatology are concerned with the effect of terrain on
weather and climate. Slope, aspect, and the nature of the soil surface
influence climate both directly through their effect on winds, insolation, fog,
cloud, and rain and indirectly through the activities of vegetation. Hydrology
requires knowledge of terrain in several ways, especially those relating to
surface and subsoil water in defined territorial areas such as river catchments.
Specifically, it is concerned with runoff regimes and quantities, stream flow,
infiltration, and ground water depths and movements with practical application
to water supplies, and erosion and flood hazards. In the case of urban and
rural residential and recreational planning terrain is an important determinant
of landscape aesthetics and as such must be considered in all planning
schemes. Agriculture based rural areas need flat fertile areas of little aesthetic
value whereas the residential and recreational areas prefer the proximity of
hills and rocky forest covered areas, rivers, lakes, sea coasts, beaches etc.
Land can only be considered in terms of geographical areas. Difficulties arise

over the fact that some attributes, such as landforms are clearly visible, while
others, such as substrate materials, are not. Some attributes like geological
outcrops have clear, sharp limits; others, like the catenary succession of soils,
do not. Some like slope, refer to an area of land; others like soil strength,
refer to a point only. Any definition of a part of the landscape must therefore
comprehend its vast range of properties, visible and invisible, definite and
vague, large scale and small scale.
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As basically the terrain is an expression of the geological character, the soil,
the surface geometry of the earth’s crust (landforms), its general nature can
be discerned and understood by considering maps, aerial photos, satellite
remote sensing data as well as digital elevations models.
The Geological Basis: Below a thin mantle of superficial material and soil,
the earth’s outermost shell is made up of rocks—igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic. Unconsolidated superficial materials constitute a fourth class
which may be called ‘drift’. There can be intrusive igneous masses exposed
as landforms—laccoliths, batholiths, sills, dykes, pipes, phacoliths etc., and
extrusive landforms like volcanoes, craters, lava flows, ashes etc.
Sedimentary rocks can show unconformities and sequences of denudation

and deposition cycles. Overlapping, tilting and folding of sedimentary beds
which are subjected to dissection and erosion and tectonics result in many
structural sedimentary landforms. Regions of metamorphic rocks show a
strong grain or lineation in the topography. Most of the metamorphic rocks
exhibit fracturing and faulting. Drift deposits constitute the regolith and are
always at the surface and rest unconformably on solid rock. They owe their
form to their agent and environment of deposition—glacial, glacio-fluvial,
colluvial, alluvial, aeolian, lacustrine, estuarine or marine. They are
composed of unconsolidated materials of all types, with particle sizes ranging
from boulders to clay in mixtures of all proportions, depending on climate,
parent material and geomorphic history. Generally, polar and desert climates
give rise to dominantly mechanical weathering and yield coarser, more
soluble, but less chemically altered fragments. In humid climates, chemical
weathering is relatively more important, especially as temperature increases,
and fragments tend to be finer, less soluble, but more chemically inert.
Rocks can be classified from a geomorphological point of view by their

resistance to weathering and erosion and the type of materials they generally
yield. Resistance is directly related to the permeability and the degree of
consolidation of a rock, while the nature of its disintegration products depends
largely on the proportion of siliceous material in the original rock. Siliceous
rocks such as quartzites, sandstones, and flint yield coarser materials such as
gravel, shingle and sand. The higher the proportion of chemically basic
material in the parent rock, the more vulnerable it tends to be to chemical
weathering and the finer the texture of the drift it yields. At the extreme
fineness, mudstone, shales, and marls yield a high proportion of clay.
Soil: Soil is a natural body with distinct from, yet transitional to, the parent
material, and can be defined as the upper and biochemically weathered
portion of the earth’s surface. Its formation is directly or indirectly biological in
nature, and involves more than the mere physical and chemical weathering of
the rock. Soils, by and large, are related to the land forms.
Surface Geometry: The third main aspect of terrain is the geometrical form
of the ground. Landforms, being three dimensional, can be understood from
block diagrams, but detailed consideration is helped by excluding one of the
dimensions and viewing them either in plan or in section. Simply stated,
landscape consists of hilltops, slopes, and valleys. Hilltops vary in locational
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arrangement and in profile view. In plan, crests can be either round or
elongated and parallel or randomly distributed.
Slopes vary in length and steepness and can be convex, concave, or

rectilinear. Frequently, all three conditions occur between the same crest and
valley, the boundary between the two types being a change or break of slope.
They can be assessed from maps from the spacing and distribution of
contours. Such profiles can be evaluated by other diagrammatic methods
such as area-height curves and hypsometric curves.
There are three ways in which valleys can be viewed two-dimensionally. In

plan they appear as a hydrographic network while the profile views
longitudinal and transverse sections-help in appreciating gradients and
channel forms. Drainage catchments are occupied by hydrographic networks
of branching streams in hierarchical order from smallest tributary to main
channel. Individual channels can be straight, sinuous or meandering
depending on the degree of sinuosity of their courses, and braided if
interrupted by numerous islands. The change from meandering to braiding
occurs when the silt load of the stream exceeds a certain critical ratio to the
velocity of water flow. Valley cross profiles are variable and often indicative of
geomorphic origin-basically the material in which they evolve. With the advent
of Digital Elevation Models various important terrain parameters like
roughness, waviness, slope and relief shades are very easily worked out.
Roughness: Roughness is a measure of the texture of a surface which is

quantified by the vertical deviations of a real surface from its ideal form. If
these deviations are large, the surface is rough; if they are small, the surface
is smooth. Surface roughness is a useful tool for terrain analysis as it reflects
numerous geophysical parameters, such as landform characteristics,
distribution of crenulations, and degree of erosivity. In the past few decades,
quantitative computation of surface roughness of terrains for the purpose of
numerical surface study has received increasing attention. It is computed and
mapped from the satellite images using software. Roughness is difference in
heights/elevations with respect to surface and reference object like
Neighbouring Pixels.
Waviness: Waviness is the measurement of the more widely spaced

component of surface texture. It is a broader view of roughness because it is
more strictly defined as "the irregularities whose spacing is greater than the
roughness sampling length”.
Slope: It measures the rate of change of elevation at surface locations. Slope

may be expressed as percentage or degree. Percent slope is 100 times the
ratio of rise (vertical distance) over run (horizontal distance), whereas degree
slope is the arc tangent of the ratio of rise over run. Slopes and the directions
they face matter in visualization of terrain depending upon the interaction with
sunlight.
5.2.2 Classification
Terrain classification is a pre-requisite to terrain analysis. The terrain can be
classified into natural units and then attempted to measure their properties
quantitatively and to relate/associate them to land use patterns. Alternatively,
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the terrain can be considered from the point of view of the uses envisaged
and devise a list of the relevant land attributes and the class limits required
within each, and then map each one. A superimposition of these maps will
then give a complete classification. These two approaches have important
differences. The first is called the ‘physiographic’ or ‘landscape’ method which
helps to extrapolate between analogous areas. The second method is called
‘the parametric method’ and tends to emphasize precise measurements and
is most useful where only a few land uses are being considered and
computing facilities are available. Because of the dependence on detailed
measurements and the difficulty of extrapolating these into unknown areas by
means of physiographic analogy, it tends to be better suited to the detailed
analysis of small areas than to broad reconnaissance.
In landscape methods, the smaller basic units are referred to by the terms (i)
facet and (ii) land system. The facet is homogeneous for practical purposes
and suited to a mapping scale of 1:50,000 to 1:100,000 and the land system
which is a larger grouping unit is suited to mapping scales of 1:250,000 to
1:1M. Units of land system size are generally considered to be recurring. This
is important in opening up the possibility of recognizing analogies between
similar but separated areas. It also distinguishes them from the larger genetic
units which are regarded as non-recurring. A land system is a composite of
related units, as an area, or groups of areas, throughout which there is a
recurring pattern of topography, soils, and vegetation. A change in this pattern
determines the boundary of a land system. A land system may be simple,
complex or compound.
A simple land system is a group of closely related topographic units, usually

small in number arising as the products of common geomorphological
processes. The topographic units thus constitute a geographically associated
series and are directly and consequentially related to one another. A complex
land system is a group of intermixed and related simple land systems. A
compound land system is a group of land systems enclosed within one
boundary for convenience in mapping. Unless small size determines the
grouping, the land systems grouped in this way should have many
topographic, soil, or vegetation features in common.
A land system can be continuous or discontinuous, provided that it does not

extend over too wide a climatic range. A boundary may be, to a degree,
somewhat arbitrary where there is a broad transition zone. Boundaries
frequently, but not always, coincide with geological boundaries. Geomorphic
processes are more important than the basic geological material, although the
two are obviously related. A land system may comprise several geological
groups that have lost their surface identity as the result of a dominating
geomorphic influence. On the other hand, several land systems may occur
within one geological group because of different geomorphic influences.
Parametric land evaluation can be defined as the classification and

subdivision of land based on selected attribute values. The simplest form of
parametric method is one which divides a single factor into classes at certain
critical values to give a simple map. Several parameters can be
superimposed to give increasingly sophisticated and complex maps. Many
different groups and individuals have developed techniques of terrain analysis
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directed toward engineering applications. Two most widely practiced methods
are presented here -- the Australian “terrain unit” and the United States
“landform” systems. Division of Land Research of the Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) of Australia has
developed a hierarchical classification of land systems, units and sites.
Later, a more uniform international terrain classification system “Pattern-Unit-

Component-Evaluation” (PUCE) program has been evolved by CSIRO to
serve as an encompassing system of classification directed toward
engineering applications. The PUCE scheme is based upon the unique
definition of any areas by its topographic slope, structure, lithology, soil,
vegetation and hydrological characteristics. For each defined zone,
engineering information is assembled to provide users with appropriate data
for site evaluation. Four hierarchical levels are included in PUCE scheme—
terrain province, terrain pattern, terrain unit and terrain component. An area is
divided into provinces, provinces are divided based on terrain patterns, terrain
patterns contain terrain units, terrain units have their small terrain
components. Finally, terrain units and terrain components are put together for
evaluation to decide on their capability and suitability for specific applications.
In the “landform” approach of United States, typically the results would include
information on landform type and origin, soil and rock characteristics and
properties, depth of soil over bedrock, hydrologic properties, depth to water
table, groundwater data, and a sense of past, present and future
geomorphologic processes. The key to this process is the identification of
landform units that provide the base for physical property and soil
interpretations. In this approach, the area is divided into major landforms and
then third order or unit landforms within major landforms are recognized and
delineated. The unit landforms are further subdivided into landform sub-units
and sub-units are divided into detailed sub-units or components.
The procedure given here is typically followed during landform identification

and mapping. All existing information is gathered for the entire region
including the definition of climatic controls on weathering, processes of mass
wasting and erosion, and previous erosional surfaces and zones of differential
erosion. The site region is observed and interpreted for the major landform
units. The photographs, satellite remote sensing data and available
topographic maps are interpreted and homogeneous zones of texture and
drainage are delineated. Onsite investigations refine preliminary landform
boundaries. Large scale photos or high-resolution remote sensing data are
used to delineate soil boundaries which serve as landform subunits.
Additional soil subunits are mapped, depending upon the detail and nature of
data requirements. This phase includes onsite surveys and laboratory
analyses.
5.2.3 Visualization 2D-3D

Geovisualization is frequently used in geographical research for the study of
spatiotemporal data and landscape exploration. As you are aware, many
geographical studies naturally adopt "space" as the organising paradigm.
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The terrain analysis requires a good quality Digital Elevation Model (DEM) in
order to provide proper information about the terrain surface and the related
processes. A DEM is one of the main sources for deriving terrain and
morphometric parameters in a GIS environment. The DEM quality control
procedures as described by Maerker et al. (2018) entails:
(i) checking if the maximum and minimum values are realistic;

(ii) creating a histogram of elevation values to check for “artefacts” and
irregularities, such as peaks or outliers;
(iii) deriving a hill shade to get a 3D-like visualization of the surface, and
(iv) delineating the slope as first derivative of the DEMs to check for errors,
which normally increase with the level of derivative.
Slope, aspect, hydrographical pattern and shaded relief derived from DEMs
improve geomorphological understanding. The basic geomorphic unit to be
identified and classified is the slope.
The production of high-resolution elevation models from Light Detection and

Ranging (LiDAR) technology is a technical development that may further
initiate digital landform mapping. A LiDAR scanning system employs multiple
measurements of distance and the amount of energy reflected from the
target. You can study more about these technologies in your remote sensing
and GIS courses.
Let us now study about drainage and its analysis.
5.3 DRAINAGE ANALYSIS

Morphometry is the measurement and quantitative study of the Earth's
surface structure, shape, and size of landforms. Such measurements related
to a river/stream basin come under drainage morphometry. It provides
quantitative description of the basin geometry to understand varying lithology,
slope, structural controls, geological and geomorphic history of drainage basin
(Strahler, 1964). River basin morphometry is thus a critical quantitative
approach for drainage basin studies. A river and its tributaries or stream
channels, often known as a river network system, drain through a specific
region defined by ridge lines to form a drainage basin. Each tributary stream
has its own watershed. Similarly all head water streams however small have
their own water sheds with in their divides. So, a watershed is the smallest
unit in any river basin, making it an excellent and logical unit for conducting
studies on soil, land, and water resources, among other things. A watershed
is a natural hydrological unit, a topographically defined region from where the
precipitation run-off gets collected and flows into a stream/river system.
Drainage basin or river basins are perfect hydrologic units for assessing
natural resources as well as for planning and implementing various
development programmes. Watershed development is essential for capturing
surface and groundwater resources, especially in dry and semi-arid
environments. The topography, drainage pattern, and erosional conditions of
the area are all important to understand for watershed planning and
management. The topography and drainage system of a certain basin can be
understood well in quantitative terms through morphometric analysis.
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Beforegoing into drainage morphometry, let us take a look into drainage
patterns. A drainage pattern is the arrangement of drainage ways in an area
(large or small) in terms of their density, orientation, uniformity and
plan.Drainage patterns provide information regarding the physical
characteristics of materials over which they develop. Indirectly drainage
patterns give clues concerning the infiltration-runoff ratio, infiltration capacity,
permeability, and texture of the materials in an area. Other valuable
indications of terrain conditions that can be derived through drainage pattern
study include--(i) extent and location of materials having significant
differences, (ii) degree of uniformity of materials, (iii) location and extent of
localized changes, (iv) localized or general factors of control, (v) existence of,
and depth to, bedrock or hardpan and (vi) origin of underlying bedrock.
Let us now understand about the six major categories of drainage patterns
(Fig. 5.1):
1. Dendritic: The irregular branching of tributary streams in diverse

directions at any angle, often less than 90°, distinguishes the dendritic
pattern. This is one of the most visually appealing types of drainage as it
looks like the branching pattern of tree roots. This pattern emerges in
locations underlain by homogenous material and indicates a lack of
structural control. The permeability of the underlying rocks, the
characteristics of rainfall and surface runoff, and the time factor all
influence the development of the dendritic pattern. Through long
erosional history a dendritic pattern may get superposed onto some
other heterogeneous rocks.
2. Parallel: Parallel patterns are particularly prevalent in regions with a

moderate to steep slope or structural controls that result in regular spacing
of parallel or nearly parallel streams. It is a common feature of ridge and
valley topography where uniform slopes are observed for a considerable
length. It is a morphologically controlled pattern.
3. Trellis: The main stream in this drainage system frequently makes almost
right-angled bends to bridge or pass through aligned hills. The longitudinal
consequent streams are generally intersected at right angles by
subsequent tributary streams. It usually develops in regions of uniclinal
structure with alternate bands of hard and soft rocks. The secondary
consequent streams drain the dip slope and join the subsequent streams
at right angles. The obsequent streams drain the escarpment and join the
subsequent streams at right angles. Thus, the normal junctions at the
confluences among the consequent streams, subsequent streams,
secondary consequent /dip streams, and obsequent /debris slope
streams produce the distinctive trellis drainage pattern.
4. Radial: This pattern is also known as the centrifugal pattern because the
streams radiate in all directions like the spokes of a wheel. It is developed
around an elevated centre point. The radial pattern is most common in
conical features such as volcanoes, and massive conical hills.
5. Rectangular: In a rectangular drainage system, the main stream and its

tributaries have right-angled bends. This is typical in areas where joints
and faults intersect almost at 90°angle. This pattern is quite often found
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in smaller areas in large drainage basins. Streams take the path of
least resistance (joints, fractures and faults), and hence concentrate
in areas where exposed rock is the weakest. It is mostly a
structurally controlled pattern.
6. Centripetal: The centripetal drainage pattern is the opposite of the radial

drainage pattern, with streams flowing toward a central depression.
Several streams arise from the surrounding uplands and converge in a
centrally low land, which might be a depression, basin, or crater lake.
These streams feed ephemeral lakes during the wet seasons, which
evaporate during the dry seasons. Salt flats develop in these dry lake
beds as salt dissolved in lake water precipitates out because of
evaporation.
Fig. 5.1: Drainage Patterns a) Dendritic; b) Parallel; c) Trellis; d)

Radial; e) Rectangular, and f) Centripetal.
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Besides, the drainage patterns described above, you may find a host of other
patterns, viz. pinnate, angulate, annular, barbed, deranged and more in any
standard text book on ‘Geomorphology’.
SAQ1
a) What is landform and terrain?
b) How will you measure landforms?
c) What is basin morphometry?
5.4 SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied:
 A landform is a natural or human-made feature on the Earth's surface for

example valleys, structural mountains, plateaus, and plains.
 Terrain analysis is the collection, analysis, evaluation and interpretation
of geographic information on the natural and human-made features of the
terrain. The term terrain refers to an ensemble of landforms.
 Landform identification, its measurement, and classification, as well as
landform visualisation in two and three dimensions.
 Morphometry is the measurement and quantitative study of the structure
of the earth's surface in terms of shape, and size of landforms. The
drainage basin study provides an insight into its shape, dimensions, and
numerous other properties.
 The laboratory exercises which facilitate to learn the skills in identifying
and mapping the landforms, geo-visualization and basin morphometric
analysis.
 In Exercise 6, you learned to draw different landforms with the help of
topographical maps and geovisualization of data in Exercise 7.
 Morphometric analysis of drainage dealing with linear aspects, aerial and
relief aspects of basin are studied through the Exercises 8, 9 and 10,
respectively.
5.5 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. a) A landform is a natural or human-made feature on the Earth's surface.
The term terrain refers to an ensemble of landforms.
b) Based on geology, soil, surface geometry, roughness, waviness, and
slope characteristics of the terrain.
c) Morphometry is the measurement and quantitative study of the Earth's
surface structure, shape, and size of landforms. It provides quantitative
description of the basin geometry to understand varying lithology, slope,
structural controls, geological and geomorphic history of drainage basin.
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5.6 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED
FURTHER READING
1. Khullar, D.R. (2015).Essentials of Practical Geography. Jalandhar: New
Academic Publishing Co.
2. Misra, R.P. and Ramesh, A. (1969/1986). Fundamentals of Cartography.
New Delhi: McMillan.
3. Robinson, A.H., Morrison, J.L., Muehrcke, P.C., Kimmerling, A.J. and
Gupltill, S.C. (eds.) (1995). Elements of Cartography. New York: Wiley and
Johnson.
4. Sarkar, A. (2008). Practical Geography: A Systematic Approach. Kolkata:
Orient Black Swan.
5. Singh, G. (2004). Map Work and Practical Geography. Delhi: Vikas
Publication House
6. Singh, L. R. and Singh, R.P.B. (1979/2003). Elements of Practical
Geography. Delhi: Kalyani Publishers.
7. Singh, L.R. and Singh, R. (1979). Map Work and Practical Geography.
Allahabad: Central Book Depot.
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5.7 LABORATORY EXERCISES
Let us now perform the laboratory exercises. The following laboratory
exercises are assumed to be enhance skills in identifying and mapping of
various terrain elements. You are required to complete all the exercises given
in the laboratory and submit the same to the counselor/lab instructor as per
the given instructions. It is expected that after completion of these exercises,
you will gain hands-on experience and skills in understanding thematic
mapping.
The following five exercises explained separately are based on terrain

elements dealing with the Landform Mapping (Exercise 6), Geo-Visualization
(Exercise 7), Drainage Basin Analysis-Linear Aspects (Exercise 8), Drainage
Basin Analysis-Areal Aspects (Exercise 9), and Drainage Basin Analysis-
Relief Aspects (Exercise 10) aspects.
Requirements: To perform the exercises, you may be required the following

materials/tools. Some of them are indicated here as optional.
1. Ruler or Scale
2. Pencil/Pen
3. Sharpener and Eraser
4. Scientific Calculator
5. Drawing Sheets or White Sheets
6. Toposheets
7. Digital Elevation Model
8. Satellite Images
9. Remote Sensing and GIS Software
After completing the exercises, you need to submit the practical record to the
concerned academic counselor/lab instructor for its evaluation.
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EXERCISE 6
LANDFORM MAPPING
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Landform Mapping
6.3 Practical Exercises
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Landform mapping is very important in understanding Earth’s surface history
and processes. In this exercise you will learn about landform mapping. The
main purpose of this laboratory exercise is to expose you to the
landforms/geomorphology. By mapping the various common landforms and
applying simple cross-sections, you will be able to interpret their
characteristics with respect to Earth’s processes. That interpretation, when
combined with other thematic maps, will facilitate us to determine planning
and developmental activities properly.

After doing this exercise, you should be able to:
 Identify and map landforms using topographical data; and

 Interpret landforms with the help of cross-section.
6.2 LANDFORM MAPPING

Let us begin by learning how to map landforms manually. We can also use
aerial photos, satellite images, DEMs, GIS software for landform mapping.
You may also refer to MGG 002-Geomorphology course of this 1st Semester
of M.Sc. Geography Programme for better understanding of landforms.
It is suggested that, while taking up landform mapping:
 First you should familiarize yourself with the major landforms of the
selected area and discuss about them with your
counselor/peer/colleague.
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Block 2
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Thematic Mapping
 Decide on symbology to delineate the major geomorphic elements of the

area as suggested for landform mapping.
 You can try to keep the delineation process as descriptive as possible
with possible interpretation.
 Looking at the drawings given as examples, neatly label the major
features that you have mapped and discuss with your counselor.
 If you find other features, you can also map and label them.
As we know, in Cartography, we use contours for representing topography.

Contours are imagery lines that join points with identical elevations on the
ground's surface above or below a reference surface, such as mean sea
level. Except for vertical surfaces such as cliffs, caverns, or walls, contours
cannot merge or intersect on a map. The value of the contour is often
displayed on the contour line on the toposheet. The index contour, i.e. every
fifth or tenth contour line, is drawn as a thicker line than the rest with labelled
information, allowing us to more readily determine the heights (e.g. 100, 200,
etc.). The contour interval is the vertical distance between contour lines. The
contour interval values are determined by the map scale and the degree of
relief. We have explained one example for drawing a cross-section of the
contours which helps you to identify various landforms of area of interest.
6.2.1 DRAWING A CROSS-SECTION

Let us do the given example below:
Example 6.1: Draw a cross-section for given contour lines.
Solution:
Let's look at how to create a cross-section of topographic features using the

contours. 100 metres is the contour interval.
 First, draw a straight line AB over the contours and record their elevations
on the white sheet/graph paper. Now, carefully place it just below the line
AB by touching its edges. Mark the points where contours are crossing the
line AB.
 You now need to choose the scale, here it is 1 cm which is equivalent to

100 meters. You can also take it as 1 cm = 50 m at your convenience.
 Line CD is baseline showing 2500 m elevation. Next, draw vertical lines

connecting each contour elevations as 2500 m, 2600 m, 2700 m, 2800 m,
2900 m, 3000 m, 3100 m, 3200 m, and 3300 m for the corresponding
elevation on the sheet.
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Unit 5 - Terrain Elements Exercise 6 – Landform Mapping
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 Finally, you now have to connect the end points of vertical lines starting
from the base elevation point (2500 m) to form a smooth curve. Peak of
the hill which is a pointed top i.e., 3304 m elevation should also be noted.
This smooth curve will represent the cross-section of the contours.
Fig. 6.1: Example of Cross-Section for a Hill.
6.2.2 IDENTIFICATION AND MAPPING

The landform of the Earth’s surface may be easily understood based on the
contour pattern. For example, the contour lines close to each other indicate a
steep slope, whereas a smooth slope implies that the contour lines are far
apart. The diagrams below will help you to understand various landforms in
terms of contours.
Fig. 6.2: Representation of topographical features by contours a)

Example of slope Gentle-contour lines wide apart; and Steep-contour
lines close to each other b) Conical hill-on top of the hill, concentric
rings of contour lines.
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a)
b)
c)
d)
e) f)
Fig. 6.3: Representation of Topographical Features by Contours a) Valley (U-
shape); b) Valley (V-shape); c) Mound; d) Cliff; e) River Terraces-step-like
contours; and f) Sand Dunes.
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a) b)
c) d)
Fig. 6.4: a) Lake: the closer points on its center represents deeper water;
b) River meandering; c) Gorge-contours parallel and very close to each
other; and d) Escarpment- a sudden drop of slopes in ground level or steep
hill sides. Very closely spaced contours or sometimes shown with a cliff
symbol.
Based on the procedure explained above, you will now be able to draw and
identify different landforms and topographic features from any topographical
map. Let us now perform the exercise given below.
Example 6.2: Identify and note down different relief features/landforms from
the given part of toposheet (Survey of India). The scale of the toposheet is
1:50,000.
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Solution:
 You can identify the spot heights and other elevation points. You must
remember that elevation shown on the given toposheet is in meters.
 Now, identify different landforms with the help of the procedure as

explained above. You can see the landforms and their corresponding
information provided in given Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Landforms Represented by Contours.

Landform Description Observation
Conical hill Concentric contours are closed Height of the hill -205
towards upper parts of the hill. m; East and Center
parts.
Ridge Contours are decreasing outwards. Height of the hill – 304
m.
Saddle Low elevation --
between the ridges
Valley Narrow gap between the contours. --
Inner contours have small gap and
outward contours are wide.
Steep slope Closely spaced contours --
Gentle slope Widely spaced contours --
Valley Broad valley Ravines
Cliff Very closed contours and merge --
with one and other.
6.3 PRACTICAL EXERCISES

Exercise 6.1: Prepare a cross-section for the given data.
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Exercise 6.2: Identify and map landforms from the given dataset.
You can also utilize the dataset given at your study center for exercises. After
completing the exercises, you need to submit the practical record to the
concerned academic counselor/lab instructor for evaluation.
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EXERCISE 7
GEOVISUALIZATION
Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Geovisulization of Data
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Map visualization may be challenging in Geographical Information search
because of diverse components, and topographic complexity. Geo-
visualization is the visual representation of spatial data. It is essentially a
combination of cartography's long-developed visual communication with
modern digital analytical technology, such as GIS. Cartography, in reality,
embodied the total of geovisual methods available prior to desktop computer.
However, the arrival of computer technology in the 1960s resulted in a divide
in the discipline of geographic visualization, with users focusing mostly on
design and communication or data management. The former is now known as
cartography, and the latter is known as geographic information science.
In this Exercise, you will learn to differentiate 2D map visualization and 3D

visualization.

 Understand geo-visualization; and

 Perform to view geo-visualization of datasets.
7.2 GEOVISUALIZATION OF DATA

Mapping and analysis the geographical distribution of numerous landforms
might thus help us understand them better. Representation was a field that
recognized the expanded scope of geovisualization by attempting to integrate
computational developments such as 3D mapping. Moving to a user-centered
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design strategy and investigating the possibilities of landscape in the form of
Google Earth has solved the hurdles for geovisualization.
Because it creates previously undiscovered patterns from a bigger amount of

data, geovisualization is sometimes referred to as knowledge discovery.
Geovisualization employs visual representations to aid in thinking, learning,
and knowledge production regarding human and physical settings at various
geographic scales. It combines scientific visualisation and classical mapping
and is useful for data pre-processing, geographic data mining, and knowledge
production. However, the primary goal of geovisualization is to provide as far
as possible real world view of the surface of the Earth.
Geovisualization presents geographic information in ways that, when paired

with human comprehension, enable data exploration and decision-making
processes. Geovisualization can shorten the time it takes to find information,
aid in decision-making, and enable greater interaction between the user and
the information system.
2D Cartographic Visualization
We view and analyze any displayed abstract data via simple visualization.
However, geovisualization is primarily concerned with geographical data, or
georeferenced data. The attribute space and geographic space of geospatial
data have two or three dimensions (latitude, longitude, and altitude).
Georeferencing is often done to a single location or to a whole area. The

geographic scale at which geospatial data is studied determines whether it is
defined as a point or as an area. A hamlet, for example, might be shown as
an area/polygon on a large scale map or as a point on a DistrictMap.
Information on a map is often represented by symbols, points, lines, and
regions with varying attributes such as color, shape, and so on.
Fig. 7.1: Examples of 2D visualization a) An Image; and b) Topomap.
3D Visualization
Increasingly immersive representation technologies have the ability to replace

traditional paper maps and two-dimensional visualization. 3D visualization
encompasses the entire spectrum of 3D graphics hardware in computers to
3D displays, and stereoscopic perspectives.
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Unit 5 - Terrain Elements Exercise 7 – Geovisualisation
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Cartography has a long and successful history of representing a wide range
of facts on maps through abstraction. Two- and three-dimensional maps often
have a set of navigational controls that allow you to navigate around the map
space by scrolling, moving, or rotating the map, or by walking or flying around
a virtual 3D environment. Additional settings in the software tools allow users
to zoom in and out of the map, increasing or decreasing the level of detail and
generalisation of the underlying geographical features such as rivers,
mountains, and highways.
Based on terrain heights, a fly-through can be generated demonstrating the

impact of the terrain. If terrain is flat, it does not result in a spectacular view.
Google Earth would be an apt program to use in this case (Fig. 7.2).
Fig. 7.2: A Path Created to View Landscape.
Alternatively, software exists which allows one to view the high mountain
landscape in 3D with a spectacular view.
Fig. 7.3: 3D View in Google Earth.
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Exercise 7.1: Create 3D view using software tools with the help of any related
software.
You can also utilize the dataset given at your study center for exercises. After
completing the exercises, you need to submit the practical record to the
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EXERCISE 8
DRAINAGE BASIN ANALYSIS-

LINEAR ASPECTS
Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Delineation of Drainage Basin and Streams
8.3 Analysis of Linear Morphometric Parameters of Drainage Basin
8.1 INTRODUCTION
We discussed drainage basins and drainage morphometry earlier in this Unit.
Morphometry is the quantitative examination of three-dimensional landforms
using numerical variables. Topographic maps can be used to get
morphometric data. The exercises go through the techniques for finding a few
basic basin parameters. Three significant aspects studied in drainage basin
analysis are:
1. Linear Aspects (One-dimensional parameters)

2. Areal Aspects (Two-dimensional parameters)
3. Relief Aspects (Three-dimensional parameters)
Linear aspects of basin provide the information on behavior of a river and its
tributaries from head to mouth. Linear aspects include stream order (u),
stream number (Nu), stream length (Lu), mean stream strength (Lsm), and
bifurcation ratio (Rb). Areal aspects of the drainage basin such as drainage
density (Dd), form factor ratio (Rf), elongation ratio (Re), and circularity ratio
(Rc), are generally studied to understand drainage basin characteristics. The
drainage basin's relief aspects, which are represented by the following
parameters: basin relief, relief ratio, relative relief, and roughness number.
In this Exercise, you will learn how to work out the linear aspects of a
drainage basin. We must recognize that topographic maps are preferable
tools for examining drainage basin morphometric factors.
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 Delineate a drainage basin;
 Demarcate streams/drainage channels; and
 Analyze linear aspects of basin morphometric parameters.
8.2 DELINEATION OF DRAINAGE BASIN AND

STREAMS
A drainage basin collects all runoff and directs it to the mouth of a stream. On
a topographic map, drainage basins can be identified by drawing their
perimeters or drainage divides. A drainage divide is essentially a line which
divides two adjacent drainage basins across which water doesn’t flow; in
other words, it is a line which divides waters (and hence is referred to as
water divide too). It completely encloses each drainage basin. Before we
proceed with the morphometric analysis of a drainage basin, we must first
delineate a drainage basin on a topographical map.
8.2.1 Delineating Drainage Basin

Figure 8.1 shows part of a topomap. We want to start by identifying the
drainage divide. Begin the delineation at the stream mouth and work our way
to the left or right. The mountain summit (314m) can be seen in the middle.
Because the ridge line represents a drainage divide, we can start drawing the
perimeter line by tracing its crest. After reaching the top of the hill, you should
once again follow a ridge line.
Fig. 8.1: A Part of Topomap.
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Unit 5 - Terrain Elements Exercise 8 - Drainage Basin Analysis: Linear Aspects
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Fig. 8.2: Drainage Divide-Basin Delineation.
Ridges are easily identified as a sequence of closed contour lines towards to

tops/crests of ridges/hills. Rain after falling over the crest line of the ridge will
get divided and will flow in to two basins on either side. Waters flowing into ‘A’
will not cross into ‘B’ (Fig. 8.2) but, of course, in this case, waters from both
the basins will meet at ‘X. Ridges Y and Z are independent basins that do not
drain to "X". As a result, ridge 1 marks the drainage basin's eastern boundary
(Basin A) and western boundary (Basin B). The rest of the perimeter may now
be traced by selecting the appropriate ridges. Example of drainage basin and
stream orders are given in Figure 8.3.
Survey of India topographic sheets on 1:50,000 scale can be used for

delineation of drainage basins. You can also download the toposheet from
http://www.surveyofindia.gov.in/ for education purpose.
You now understand how to define a basin or watershed. You may also use
software tools such as ArcGIS, QGIS, ENVI, and others to delineate drainage
basins and streams.
Fig. 8.3: Example of Drainage Basins and Stream Ordering.
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8.3 ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MORPHOMETRIC
PARAMETERS OF DRAINAGE BASIN
Linear aspects of basin provide the information on behavior of a river and its
tributaries from head to mouth. Linear parameters of the drainage basin
analysis are as follows:
1) Stream Order (u)

2) Stream Number (Nu)
3) Stream Length (Lu), and Mean Stream Strength (Lsm)
4) Bifurcation Ratio (Rb)
1) Stream Order (u)
The first step of drainage analysis is assigning the order to each stream.
Stream order (u) isa dimensionless number which can be used for
comparison of stream networks on linear scales. Many stream ordering
approaches have been created by scientists, the prominent among them are
by Horton (1945), Strahler (1964), Shreve (1966) and Scheideggar (1970).
Here, let us learn the Strahler’s stream order technique for the analysis of
drainage channels because of its simplicity.
This stream ordering technique explains that the smallest, unbranched

permanent streams are termed first order streams, and the confluence of two
first order channels results in a channel segment of second order, and when
two second order streams join, a third order stream is generated, and so on.
The highest order of stream segment is the trunk stream. Refer to Fig. 8.2,
which explains the ordering procedure of streams. You can observe that the
given basin shows 5th order basin/stream.
2) Stream Number (Nu)
It is the number of stream segment in each order which is inversely

proportional to stream order. It means that streams are maximum in first order
and slowly decreases when order increases. The results of one of the basin
are presented in Table 8.1 for understanding the analysis of basin
morphometric parameters.
Table 8.1: Linear Parameters of a Drainage Basin.
128
Unit 5 - Terrain Elements
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Exercise 8 - Drainage Basin Analysis: Linear Aspects
On the whole, you can observe from the table the basin has a total number of
1255 stream channels in which 973 streams are in 1st order, 216 streams are
2nd order, 53 streams are 3rd order, 10 streams are 4th order, 2 are 5th order
and 1 is 6th order streams.
Horton’s (1945) proposed a law of stream numbers which says that a

geometric relationship between the number of streams of a given order and a
corresponding order gives a straight line pattern. The deviation from the
straight line may be the influence of local lithology or structural control. The
analysis of number of streams against stream order on a log-normal plot
shows nearly a straight line which reveals that the number of streams usually
decreases in geometric progression as the stream order increases (Fig. 8.4).
Fig. 8.4: Number of Streams against Stream Order.
3) Stream Length (Lu) and Mean Stream Length (Lsm)
Stream length is calculated by measuring the total length of every stream. It

explains the hydrological characteristics of the underlying rock strata over the
areas of consecutive stream orders. The length of the streams depends
basically upon permeability of rocks. Generally, the length tends to be more
in permeable rocks than in impermeable rocks.
The mean stream length (Lsm) can be calculated as:
Lsm= Lu/ Nu
Lu = Total stream length of order ‘u’
Nu = Total number of stream segments of order ‘u’.
High Lu (i.e., 546.2 km) in the case of first-order streams exhibiting high
erosion and low permeability nature of rocks presented in the basin (Table
8.1).
The log-normal plot of stream lengths versus stream order shows the linear
pattern with a small deviation indicating that the lithological and topographical
variations in the region (Fig. 8.5) (Chow 1964).
129
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Fig. 8.5: Stream Length versus Stream Order.
4) Bifurcation Ratio (Rb)
Bifurcation Ratio (Rb) is defined as the ratio of number of streams of any

given order to the number of streams in the next higher order in a drainage
basin. It can be expressed as:
Rb = Nu/Nu+1
Nu = Total number of streams of order ‘u’
Nu+1 = Total number of streams of next higher order.
Horton (1945) considered the bifurcation ratio as an index of relief and

dissection. Higher Rb value indicates high structural complexity and low
permeability of subsurface strata. The mean Rb value of the given basin is 4.2
indicating structurally controlled. The bifurcation ratio (Rb) ranges between
2.0 in flat or rolling drainage basins, and 3.0 to 4.0 in a mountainous or highly
dissected drainage basin.
You have understood that the elevated ridge lines define a river basin or
watershed. A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) or a simple topographical map
with contour/elevation information can be used for drainage analysis. Data
from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) Digital Elevation Model
(DEM) may be used to derive drainage for the watershed using the ArcGIS
hydrology tool. The primary phases, which include fill, flow direction
identification, flow accumulation computation, and flow accumulation value
definition, are needed to be carried out in the ArcGIS environment using the
map algebra tool. You can also attempt to do the automatic basin delineation
and streams using various software tools.
130
Unit 5 - Terrain Elements Exercise 8 - Drainage Basin Analysis: Linear Aspects
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Exercise 8.1: Refer to the figure below. Measure and fill up the given table
appropriately. Describe the features of drainage basins.
Basin Parameters
u Nu Lu Log Nu Log Lu Rb Rb (Mean)
(m)
Note: Stream Order (u); No. of Streams (Nu);Length of Streams (Lu); Log Nu and
Log Lu: Logarithmic Values; andBifurcation Ratio (Rb)
131
EXERCISE 9

AREAL ASPECTS
Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Analysis of Areal Morphometric Parameters of Drainage Basin
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Areal aspects of morphometric parameters of the drainage basin deal with
two dimensional parameters. It depicts the regional features like lithology,
geological structure, climatic conditions, and denudation history of the basin.
These aspects control the spatial arrangement, geometrical shape and form
of drainage systems, river discharge, and runoff characteristics.
In this Exercise, you will analyze areal aspects of the drainage basin such as
drainage density (Dd), form factor ratio (Rf), circularity ratio (Rc) and
elongation ratio (Re) to understand drainage basin characteristics.

 Analyze areal parameters of drainage basin; and

 Describe the importance of areal aspects of drainage basin.
9.2 ANALYSIS OF AREAL MORPHOMETERIC

Let us analyze various areal aspects of the drainage basin and understand its
characteristics. The aerial parameters of drainage basin in the morphometric
analysis are given below:
1) Area (A) and Perimeter (P)

2) Drainage Density (Dd)
133
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3) Form Factor Ratio (Rf)
4) Circularity Ratio (Rc)
5) Elongation Ratio (Re)
1) Area (A) and Perimeter (P)
To measure area, one would ideally use a digitizer and simply trace the
outline of a given basin. This procedure is as accurate as the digitizer and its
user. Alternate means include calculation of basin area using automatic
software tools in which one can determine the area of a basin with greatest
accuracy. Now measure the area of drainage basin. In this case, area (A) is
321.1 sq. km and perimeter (P) is116 km as measured for the given basin.
2) Drainage Density (Dd)
Horton established the Dd as the ratio of total length of all orders of streams
to drainage basin area. It can be expressed as:
Dd = Lu/A
Lu = Total stream length of all order (km)
A = Area of the basin (sq. km)
Drainage density represents the closeness of channel spacing and provides a

numerical measure of landform segmentation and runoff potential. Relief,
rainfall, topography infiltration capacity, and erosion resistance are all
elements that impact Dd. Locations with high Dd values typically exhibits
weak and impermeable underlying material, sparse vegetation, and
mountainous topography. A low Dd value indicates highly porous materials
with little relief and plant cover. The drainage density is also affected by the
type of rocks. Lower Dd values are more common in granite, gneiss, and
schist-dominated geological areas.
The drainage density for the entire basin is 2.763 km/sq. km (887.2/321.1).
Refer to Table 8.1 in previous Exercise 8.
3) Form Factor Ratio (Rf)
Form factor is mainly used for representing the basin shape and it is a
dimensionless number. Rf is defined by Horton as the ratio of the basin area
to the basin length squared. It is expressed as:
Rf = A/Lb2
A = Area of basin (sq. km)
Lb = Basin length (km)
The form factor ratio (Rf) depicts the flow intensity of a specified basin. The Rf
ranges from 0 (very elongated form) to 1 (in perfect circular shape). An
extended basin has a modest flow of runoff and a high permeability subsoil
condition. The basin will be more extended if the form factor value is lower.
Here, the basin's Rf value is 0.13 (321.1/2550.3), indicating that it is an
134
Unit 5 - Terrain Elements
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Exercise 9 - Drainage Basin Analysis: Areal Aspects
elongated basin with a low peak flow of prolonged duration. Elongated basins
are easier to manage than circular basins during floods.
Basins with high form factors experience larger peak flows of shorter duration,
whereas elongated watersheds with low form factors experience flatter peak
flows of longer duration.
4) Circularity Ratio (Rc)
The circularity ratio is defined as the ratio of the basin's size to the area of a
circle with the same diameter/perimeter as the basin's perimeter.
It can be expressed as:
Rc = (4π × A)/P2
A = Area of basin (km2)
P = Perimeter of basin (km)
π = 22/7= 3.14
Circularity ratio (Rc) is controlled by stream length, geological structure,

environmental conditions, landscape, and basin slope. The circulatory ratio is
also called as hydraulic radius. It is useful for measuring basin shape and
varies from zero for elongated and one for circular basin.
Rc values that are low, medium, and high explain the early, mature, and old
phases of a basin, respectively. If the Rc value is 1.0, the basin is a perfect
circle with a large discharge amount (Miller 1953). Rc for the whole basin in
the given example is 0.3 indicating elongated basin.
5) Elongation Ratio (Re)
Re is defined as the ratio of the diameter of a circle of the same area as the
basin to the maximum length of the basin (Schumm, 1956). It is expressed as:
Re= 2 (A/π)0.5/Lb
A = Area of the basin
Lb = Basin length
When the elongation ratio is near to one, the area has low relief; when it
deviates from one, the area has high relief and a steep ground slope.
In regions of low tectonic activity, the elongation ratio is 0.5, while in areas of
moderate tectonic activity, it ranges between 0.5 and 0.75. The area is active
when the elongation ratio exceeds 0.75 (Schumm 1956).The varying index of
elongation ratio can be classified as; circular (0.9-0.10), oval (0.8- 0.9), less
elongated (0.7-0.8), elongated (0.5-0.7), and more elongated (< 0.5).
You must have understood now analysis and interpretation of various areal
morphometric parameters of a drainage basin. After completing the exercises,
you need to submit the practical record to the concerned academic
counselor/lab instructor for evaluation.
135
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Exercise 9.1: Refer to the image below and prepare the Table accordingly.
Describe the areal aspects of drainage basin with the obtained information.
Aerial Parameters
A P Lb Dd Rf Rc Re
(sq. km) (km) (km)
Note: A-Area (sq. km); P-Perimeter (km); Lb-Length of Basin (km); Dd-Drainage
Density (km/sq. km); Rf-Form Factor Ratio; Rc-Circularity Ratio; Re-Elongation
Ratio
136
EXERCISE 10

RELIEF ASPECTS
Structure
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Analysis of Relief Morphometric Parameters of Drainage Basin
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Till now you have been introduced to working out the basin morphometric
parameters in relation to the liner and aerial aspects of the drainage basin.
You must have understood by now how to analyze all of these factors with the
help of given examples. The concept of relief is the third dimension. It is
significant in defining the general nature of basin drainage systems since it
explains the effectiveness of erosion, transportation, and deposition, as well
as the overall energy of a river.
In this Exercise, you will be doing an analysis of the drainage basin's relief
aspects, which are represented by parameters: basin relief, relief ratio,
relative relief, and roughness number.

 Understand the relief parameters of drainage basin; and

 Analyze relief parameters of the drainage basin.
10.2 ANALYSIS OF RELIEF MORPHOMETRIC

Relief variables are concerned with three-dimensional aspects. Relief aspects
of the basin reveal that the topographical gradient characteristics of a basin. It
gives a bird's-eye view of the whole area. Basin relief, relief ratio, relative
137
Block 2
relief, and roughness number are some of the relief features. In this Exercise,
we will examine the drainage basin's relief features.
1) Basin Relief (r)
First, you need to record the elevation points of basin. The basin relief can
calculated with difference of the highest elevation and lowest elevation. It can
be expressed as:
Basin Relief (r) = Hmax (the highest elevation in meter) – Hmin (the lowest
elevation in meter)
It is an important factor in understanding the denudational characteristics of

the basin and plays a significant role in landform, drainage development,
surface and subsurface water flow, permeability, and erosional properties of
the terrain. You can record the highest and lowest elevations in an area by
studying the available toposheet of your area of interest.
2) Relief Ratio (Rr)
Relief ratio (Rr) is a dimensionless ratio between the total relief of a basin i.e.
elevation difference of lowest and highest points of a basin, and the longest
dimension of the basin parallel to the principal drainage line (Schumn, 1956).
It can be computed through:
Relief Ratio (Rr) = H/Lb
H = Basin relief (km) Lb = Basin length (km)
It is a dimensionless ratio. There is a direct relationship between the relief and

channel gradient and also hydrological characteristics and relief ratio of a
drainage basin. A high relief ratio value indicates a hilly region and a low
value is the characteristics of pediplain and valley regions.
The high values of Rr indicate steep slope and high relief and vice-versa.
3) Ruggedness Number (Rn)
Ruggedness number (Rn) is a product of basin relief (r) and drainage density
(Dd) indicates the structural complexity of the terrain (Schumm 1956). It can
be expressed as:
Rn = r x Dd
r = Basin Relief (km)
Dd = Drainage Density (km/sq. km)
The basin with very high Rn values signifies high-relief mountainous terrain.
High values of ruggedness number occur when slopes of the basin are not
only steeper but long, as well.
You must have understood now the analysis and interpretation of various
relief morphometric parameters of a drainage basin. After completing the
exercises, you need to submit the practical record to the concerned academic
counselor/lab instructor for evaluation.
138
Unit 5 - Terrain Elements Exercise 10 - Drainage Basin Analysis: Relief Aspects
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Exercise 10.1: Refer to the image below and prepare the Table accordingly.
Describe the areal aspects of drainage basin with the obtained information.
Relief Parameters
Hmax Hmin Basin Relief ratio Ruggedness number

Relief (r) (Rr) (Rn)
(m) (m)
Note: Highest Elevation (Hmax); Lowest Elevation (Hmin); Basin Relief (r); Relief ratio
(Rr); Ruggedness number (Rn)
139
UNIT 6

Structure
6.1 Introduction 6.6 Laboratory Exercises
Expected Learning Outcomes Exercise 11: Landuse and
6.2 Landuse and Landcover Landcover-Analogue Mapping
Classification and Mapping Exercise 12: Landuse and
6.3 Summary Landcover-Digital Image
Mapping
6.4 Answers
Exercise 13: Landuse and
6.5 References and Suggested
Landcover-Change Detection
Further Reading
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The surface of the Earth exposed to air and above the water surface is 'land'.
It is made up of either rock alone or soil over rock with rocky surfaces at
various depths. The land is either barren or covered by grasses,
plants/forests, seasonal snow and permanent ice. The land supports
terrestrial animals and is utilized by humans for various activities. Depending
upon whatever it is covered up by (land cover) or whatever use it is put to
(landuse) by humans, the land presents a variety of surfaces. Such surfaces
are identified as different types of landuse and landcover (LULC) categories.
You will study landuse and landcover classification and mapping in Section
6.2. Section 6.3 will facilitate you to learn the skills in performing various
laboratory exercises. Here are a few exercises with suitable examples.
Exercise 11 will enable you to map landuse and landcover features using
topographical maps-analogue method. Digital image mapping is explained in
Exercise 12. You will learn landuse and landcover change detection analysis
from Exercise 13.

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Understand landuse and landcover classification and mapping;
 Get hands-on experience in landuse and landcover mapping through
analogue and digital methods and change detection analysis by
performing laboratory Exercises 11 to 13.
K. N. Prudhvi Raju & K. Nageswara Rao 141

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6.2 LANDUSE AND LANDCOVER:
CLASSIFICATION AND MAPPING
Lillesand and Keifer (1987) defined that 'the landuse is a process, which cannot
be directly observed and landcover is a function/result which can be seen on
the surface of the earth'. On the other hand, LaGro (2005) defines land cover as
'the material cloaking the Earth's surface; land cover includes water, soil, rock,
vegetation, roads, buildings, and other constructed elements supporting human
activities. Conversely, his (op cit) definition of land use is 'the type and intensity
of human activities occurring in a given location'. Clawson and Stewart (1965)
define landuse as "man's activities on land which are directly related to the
land". Conversely, the land cover describes "the vegetational and artificial
constructions covering the land surface" (Burley, 1961).
Anderson (1971) used only 'land use' in his early publications but later
(1976) used the compound term 'land use and land cover.' In fact, as
has been stated above, it is clear there is a difference between
landuse and landcover. For example, natural vegetation, prairies,
snow-clad areas, etc., come under land cover and agriculture,
plantations, buildings, roads, industries etc., are land use types. Going
by the definition of 'land' above, water bodies/surfaces are not features
covering the land but are conventionally brought in under the term land
cover. Furthermore, in a morphological sense, a football field is a grass
surface, but functionally it is a football field. But the irony is, though
players can't always be seen using it to play, it still is classified under
the term' land use' going by its general function; so, strictly speaking,
even though the use factor is only occasional, still, several surfaces
are classified under land use. Similar is the case with 'hunting
grounds', which can be morphologically a forest used for hunting. So,
one must carefully classify surfaces depending on morphological and
functional characteristics. Quite often, to classify specific categories,
remote sensing data must be supported with some supplementary
information. So, any landuse and landcover mapping exercise must
start with collecting whatever additional information is available for the
area. Notwithstanding the difference between landuse and landcover,
going by convention, any one term is good enough for all practical
purposes. Henceforth in this write-up, only the term land use is used.
As Earth's surface is a home to varieties of plants, animals, objects,

features and phenomena, there are varieties of surfaces over the land;
and they are repetitive in their distributions. Though some of them
have the same generic causes, they exhibit specific variations
depending on the climatic zones, soils, and other physical factors of
the spaces they are found in. Classification is an important scientific
activity of grouping or categorizing, considering certain
characters/parameters, as it is near impossible to study all similarities
and variations individually. There are numerous varieties of land uses
which can be classified systematically to present them in maps which
are the ultimate products of geographical activity.
142
Unit 6
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Land Use and Land Cover
There was physical land survey method to make land use maps. A
physical land survey is a very laborious, time-consuming exercise with
a great demand for manpower requirements. Land use is dynamic and
is not a permanent feature, especially the ones connected with human
activities, so mapping land use cannot be a one-time activity. It has to
be periodical, and the demand of the present times is at least once in
five years or even at shorter intervals if need be. Good, the aerial
photos at different scales helped to map land use at different scales
but not repetitively at shorter intervals. Mapping with aerial photos with
perspective distortions was difficult as it required specialized human
resources and machines. The stereo-pairs of smaller areas of Earth's
surface through aerial photography have been replaced by synoptic
digital pictures covering larger areas in single scenes through satellite-
based remote sensing, revolutionizing mapping the surface of the
Earth for various purposes, and land use is one of them.
Though many land use types are directly evident from false or true
colour composites, certain categories need interpretation methods to
be identified. This is because of not only the problem of homologies—
similar things getting registered dissimilarly and dissimilar things
getting registered similarly, in remote sensing data but also because of
many other spatial variations of climate, soil, water conditions and
cultivation practices. For example, paddy, wheat and barley physically
appear the same but get registered almost similarly in remote sensing
data, of course, with particular distinctions. One more point of
importance is that a wheat field in the USA may not look the same as it
appears in India because of the differences as mentioned above. So,
they need keen observations/interpretations to be made to distinguish
them from each other.
This is an information age. With good planning and governance, the

success of businesses and agriculture depends upon taking excellent
and quick decisions. Nowadays, with periodical digital remote sensing
data available and digital processing of the same into valuable
information and after converting it into GIS databases, decision-making
has become much easier. In GIS, databases must be comprehensive,
dependable and accurate enough. As for land use, remote sensing
data at various resolutions helps make land use maps at various
levels/scales. Land use data and information is a fundamental
requirement to plan and execute National plans to overcome the
problems of haphazard, uncontrolled development, deteriorating
environmental quality, loss of prime agricultural lands, destruction of
important wetlands, and loss of fish and wildlife habitat. Land use data
are needed to analyze environmental processes and problems that
must be understood if living conditions and standards are to be
improved or maintained at current levels (Anderson et al., 1976). It is
pertinent here to point out what Clawson and Steward (1965) stated,
"In this dynamic situation, accurate, meaningful, current data on
land use are essential. If public agencies and private organizations
are to know what is happening and are to make sound plans for
their future action, then reliable information is critical”.
143
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
With the advent of remote sensing techniques in the early 1970s,
several classification systems were designed by several people
amenable to use with remote sensing data. In the early years of
satellite-based remote sensing, before evolving land use classification,
an elaborate criterion used to be laid out as to the size of the minimum
area which can be identified in any particular land use category
depending partially on the scale and resolution of the original remote
sensor data or other data source from which the land use is identified
and interpreted; of course, it also depended on the scale of data
compilation as well as the final scale of the presentation of the land
use information. Of course, the classification criteria also depended on
land uses that cannot be identified with the level of accuracy
approaching the size of the smallest unit mappable, while in others,
specific land uses can be identified which are too small to be mapped.
Further, as remote sensing data cannot give us land use data as
accurate as the data collected through enumerated methods, it is
incumbent to use satellite remote sensor data together with other
enumerated sources/maps of land use to enhance the accuracy levels.
So, the classification scheme should be suitable for use with remote
sensing data and must be amenable to incorporating the details
obtained from various sources and maps.
Going by the complexity of landuse and landcover in different sites,

situations, soils and climates, there cannot be one ideal classification
of landuse and landcover, and it is unlikely that one could ever be
developed (Anderson, 1976). So, land use mapping, in general, can be more
subjective than objective though the remote sensing data is quantified
numerically. There is, in fact, no logical reason to expect that one detailed
inventory should be adequate for more than a short time since landuse and
landcover patterns change in keeping with demands for natural resources.
The major classifications on landuse and landcover are presented in
Table 6.1 and 6.2.
Table 6.1: Landuse and Landcover Classification (All India Soil and Land
Use Survey-AISLUS).
Land Use/Land Cover Land Use
Code
Agriculture (Rainfed, Irrigated, Single crop, Multi crop) a
Plantation (Orchards, Estates, Forest Plantation etc.) b
Forest (Natural Forest of all types) c
Open Scrub (Grasslands/Pasture, Scrub Lands, Non-Vegetated d
Land, etc.)
Barren Land (Cultural Waste, Uncultured Waste, Rock-Out Crop, e
Brick Klins/Quarries, Open Mine, Spoils/Dumps, Beach etc.)
Build-up area (Urban, Rural, Rail, Road, Industries, etc.) f
Water Bodies (Reservoirs, River/Stream, Lakes/Tanks/Ponds, g
etc.)
Shifting/Rann Cultivation- Current s
Shifting/Rann Cultivation- Abandoned v
(Source: National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning-NBSS&LUP)
144
Unit 6
Table 6.2: Landuse and Landcover Classification System for Use with
Remote Sensor Data (Anderson et al. 1976).
Level I Level II
1 Urban or Built-up Land 11 Residential
12 Commercial and Services
13 Industrial
14 Transportation, Communications, and Utilities
15 Industrial and Commercial Complexes
16 Mixed Urban or Built-up Land
17 Other Urban or Built-up Land
2 Agricultural Land 21 Cropland and Pasture
22 Orchards, Groves, Vineyards, Nurseries, and
Ornamental Horticultural Areas
23 Confined Feeding Operations
24 Other Agricultural Land
3 Rangeland 31 Herbaceous Rangeland
32 Shrub and Brush Rangeland
33 Mixed Rangeland
4 Forest Land 41 Deciduous Forest Land
42 Evergreen Forest Land
43 Mixed Forest Land
5 Water 51 Streams and Canals
52 Lakes
53 Reservoirs
54 Bays and Estuaries
6 Wetland 61 Forested Wetland
62 Non-forested Wetland
7 Barren Land 71 Dry Salt Flats
72 Beaches
73 Sandy Areas other than Beaches
74 Bare Exposed Rock
75 Strip Mines, Quarries, and Gravel Pits
76 Transitional Areas
77 Mixed Barren Land
8 Tundra 81 Shrub and Brush Tundra
82 Herbaceous Tundra
83 Bare Ground Tundra
84 Wet Tundra
85 Mixed Tundra
9 Perennial Snow and 91 Perennial Snow Fields
Ice 92 Glaciers
Level I Level II Level III
1 Urban or Built-up Land 11 Residential 111 Single-family Units
112 Multi-family Units
113 Group Quarters
114 Residential Hotels
115 Mobile Home Parks
116 Transient Lodgings
117 Other
145
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Mapping can be done manually on-screen using remote sensing data.
Manual mapping is much more accurate than digital methods, but
digital processing is preferred over it as it is time-consuming. But in
many complex situations, like in countries in tropical and equatorial
zones, the land uses are complex and extensive exclusivity is rare.
Landuse mapping through digital processing results in numerous
enclaves within a certain category of land use, requiring smoothening
and elimination of such enclaves from particular landuse units.
SAQ 1
a) What are landuse and landcover?
b) Note different classes under the forest land category.
6.3 SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied and learned:
 The meaning of landuse and landcover.

 The classification system of landuse and landcover and its mapping.
 The laboratory exercises which facilitate to learn the skills in identifying
and mapping the landuse and landcover features.
 The three exercises based on landuse and landcover dealing with
analogue mapping (Exercise 11), digital image mapping (Exercise 12),
and change detection (Exercise 13).
6.4 ANSWERS
1. The landuse is a process, which cannot be directly observed and
landcover is a result which can be seen on the Earth's surface.
2. Deciduous forest, evergreen forest, and mixed forest land.
6.5 REFERENCE AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READING
1. Gregorio, A.D. and Jansen, L.J.M. (2000) Land cover
classification system (LCCS): Classification concepts and user
manual.
2. Anderson, J.R. (1971) Land use classification schemes used in
selected recent geographic remote sensing applications.
Photogrammetric Engineering, pp379-38.
3. Anderson, J.R., Hardey, E.E., Roach, J.T. and Witmer, R.E., A
landuse and landcover classification system with remote sensor
data. Geological Survey Professional Paper 964, pp.1-28.
146
Unit 6
4. Clawson, M. and Stewart, C.L. (1965) Land use information: A
critical survey of US statistics including possibilities for greater
uniformity, John Hopkins Press, p.402.
5. La Gro, J.A. (2005) Land use classification (in) Encyclopedia of
Soils in the Environment. Pp.321-328.

Let us now perform the laboratory exercises. The following laboratory
exercises would enhance skills in identifying and mapping various landuse
categories. You are required to complete all the exercises given in the
laboratory and submit the same to the counsellor/lab instructor as per the
given instructions. After completing these exercises, you are expected to gain
hands-on experience and skills in understanding thematic mapping.
The following three exercises explained separately are based on landuse and
landcover mapping, dealing with Analogue Mapping (Exercise 11), Digital
Image Mapping (Exercise 12), and Change Detection (Exercise 13).
Requirements: To perform the exercises, you may be required to use the

following materials/tools. Some of them are indicated here as optional.
 Ruler or Scale
 Pencil/Pen
 Sharpener and Eraser
 Scientific Calculator
 Drawing Sheets or White Sheets
 Toposheets
 Satellite Images
 Remote Sensing and GIS Software
147
EXERCISE 11
LANDUSE AND LANDCOVER -

ANALOGUE MAPPING
Structure
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Landuse and Landcover-Analogue Mapping
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Landuse and landcover mapping are essential in understanding human
interventions on Earth's environment. In this exercise, you will learn landuse
and landcover mapping with an analogue method. The primary purpose of
this laboratory exercise is to provide knowledge of simple traditional methods
used to identify and map various land cover features.
By mapping the various landuse and landcover features, you will be able to
interpret their characteristics with respect to different natural and
anthropogenic processes. That interpretation, combined with other thematic
maps, will facilitate you urban and regional planning and developmental
activities at local and regional levels.

 Understand the analogue method of different landuse and landcover
mapping, and
 Identify and map different landuse and landcover features from the
topographical map.
11.2 ANALOGUE MAPPING

The traditional method of obtaining LULC statistics in our country is to compile
revenue data from government sources. The information stored at the
individual plot level is classified using the nine-fold land use classification
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system. However, these datasets are only available in statistical records,

without connection to the respective physical locations. Another source of
LULC information is the Survey of India topographical maps, which reflect
broad landuse and landcover on 1:50,000 to 1:25,000 scale. However, this
information does not represent the current state of land use or reflect
changes.
The Survey of India's topographical maps primarily provide

topographical/geographical information. Figure 11.1 shows the conventional
signs and symbols for identifying various topographical features on the
toposheet. As an interpreter, you must get acquainted with these signs,
symbols, colours, letters and legends to read a topographical map and record
various landuse and landcover features.
Fig. 11.1: Conventional Signs and Symbols on Survey of India Toposheet.

(Source: Survey of India, Govt. of India, New Delhi)
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Unit 6 – Land Use and Land Cover Exercise 11 - Land Use and Land Cover: Analogue Mapping
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Let us now work outthe example given below.
Example 11.1: Identify and map different landuse and landcover features from
the given toposheet (indicative only).
Solution:
Refer to the landuse and landcover classification system as explained above.

First, identify classes as per the classification and map them accordingly.
Here, we explain the broad categories of landuse and landcover classes from
the topographical map.
1. Built-up Land
As we can see, built-up land covers up the land with civil structures and
infrastructures. Cities, towns, villages, transportation, power, communication
facilities, industrial and commercial complexes, and institutions are included in
this category. The built-up portions of major recreational sites, public
installations, and similar facilities can also recorded under built-up land class.
a) Rural/Urban
Red colour dots/symbols with names are settlements: Satranji, Hatiya,
Kalyanpur, Dhurva, and so on.
b) Transportation
A major road line passes from the west to NE direction, and a railway line
also moves parallel to the road. Several other branch lines of unmetalled,
cart-track and pack-track roads are connected to the main metalled road.
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c) Communication Lines
This area has several power and telephonic lines mainly found along the road
and railways.
2. Agricultural Land
Agricultural land includes cropland and pasture, orchards, groves, nurseries,

horticultural areas, etc. Agricultural land may be defined broadly as a piece of
land primarily used for food production. The area in the topomap has a
significant portion of agriculture. Crop land is shown in yellow colour on the
toposheet.
3. Forest Land
The green colour patches indicate forest covered with scattered trees and
other vegetation. Reserved forests and protected forests are with Sal trees
are also there in the given topomap. Isolated patches of scrub are also found
in the region.
4. Wastelands
Rocky wastes of mines and stone quarries can be identified in the area.
These are shown with symbols. Bushes and other wastelands can also be
mapped.
5. Waterbodies
Besides active stream/river channels, there are many water ponds and
reservoirs in the area. The river Subarnarekha flows from SW part and
merges into the Gulasad reservoir. Another river named Jumar Nadi drains
from the NW part and intermingles with the waters of the Potpota Nadi before
joining the reservoir. The streams/rivers are mainly non-perennial, where the
streams become dry during summer, and the flow of water is common only
during the rainy season.
Further, you can also try to identify different Levels of land use/land cover
categories apart from the above-explained classes, if any.

Exercise 11.1: Identify various landuse and landcover features from the given
topographical map at your laboratory. You can also download the toposheet
from Survey of India website
https://onlinemaps.surveyofindia.gov.in/FreeMapSpecification.aspx for your
area of interest and identify different features.
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EXERCISE 12
LANDUSE AND LANDCOVER -

DIGITAL IMAGE MAPPING
Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Landuse and Landcover: Digital Image Mapping
12.1 INTRODUCTION
In this exercise, you will learn to map different landuse and landcover features
through digital techniques. The information from the topographical maps does
not represent the current status of land use and does not reflect changes.
Local planning authorities rely on precise information gathered during
enumeration and observational field surveys. However, the main issue is
dynamic nature of land use/land cover. So, one-time data on land use/land
cover will not do for many practical purposes. Periodical mapping of land use
can be undertaken easily using remote sensing data.
Therefore, identifying LULC classes through remote sensing data is

necessary. A specific classification system is should be adopted based on the
availability of digital data and its resolution.

 Understand digital image data; and

 Map different landuse and landcover features through digital satellite
imageries.
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12.2 LANDUSE AND LANDCOVER – DIGITAL
IMAGE MAPPING
Because of the benefits of synoptic area coverage, revisit period,
multispectral, multisource, and digital storage, remote sensing technology has
proven to be very practical and cost-effective for accurately classifying and
mapping land cover. The digital repository of image data facilitates updating
of land use maps. Remote sensing technologies may be used to categorize
landuse and landcover types in a realistic, cheap, and repeatable manner
over broad and remote areas.
A landuse and landcover classification system with different categories of

Level- I to III was developed by the National Remote Sensing Centre
(erstwhile NRSA), Department of Space, Government of India, in
collaboration with various central and state government organizations,
including NATMO, CAZRI, Ministry of Agriculture, Revenue Department, AIS
& LUS, etc., using IRS LISS IV/LISS III/WiFS data given in Table 12.1. This
classification system has been adapted by several departments/institutions in
the country.
Table 12.1: Landuse and Landcover Classification System using Digital

Data.
Level - I Level - II Level - III
Built-Up Urban Built up-Compact (Continuous)
Built up-Sparse (Discontinuous)
Vegetated/Open Area
Rural Rural
Industrial Industrial area
Ash/Cooling Pond/effluent
And other waste
Mining/ Quarry Mining-Active
Mining-Abandoned
Quarry
Agricultural Cropland Kharif
Land Rabi
Zaid
Cropped in 2seasons
Cropped in more than 2 seasons
Fallow Land Fallow Land
Agriculture Plantation Agriculture Plantation
Aquaculture Aquaculture
Forest Evergreen/Semi- Dense/ Closed
Evergreen Open
Deciduous (Dry/Moist Dense/ Closed
/Thorn) Open
Forest Plantation Forest Plantation
Scrub Forest Scrub Forest
Swamp/ Mangroves Dense/Closed
Open
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Unit 6 – Land Use and Land Cover Exercise 12 - Land Use and Land Cover: Digital Image Mapping
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Tree Clad Area Dense/Closed
Open
Grass/Grazing Alpine/Sub-Alpine Alpine/ Sub-Alpine
Temperate/Sub Temperate/Sub-Tropical
Tropical
Tropical / Desertic Tropical/Desertic
Wetlands Inland Natural (Ox-bow Lake, Cut-Off
Meander, Waterlogged, etc.)
Manmade (Waterlogged,
Saltpans etc.)
Coastal Lagoons, Creeks,Mud-flats etc.
Saltpans
Waterbodies River Perennial
Non Perennial
Canal/ drain Canal/drain
Permanent
Lake/ Ponds Seasonal
Reservoir/Tank Permanent
Seasonal
Wastelands Salt Affected Land Salt Affected Land
Gullied/Ravinous Land Gullied
Ravinous
Scrubland Dense/Closed
Open
Sandy Area Desertic
Coastal
Riverine
Barren Rocky Barren rocky
Snow, Shifting Snow Snow
Cultivation & Shifting Cultivation Current
Rann Abandoned
Rann Rann
Land cover information obtained from satellite images includes spectral and
spatial characteristics of various cover categories. Two methods are used in
digital classification of satellite images: supervised and unsupervised. A priori
knowledge of all cover types to be mapped inside the categorized scene is
assumed in supervised classification. This knowledge is applied to the whole
scene to define the signature classes of interest. Unsupervised categorization
requires no prior knowledge of land cover categories or their distribution.
Unsupervised classification algorithms split the image into more or less pure
spectral groups, which are often bound by pre-defined parameters describing
the statistical properties of these clusters and the interactions between them.
Land cover labels are assigned to individual spectral clusters based on ground
information gathered in the places indicated by the resultant clusters. To perform
these two digital classifications, you must have digital image processing
softwares like ERDAS Imagine, ENVI, QGIS, ArcGIS, etc. You will learn about
softwares in detail in your 4th Semester courses on Remote Sensing.
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Block 2
In this exercise, we will explain the visual interpretation of landuse and landcover
features with the help of satellite images. You will map different LULC categories
for a selected area from the given False Colour Composite (FCC) image. FCC is
a multispectral image using the standard visual Red (R), Green (G), and Blue
(B) band range. FCC imagery can be produced using different colour
combinations. FCC is one in which the values for RGB do not match the real
colours of red, green, and blue. A standard FCC (Fig.
assigns blue to green radiations (0.5 to 0.6 m), green to red radiations (0.6 to 0.7
m), and red to Near Infrared radiations (0.7 to 0.8 m). A standard FCC is given
in Figure 12.1. Some of the colour registrations showing on standard FCC
image representing different land cover features are given in Table 12.2.
Fig. 12.1. False Colour Composite.
Table 12.2: Colour Signatures on Standard False Colour Composite of

Surface Features.
Features Colour on Standard FCC
1. Built-up
High Density Dark Blue to Bluish Green
Low Density Light Blue
2. Healthy Vegetation and Cultivated Areas
Evergreen Red to Magenta
Deciduous Brown to Red
Scrubs Light Brown with Red Patches
Crop Land Pink to Bright Red
Fallow Land Light Blue to White
Wetland Vegetation Blue to Grey
3. Wastelands/Rocky Areas
Rock Outcrops Light Brown
Sandy Deserts/River Sand Light Blue to White
Salt affected Deep Ravines Dark Green
Shallow Ravines Light Green
Waterlogged/Wetlands Motelled Black
4. Waterbody
Clearwater Dark blue to black
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Unit 6 – Land Use and Land Cover Exercise 12 - Land Use and Land Cover: Digital Image Mapping
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Turbidity Waterbody Light Blue
You can understand by studying the given Figure 12.2 for various spatial
resolutions in a particular area. We can observe the finer details in the image
where spatial resolution increases.
Fig. 12.2. Spatial Resolution of Satellite Image.
Let us understand by doing the given example below.
Example 12.1: Identify different landuse and landcover classes using digital
images.
Solution
First, take a printout of the given image. Then refer to the appropriate landuse
and landcover classification for the given area. Now identify different landuse
and landcover categories as shown in the Figure given below.
Fig. 12.3: Landuse and Landcover Features.
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Block 2
Now you must be able to identify and map different surface features on the
image data. Remote sensing image classification through visual interpretation
techniques is an effective method of classifying land cover. Here, the analyst
must be familiar with the area which is being classified. Visual interpretation
techniques such as tone, texture, shape, pattern, and relationship are used to
identify the different land cover classes. The primary advantage of manual
interpretation is its utilization of the brain to identify features in the image and
relate them to features on the ground. Another advantage is that manual
classification can be done using a hard copy of a satellite image. The
disadvantage is that it tends to be tedious and slow compared to automated
digital classification, because it relies solely on a human interpreter and the
resustant data can be more subjective.
In this method, we observe the image on a computer screen or a print copy and
then draw a polygon around areas identified as a particular land cover type.
After delineating the features, the resulting map must be digitized to convert into
a machine-readable format.

Exercise 12.1: Map the landuse and landcover classes from the given
satellite data.
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EXERCISE 13
LANDUSE AND LANDCOVER-

CHANGE DETECTION
Structure
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Change Detection Analysis of Landuse and Landcover
13.1 INTRODUCTION
In previous exercises, you have learned how to identify landuse and
landcover features from toposheet as well as satellite data. In this exercise,
you will learn to assess the changes in different landuse and landcover
features over a period of time. You will be dealing with two sets of data of two
different periods for the same area. Your task is to investigate how the
landuse/landcover changed over time. You can also carry out this exercise
using GIS tools to classify the classes and to get area calculations.

 Understand the change detection; and

 Assess the landuse and landcover changes over a period of time.
13.2 CHANGE DETECTION ANALYSIS OF

As we all know that land cover can changes over a period of time, the
temporal resolution of remote sensing data sets is an important factor for
selecting the proper data sets. High spatial and temporal resolution imageries
have been developed for land cover mapping and change detection analysis
worldwide due to the rising demand for information due to concerns about
climate change and sustainable development. Changes in landuse and
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Block 2
landcover influence environmental quality and quality of life, both of which

impact human well-being.
Now let us learn about identifying changes in landuse and landcover features
in the given area over a long period.
Example 13.1: Identify landuse and landcover change from the given digital
satellite data.
IRS LISS-III 2005 IRS LISS-III 2016
a) b)
Solution:
Image a) depicts the region by LISS-III data in 2005, whereas image b)

depicts the same area in 2016. Let us delineate the significant LULC feature
changes. Keep the two photographs side by side and give close attention to
observing the changes that occurred between 2005 and 2016. First,
determine the various LULC categories and demarcate them in the other
image so that the significant changes may be mapped. The data for various
LULC categories are provided for ease of comprehension.
Based on the observation of images, we can prepare the Table as given

below:
LULC Colour 2005 2016 Change Remarks

category
1. Builtup Cyan Builtup Builtup Agriculture Increased
Land to built up
2. Agriculture Dark Agriculture Waterbody Agriculture Decreased
Cyan Vegetation to
(Scrub Waterbody
Land)
3. Forest Red Vegetation Water Forest to Decreased
Land waterbody
4. Waterbody Light Small Rivulets Reservoir River Increased
Blue channels
and formed a
Black Major
reservoir
Here, we are not providing you with the area computations of the LULC
features between 2005 and 2016. The area can be determined using software
tools. As such, it is understood that you will require hands-on training in order
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Unit 6 – Land Use and Land Cover Exercise 13 - Land Use and Land Cover: Change Detaction
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to get areal statistics for LULC classes. In the third and fourth semesters of
Remote Sensing and GIS, we provided software tools for calculating area and
length and digital image processing for LULC classification.

Exercise 13.1: Refer to the given images and identify the landuse and
landcover change.
After completing the exercises, you must submit the practical record to the
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UNIT 7
REPRESENTING SOCIO-
ECONOMIC DATA
Structure
7.1 Introduction 7.5 Cartograms and Diagrams
Expected Learning Outcomes 7.6 Summary
7.2 Source of Data 7.7 Answers
Primary Data 7.8 References and Suggested Further
Secondary Data Reading
7.3 Techniques of Data 7.9 Laboratory Exercises
Processing and Analysis Exercise 14: Data Processing
7.4 Single Purpose and Exercise 15: Diagrams
Composite Maps Exercise 16: Single and Composite Maps
7.1 INTRODUCTION
You have already studied the fundamentals of cartography including maps.
Drawingmap scales and making projections are also carried out in Block I.
Through various Laboratory Exercises, you have learnt to identify landforms,
examine drainage, and assess landuse and landcover in Unit 5 and 6. As we
know the mapping requires data or data are translated into systematic spatial
visualization for simple communication of information to readers or interpreters
with the spatial pattern. Hence in this Unit, we will study data sources,
techniques of processing and analysis, single purpose and composite maps,
and cartograms.
We have briefly explained the types and sources of data, that is required for
data representation through maps and diagrams. Further, we have explained
differenent Exercises 14 to 16 in Section 7.9 on data processing, diagrams,
and single and composite maps, respectively, at the end of the unit. These
exercises may facilitate to learn the skills in data processing and maps
preparation.

After studying this unit, you will be able to:
 Discuss the sources of data including primary and secondary data source;
Vijay Kumar Baraik 163

Block - 2 Thematic Mapping
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 Learn the techniques of data processing and analysis;
 Explain single purpose and composite maps;
 Describe cartogram and diagrams; and
 Get hands-on experience in data processing, diagrams, as well as single
and composite maps by performing the Laboratory Exercises 14 to 16.
7.2 SOURCE OF DATA

At your graduation level, you may already have got acquainted with the data
types and sources of data. There are different types of data based on the
classification criteria. The most popular types are primary and secondary
data, and quantitative and qualitative data. In these two classifications, both
can be taken interchangeably as broad heads. For example, quantitative and
qualitative data can be examined under primary and secondary data types. On
the other hand, primary and secondary data may be examined under
qualitative and quantitative data types. There are, however, other
classifications also like time series data and cross-sectional data; and
categorical data and numerical data. Time series data are those data (same
variable(s), which are collected at certain intervals of time for a given period
and cross-sectional data are those data which are collected at one point of
time consisting of many aspects or variables. Numerical data are those which
are represented in numbers whereas categorical data are represented in
forms other than numbers like names, quality (on Likert scale like good, bad
and worst, or high, medium and low, etc.), descriptive forms or any other
labels. Let us discuss the data sources in terms of primary and secondary.
7.2.1 Primary Data

Primary dataare those data, which are directly collected by the researcher or
user. These are first-hand data collected for the first time for field validation or
special purposes. Hence, the sources of such data are called primary data
sources. These data are collected using data collection tools like surveys,
observations, questionnairs/schedules, personal interviews, and focus group
discussions for socio-economic data (Fig. 7.1).
Fig. 7.1: Example of Primary Data Sources.
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These are also colleced through reconnaissance survey, field survey (i.e.,
ground survey, sample collection, transect survey, landform studies, landuse
studies, etc), landuse and landcover survey using cadastral maps and satellite
imageries, environmenmtal survey, market survey, geomorphological
mapping, morphometric survey, groundwater survey (for quality and depth),
forest survey (for density and species diversity, wildlife, etc), data collection for
soil and agricultural practices, etc. for mapping and analysis. Field reports and
filed diaries are also the tools of primary data capture. There are also some
non-spatial data related to physical phenomena, which are collected through
special field observations, like weather, water, environment, pollution, etc.
7.2.2 Secondary Data

Secondary dataare those data, which are already collected and processed or
tabulated by either government or non-government agencies and may be
published or unpublished. In other words, the data created by other than
researchers or users are known as secondary sources. These are found in
various forms like tables, texts, pictures, drawings, maps and imageries. The
secondary data sources include published and unpublished documents or data
like books, journals or periodicals, and reports by various government and
non-government agencies are also secondary sources for other users.
Nowadays, online documents are also considered as secondary sources of
data. The important sources of secondary data for non-spatial data are the
Census of India, National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO), Sample
Registration System (SRS), National Family Health Survey (NFHS), All India
Educational Survey, Unified District Information System for Education
(UDISE), etc., National Crime Record Bureau (NCRB), Land Use and Crop
Production Data, Livestock Census, Department of Statistics and Evaluation,
Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE), National Council of Applied
Economic Research (NCAER), Indian Human Development Survey- IHDS
II,etc. There are many online portals which provide secondary data.There are
international sources of secondary data like United Nations Organizations
(UNDP, WHO, UNICEF, UNEP and UNSTATS).
The major sources of secondary data for mapping and analysis are:
 National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad; Survey of India (SOI)

Dehradun; National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organization (NATMO),
Kolkata; National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning
(NBSS&LUP) and All India Soil & Land Use Survey (AIS&LUS),
Geological Survey of India (GSI), Indian Metrological Department (IMD),
Forest Survey of India (FSI), Pollution Control Boards of Central and
State Governments, Department of Forest and Environment, Central
Ground Water Board, etc.
 There are online sources of maps and satellite imageries like Bhuvan,
Visualisation of Earth Observation Data and Archival System (VEDAS),
Meteorological & Oceanographic Satellite Data Archival Centre
(MOSDAC), India-WRIS from ISRO, India and the Global Land Cover
Facility (GLCF) and USGS at international level. Some private agencies
also provide online data related to the environment and daily weather
conditions for the entire globe like https://www.timeanddate.com/.
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However, we will focus on socio-economic data in the exercises. It may be
related to both – primary and secondary data. There are some data already
collected and are like ready primary data for data processing and analysis like
unit level data of NSSO, village level raw data of Census of India or raw data
provided by NFHS. Primary data undergo many activities from pre-processing
to processing and analysis. And finally, the data is extracted in a structured
format, which is subsequently used in the act of mapping.
Fig. 7.2: Examples of Secondary Data Source.
7.3 TECHNIQUES OFDATA PROCESSING AND

ANALYSIS
You have now understood about data and its sources. Let us now study about
data processing and its analysis. Data processing is the assemblage of
various activities or operations starting from data editing, extracting basic
statistics and tables to complex cross-tabulation, getting inferential statistics,
examining correlation and regression and also the dimension reduction and
compression. We have also considered in some exercises the activities of
data coding and editing, which may be in both pre-processing (data entry and
validation) and processing (coding/recording and editing of data for
processing).
Data analysis is a process to extract useful information from a data set using
a suitable statistical technique in a systematic and logical way. It is done in
various ways like univariate, bivariate, tri-variate or multivariate analysis. The
situation in any given variable is statistically seen in the very simplest way
through univariate analysis. In this, every variable whether independent or
dependent is analysed separately. It includes a simple frequency table. In
bivariate analysis, the statistical relationship is examined between two
variables through cross-tabulation where one variable is kept in rows and the
other is placed in columns. Similarly, in trivariate analysis, the relationships of
two variables are seen in the context of the third variable statistically.
Multivariate analysis is done by multi-layered cross-tabulation. All these
bivariate, trivariate or multivariate relationships are also seen through
correlation and regression, which are one step further of cross-tabulation.
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These two give the degree and direction of association statistically. The other
sophisticated ways of data processing and analysis are the techniques of
combinational analysis, dimension reduction and classification, etc.
For data processing, the collected data first needs to be converted into digital
form by feeding into the computer. Thereafter if the data are not precoded or
pre-classified, some of the variables need to be classified and coded. It has
two purposes- to reduce the data into clear and identifiable classes and to
assign the numerical codes for further computation purposes. An example of
an initial code assignment is giving codes 1, 2 and 3 to the different gender
like male, female and transgender. This way the responses of other variables
can also be classified and coded. It is simple for closed-ended questions but is
difficult for open-ended questions. In the case of open-ended questions,
textually recorded responses need to be classified based on their similarity
and finally coded.
Recoding is the process where the responses are regrouped/reclassified or

recoded as per the need of the study. For example, the age of the sample
population may be recoded based on various groups or cohorts as per the
need for further tabulation and processing. Likewise, the sample persons or
households may also be assigned new codes based on their income level. We
will do a small exercise to understand the process of recoding.There are
activities like the extraction of simple descriptive statistics and basic tables,
which we will discuss in the following paragraphs.
Descriptive statistics are related to basic information about a dataset for a

preliminary idea, which includes frequency and shares like count and
percentage, measures of central tendency like mean, median and mode;
measures of dispersion like minimum and maximum values and range,
standard deviation and measures of positions in percentile and quartile. Basic
tables are derived in terms of a unit of observations as rows and variables as
columns with frequencies, percentages, etc. having basic statistics.
Cross tabulation includes the extraction of tables from raw data in the form of
multi-layered/ hierarchical information. It gives information about the
relationships between two or more variables or a variable with multiple
background characteristics. It is also called a contingency table. For example,
a table showing the income level with the educational level and occupational
status in a region, sub-region and micro-region.
Correlation and regressions are the statistical tools to see the degree of
relationships or association between and among variables. Correlation shows
the degree and direction of interrelationships whereas regression reflects the
degree and direction of dependence of a variable on the independent variable.
For example, the correlation between educational level and income shows the
degree and direction (negative or positive) associations in terms of its position
between -1 (perfect negative) to +1 (perfect positive) with a central value of 0
(no association). Similarly, regression reflects the association in terms of the
impact of the independent variable on a dependent variable (how much
change will occur on the dependent variable with one unit of change in the
independent variable.
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In geography, there are many other techniques related to data computation
like combinational analysis, dimension reduction and classification, etc. The
often used method is dimension reduction, which is done using various
methods starting from the simple Ranking Method (Kendal method) to factor
analysis or Principal Component Analysis-PCA. Ranking method is the
simplest one, where the values of indicators are ranked in ascending order
and the ranks are then horizontally aggregated to get a score, where the lower
the score better the situation. There are other methods like Z-Score, Data
Normalisation method, etc. In the Z-Score method, the indicators are made
scale free or normalized removing scale bias or standardised by subtracting
from mean and dividing with standard deviation and finally summed up
horizontally to get the scores. In Data Normalisation method, the transformed
and standardised values (found by dividing the ‘deviation from the minimum
value’ with the ‘range’) are aggregated horizontally to find the value of
‘composite score’. Thus, standardization is done by applying a formula where
each value of the indicator is subtracted by the minimum value and divided by
the value obtained by subtracting the maximum value from the minimum value
of that particular indicator. Also, the aggregated value or score is divided by
the number of indicators to get the final score. These are the data obtained by
data processing which are simultaneously used as the inputs for various types
of mapping (single use/thematic or composite) and data representation
through diagrams.
SAQ 1
a) What is primary data?
b) What is secondary data?
7.4 SINGLE PURPOSE AND COMPOSITE

MAPS
Single purpose map and composite maps are both the products of thematic
mapping. Thesingle theme map is a simple thematic map and composite map
is an overlay of two or three thematic data layers.
Single purpose map or single theme map is a map that shows spatial
pattern of any single theme or phenomena. Thematic mapping is a process to
draw or prepare a map based on a particular subject of theme related to
physical or human aspects for very specific purpose. Thematic maps vary from
quantitative maps to non-quantitative maps including choropleth and
chorochromatic maps, which are popular means or socio-economic data
representation including dot maps.
Composite map is a map which is made of two or more maps of same extent
and projection. It is done by superimposing and reflecting various themes on a
single map in manual mapping. The same process is done in digital mapping
to prepare a composite map. It is a result of spatial join or overlaying different
layers in the GIS environment. These are the maps, which show more than
one theme or property in a single map or sheet, for instance, income and
literacy; population distribution and the size of urban population; development
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and health; development and vulnerability; environment and epidemic, etc. It is
done witha mixture of shades, patterns and symbols. In exercise 16 helps you
will step by step process in very detail to prepare the composite maps in
continuation of the previous exercise of preparing single theme maps.
7.5 CARTOGRAMS AND DIAGRAMS

Cartogram is a map on which statistical information is depicted in the form of
diagrams. It is a way of cartographic representation of statistical information on
the map. It is abstract form and sometimes not to scale with a very rough
representation of geographical features with their actual surroundings. It is
defined as “A customized map projection that adjusts area or distance to
reveal patterns not apparent on a conventional base map” (Gregory, et. al., p.
66). The shapes are drawn generally based on the data to be represented.
“These are fundamentally representations of statistical dta on a map in a
diagrammatic way by purposefully distorting the original shape and
appearance of the area concerned. The sole purpose is to demonstrate a
single idea or theme through a highly abstract and simplified form” (Sarkar,
2017, p. 208). The geographical features like the countries/states/districts are
represented through continuous rectangular shapres with a size roughly
proportionately representing their statistics and placements closely
representing their relative locations or geographical positions to each other
(Fig. 7.3).
Fig. 7.3: An Example of Cartogram.
Diagrams are defined as "the representation of statistical data, or a

geogrpahic element in a highly abstract and conventionalised form by laying
emphasis on one selected element" (Mishra, p. 161). “A diagram is the
representation of statistical data or a geographic element in a highly abstract
and conventionalized geometric form with emphasis on one selected element”
(Sarkar, 2017, p. 184-85). There are various types of diagrams like statistical
and geographical and statistical-geographical. When a statistics is illustrated
through diagram like the GDP of a country it may just be a statistical diagram,
whereas when it is shown for various countries in the world through
proportionate shapes like bar or circle, it becomes geographical diagram.
Data are also prepared to represent the socio-economic data like proportional
squares, circles, spheres and cubes, proportional symbols, circle and bar
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diagrams, line graphs, star-diagrams and special diagrams (age and sex
pyramid), etc. These are most common that cartogram. The diagram may be
one dimensional, two dimensional and three dimensional. One dimensional
diagram includes simple bar diagram, compound bar diagram or multiple bar
diagram. Based on the orientation, these may be vertical, horizontal or spcial
diagram (bars of two entities kept parallel like age and sex pyramid). 2
dimensional diagrams include proportional square, , or rectangles or triabgle
diagrams; compound square, rectangle, circle and proportional pie diagrams.
3 dimensional diagrams include cube diagrams and spheres diagrams. There
are some special kinds of diagrams like rainfall dispersion diagrams, etc.
We will have hands-on on the diagram making exerices. Here we will discuss
primarily about the drawing of diagrams based on socio-economic data and
most commonly used diagrams like simple line, bar and circle.
SAQ 2
a) What is thematic mapping?
b) Give an example of composite maps.
c) What is a cartogram?
7.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied so far:
 Primary and secondary data sources.

 The techniques of data processing and analysis as a part of socio-
economic data representation.
 Single purpose or single theme maps and composite maps along with
cartograms and diagrams.
 The laboratory exercises which facilitate to learn the skills in representing
the socio-economic data.
 The three exercises based on the representation of socio-economic data
dealing with Data Processing (Exercise 14), Diagrams (Exercise 15), and
Single and Composite Maps (Exercise 16).
7.7 ANSWERS
1 a) Primary data are those data, which are directly collected by the
researcher or user. These are first-hand data collected for the first time for
special purposes. Hence, the sources of such data are called primary data
sources.
b) Secondary data are those data, which are already collected and
processed or tabulated and may be published or unpublished. In other
words, the data created by other than researchers or users are known as
secondary sources and are in various forms like in the form of tabular,
textual, pictorial, drawings, maps and imageries.
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2 a) Thematic mapping is a process to draw or prepare a map based on a
particular subject of theme related to physical or human aspects for very
specific purpose
b) Map showing lietracy rates over per capita income is an example of
composite map.
c) Cartogram is a map on which statistical information is depicted in the
form of diagrams.
7.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READING
1. Gregory, D, Jonston, R., Pratt, G., Watts, M. and S. Whatmore (2009):
The Dictionary of Human Geography, West Sussex: Willey Blackwell.
2. Kundu, A.(1982): Measurement of Urban Processes. Bombay: Popular
Prakashan.
3. Mahmood, A. (1986). Statistical Methods in Geographical Studies, New
Delhi: Rajesh Publications.
4. Monkhouse, F.J. and H.R. Wilkinson (1971): Maps And Diagrams: Their
Compilation and Construction, London: Methuen & Co Ltd.
5. Sarkar, A. (2013). Quantitative Geography: Technique and Presentation.
New Delhi: Orient BlackSwan.
6. Agriculture Census Division (2015): All India Report on Agriculture
Census 2010-11, New Delhi: Department of Agriculture, Cooperation &
Farmers Welfare Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare Government
of India.
7. 19th Livestock Census-2012, All India Report, Ministry of Agriculture,
Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Govt. of India,
New Delhi.
8. IIPS (2004): Reproductive and Child Health, District Level Household
Survey, 2002-04, India, New Delhi: MOHFW, Govt. of India.
9. International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) and ICF. 2017.
National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4), 2015-16: India. Mumbai: IIPS.
10. History of Census in India,
http://censusindia.gov.in/Ad_Campaign/drop_in_articles/05-
History_of_Census_in_India.pdf; http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-
Common/Sample_Registration_System.html;
http://censusindia.gov.in/vital_statistics/SRS/Sample_Registration_Syste
m.aspx#2; http://dahd.nic.in/Division/statistics/animal-husbandry-statistics-
division; National Sample Survey Office (NSSO),
http://www.mospi.gov.in/national-sample-survey-office-nsso#;
http://mospi.nic.in/141-historical-perspective;
http://rchiips.org/pdf/dlhs4/report/APR.pdf; www.data.gov.in;
http://udiseplus.gov.in/; http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in/bhuvan_links.php;
http://schoolreportcards.in/SRC-New/AboutDISE/AboutDISE.aspx;
Microsoft Excel Software; QGIS Software.
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We have good theoretical background about the single theme map, composite
map, cartogram and diagram. You are now prepared to have hands on
exercises to draw these in the associated exercises. The following laboratory
exercises will enhance the skills in understing data, data processing, analysis
and construction of maps. You are required to complete all the exercises given
in the laboratory and submit the same to the councellor/lab instructer as per
the given instructions. It is expected that after completion of these exercises,
you will gain hands-on experience and skills in understanding data.
The following three exercises are based on geographic data dealing with the
Data Processing (Exercise 14), Diagrams (Exercise 15), and Single and
Composite Maps (Exercise 16).
Requirements: To perform the exercises, you may be required the following

materials/tools. Some of them are indicated here as optional.
1. Ruler or Scale
2. Pencil/Pen
3. Sharpener and Eraser
4. Scientific Calculator
5. Graph Paper
6. Desktop Computer or a Laptop
7. Microsoft Excel Software
8. SPSS and QGIS software
9. Drawing Sheets or White Sheets
concerned academic counselor/lab instructor for its evaluation.
172
EXERCISE 14
DATA PROCESSING
Structure
14.1 Introduction 14.3 Data Processing and Analysis
Expected Learning Outcomes 14.4 Practical Exercises
14.2 Data Processing-Descriptive
Statistics
14.1 INTRODUCTION
You have already studied the fundamentals of data and its sources including
primary and secondary sources of data. As we know that the mapping requires
data and it must be processed in a systematic way. In this Exercise 14, we will
carry out data processing by calculating descriptive statistics along with
univariate, bivariate and multivariate data processing and analysis.

After learning though this exercise, you shall be able to:
 Understand the basics of data processing and analysis;

 Gain hands-on experience in the data processing and extracting basic
statistics; and
 Perform univariate, bivariate, and multivariate data processing and
analysis.
14.2 DATA PROCESSING-DESCRIPTIVE

STATISTICS
Data processing is the transformation of data into valuable information for
understanding the phenomenon. Data processing, in general, consists of six
main steps, these are data gathering, data storage, data sorting, data
processing, data analysis, and data presentation, which leads to conclusions.
The manual, mechanical, and electronic methods may generally be applied in
data processing. Manual data processing can be accomplished with a pen and
paper. Mechanically, using simple instruments like as typewriter/calculator, or
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electronically, utilising computers and softwater tools. Understanding
geographical inquiry relies much on data processing.
Let us start to learn the Descriptive Statistics including Frequencies,

Percentages, Minimum, Maximum, Mean, and Standard Deviation by doing
the given example below. Descriptive statistics aid in the description and
comprehension of the characteristics of a certain data set by providing brief
summary of the sample data.
Example 14.1: Process the dataset for calculating descriptive statistics

from the given dataset.
Year Andhra Pradesh Haryna Punjab
2008 737 730 1002
2009 653 681 876
2010 751 813 622
2011 666 667 1020
2012 706 718 802
2013 835 852 996
2014 658 699 889
2015 1007 1076 942
2016 1136 1167 1289
2017 795 815 1142
2018 764 799 1021
2019 611 667 875
2020 753 788 913
2021 1005 996 1248
2022 653 733 876
Solution:
Let us understand about the descriptive statistics which are necessary in data
processing and analysis. First record the minimum and maximum values of the
dataset. The minimum is the smallest value in the dataset and the maximum is
the largest value. The statistical results are given in Table 14.1.
Table 14.1: Use of Descriptive Statistics in Data Processing.
Andhra Haryna Punjab

Pradesh
Minimum 611 667 622
Maximum 1136 1167 1289
Sum 11730 12201 14513
Mean 782 813.40 967.53
Median 751 788 942
Mode 653 667 876
Range 525 500 667
Sample Variance 23566.43 23263.11 28711.27
Standard 153.51 152.52 169.44
Deviation
Count 15 15 15
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Unit 7 – Representing Socio-Economic
Economic Data Exercise 14 – Data Processing
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
The mean is computed by summing all of the figures in the data set and then
dividing by the number of figures in the data set.
The mode of a data set is the most frequent value, while the median is the
figure in the middle of the data set. It is the figure that separates the upper and
lower values in a set of data.
Measures of variability offer in determining how widespread a set of data's

distribution is. Measures of variability include range, quartiles, absolute
deviation, and variance. From the table, the range (525) is calculated by
substracting the lowest number (611) from the highest (1136) for Andhra
Pradesh.
The standard deviation is a measure of the amount of variation or dispersion

of a set of values.It indicates how far each number deviates from the mean.
∑(𝑋 − 𝑥̅ )
𝑆𝐷 =
𝑛−1
SD = sample standard deviation
= sum of…
= each value
= sample mean
= number of values in the sample
From the table SD = 153.5 for Andhra Pradesh, we can say that each score
deviates from the mean by 153.5 points on average.
There are three different levels in data analysis i.e. univariate, bivariate and
multivariate analysis.Univariate analysis approach is utilised when the data
comprises just one variable and does not involve causes or effects
relationships. This is accomplished by investigating the mean, median, mode,
dispersion, variance, range, standard deviation, and so forth.
Example is shown below:
Number of 412,038 62,152 134,503 7,379 24,679 9,792

Population
Bivariate analysis is slightly more analytical than Univariate analysis.
This sort of data analysis deals with causes and relationships between the
variables. The analysis is performed to determine the relationship among the
two variables. Bivariate analysis is conducted mainly using correlation
coefficients and regression analysis
Example of bivariate data can be temperature and rainfall during summer

season in different parts of the country.
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Temperature Rainfall in mm
in ◦C
14 54
38 312
21 84
32 284
26 140
When there are three or more variables in the data, it is classified as

multivariate. A researcher has gathered information on rainfall, water flow, and
silt. The same data is also collected for various months. The researchers seek
to look at the link between the three hydrometeorological data measurements
and the months.
In this case, a multivariate analysis would be necessary to understand the

relation between each variable. You will study more about these analyses
techniques in the Second semester course on Methods of Geographical
Analysis: Quantitative and Qualitative (MGGL-002). However, we have
explained these analysis techniques in the following examples using software
tools for advanced learning.
14.3 DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS
14.3.1 UNIVARIATE DATA

Let us start to learn the univariate data processing and analysis by doing the
given example below.
Example 14.2: Download the data and prepare data analysis report.
Solution:
Download census data of your state and district from the Census Website
https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/data/census-tables. For this
exercise, the Village Directory of Garhwa District of Jharkhand has been used.
The data used in this exercise has the file name Vill2001.xlsx. The same data
is downloaded with file name of PC01_VD_20_01. When you download this
data, it can be of different name depending on various states and districts. For
the purpose of exercise, you are required to rename the file as Vill2001.
Create a folder Exercise and save this data file (Vill 2001) in this
folder/directory.
Open SPSS in your system and open data (Vill2001.xlsx saved in your
exercise directory) following the options given below (Fig. 14.1):
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Unit 7 – Representing Socio-Economic Data Exercise 14 – Data Processing
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Fig. 14.1: Data Open Window.
This is a Village Directory (village amenities and facilities provided by the

Census of India for the year 2001. In this exercise, we need to do the data
processing and univariate analysis, where we see the frequencies of
responses in any one indicator. Here we will see the number of villages in a
district with the availability of educational facilities.
After opening the data, select the Analysis menu, and go to Descriptive
Statistics and Frequencies as shown in Fig. 14.2a. After this, select the
EDU_FAC (Education Facility) and move to the variable(s) pan in the pop-up
window as shown in Fig. 14.2b.
Fig. 14.2a: Selection of Menu and Sub-Menu to obtain Frequency.
Fig. 14.2b: Variable Selection Window.
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The result ofthe number of villages with education facilities available and not
available responses is returned as shown below in Table 14.2. You may
interpret it for the situation of the availability of education facility across
villages as 68.4% of villages have this facility but 31.6% of villages still needs
to be covered.
Table 14.2: Number of Villages with Education Facility.

Education Facility
Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Available 587 68.4 68.4 68.4
Not
Valid 271 31.6 31.6 100.0
Available
Total 858 100.0 100.0
14.3.2 BIVARIATE DATA

In bivariate analysis, we will take two variables and see the status of villages.
Go to the Analysis menu, and select Descriptive Statistics and Crosstabs as
shown below in Fig. 14.3a & 14.3b.
Fig. 14.3a: Selection of Menu and Sub-Menu for Cross Tabulation.
Fig. 14.3b: Variable Selection Window for Cross Tabulation (Bivariate).
In this exercise two variables Education Facility (EDU_FAC) and Medical

Facility (MEDI_FAC) (availability of education facility and medical facility in
villages) have been selected to see the number of villages with availability of
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both educational facility and medical facility. After selection of variables as
shown in Fig. 14.3b, click on OK. You will get the results as given below.
Education Facility * Medical Facility Cross tabulation

Count
Medical Facility Total
Available Not Available
Available 100 487 587
Education Facility
Not Available 16 255 271
Total 116 742 858
From the above output the following Table 14.3 can be prepared by calculating
percentages of each value with the total number of villages:
Table 14.3: Number of Villages with Education Facility and Medical Facility.
Education Number Percentage
Facility Medical Facility Medical Facility
Available Not Total Available Not Total
Available Available
Available 100 487 587 11.7 56.8 68.4
Not
Available 16 255 271 1.9 29.7 31.6
Total 116 742 858 13.5 86.5 100.0
The above table can be interpreted as out of total number of villages (858),
only 11.7% villages (100 in number) have both the facilities – education and
health- in the village and individually 587 (68.4%).
14.3.3 MULTIVARIATE DATA

As you have studied in the theory, multivariate analysis is done by multi-
layered cross-tabulation using more than one variables. All these are also
seen through correlation and regression to see the degree and direction of
statistical association, which are one step further of cross-tabulation. The other
advanced multivariate data processing and analysis techniques are
combinational analysis, dimension reduction and classification, etc. We will
have hands-on on these in the sections ahead.
For cross tabulation go to Analyze menu and point the mouse cursor to
Descriptive Statistics and Click on Crosstabs as shown in Fig. 14.4a.
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Fig. 14.4a: Selection of Menu and Sub-Menu for Cross Tabulation.
Select at least three variables as you did in the univariate analysis in the
Crosstabs pop-up window as shown in Fig. 14.4b. Each variable can be
selected by mouse click and taken to the space given for Row(s), Column(s)
and Layer by clicking arrow to move.
Fig. 14.4b: Variable Selection Window for Cross Tabulation.
On clicking OK after the selection of variables, the following output Table 14.4
will appear.
Table 14.4: Number of Villages with Availability of Education Facility,

Health Facility and Communication Facility.
Education Facility * Medical Facility * Communication Facility
Crosstabulation
Count
Medical Facility
Communication Facility Available Not Available Total

Available Education Available 33 57 90
Facility Not Available 3 12 15
Total 36 69 105
Not Education Available 67 430 497
Available Facility Not Available 13 243 256
Total 80 673 753

Total Education Available 100 487 587
Facility Not Available 16 255 271
Total 116 742 858
In this cross-tabulation, many more variables can be selected in the layer box.
You may see that only 33 villages have all three facilities – communication,
education and medical.
14.3.4 CORRELATION
Open the file data.xlsx from the exercise directory. For data processing and
getting the correlation matrix, click on Analyze and select Correlate and
Bivariate Sub-Menu (Analyze> Correlate > Bivariate) as shown in Fig. 14.5a.
A new dialogue box for Bivariate Correlation will pop-up. Select the variables
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PCI 2011-12, Literacy 2011, Pucca Houses, BMI of Women and shift to the
variable box using the right arrow placed between two windows (Fig. 14.5b)
and click OK to get the result. The result will be returned as given in Table
14.5. Analyse and interpret the output correlation table.
Fig. 14.5a: Selection of Menu and Sub-Menu for Correlation.
Fig. 14.5b: Selection of Indicators for Bivariate Correlation.
Table 14.5: Correlation of Development Indicators.

Correlations
PCI Literacy Pucca BMI of
2011-12 2011 Houses Women
Pearson
1 .547** .583** -.039
PCI 2011- Correlation
12 Sig. (2-tailed) .002 .001 .841
N 29 29 29 29
Pearson
.547** 1 .288 .145
Literacy Correlation
2011 Sig. (2-tailed) .002 .130 .453
N 29 29 29 29
Pearson
.583** .288 1 -.268
Pucca Correlation
Houses Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .130 .159
N 29 29 29 29
BMI of Pearson
-.039 .145 -.268 1
Women Correlation
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Sig. (2-tailed) .841 .453 .159
N 29 29 29 29
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
The correlation table reflects the degree of association varying from -1 to +1

(perfect negative correlation to perfect positive correlation) and zero value with
no statistical relationship. The table gives the significance also with **
indications and the level of significance.
In the above example, the correlation between Per Capita Income (PCI2011-
12) and Literacy (Literacy 2011) is strong (if the correlation coefficient or r
value is between .1 to .29, correlation is weak; near .3 to .49, it is moderate;
and between .5 to 1 it is high) and increase in one variables leads to the
increase in the other. Negative and positive signs (- and +) indicates the
direction of correlation. The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
as the p-value .002 is less than the significance level 0.05. In other words, if
the p-values are less than 0.05 level of confidence, the there is a significant
correlation between two variables at 95% level of confidence. If the p-value is
between 0.001 to 0.10, the correlation is highly significant at 99% and above
level of confidence.
14.3.5 REGRESSION
Open the file data.xlsx from the exercise directory. For data processing and
getting regression analysis, click on Analyze and select Regression and Linear
Sub-Menu (Analyze> Regression > Linear) as shown in Fig. 14.6a. Select
the dependent and independent variables and move them one by one in the
appropriate window using arrow as shown in the Fig. 14.6b. After clicking on
OK, the output will be return as given in the Table 14.6.
Fig. 14.6a: Selection of Menu and Sub-Menu for Regression.
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Fig. 14.6b:Selection of Independent and Dependent Variables for Regression.
Table 14.6: Results of Linear Regression.

Model Summary
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate
a
1 .547 .300 .274 7.116
a. Predictors: (Constant), PCI 2011-12
a
ANOVA
Model Sum ofSquares df Mean Square F Sig.
b
Regression 585.001 1 585.001 11.553 .002
1 Residual 1367.137 27 50.635
Total 1952.138 28
a. Dependent Variable: Literacy 2011; b. Predictors: (Constant), PCI 2011-12
a
Coefficients
Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized t Sig.
Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 68.918 2.510 27.455 .000
1
PCI 2011-12 9.136E-005 .000 .547 3.399 .002
a. Dependent Variable: Literacy 2011
In the first table of the output, R is the correlation between two variables, R
Square is the variation for dependent variable explained by independent
variable. Both variables have good correlation above moderate and the
change in independent variable leads to 30.0 (R Square .300) percent change
in dependent variable. Beta value indicates the change unit change in
dependent variable with 1 unit change in independent variable and if the value
is significant. In the example, Beta value .547 with significance level of .002
indicates the prediction of 0.547 or 0.55 unit of change in Literarcy with 1 unit
change in Per Capital Income with a significant level of 0.002 (above 95%
confidence level as it is less than 0.05 and above 0.01).
14.3.6 RANKING METHOD

Dimension reduction is primarily the merging of various dimension into one
single index of any phenomena or parameter to be measured. It is condensing
a number of indicators into a single index. For example, development is multi-
dimensional like economic, social, infrastructural, etc., but if it has to be
measured holistically, all the dimensions need to be merged into a single index
of development. To do this, there are various methods ranging from very
simple one like Ranking Method to the complex method like Principal
Component Analysis.
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Open the data table (Table 14.7) data.xlsx given in your exercise folder. Rank
states for each indicator. For example, rank the states based on the value of
Per Capita Income. Similarly rank them based on all other indicators as
demonstrated in Table 14.8. After ranking them, add up the ranks horizontally.
This summed values are the composite score based on ranks in different
indicators. The composite score indicates that the lower the value better the
position of a state and vice-versa. It may then be classified or mapped and
analysed. The demerit of this method is very simple and has a difference of 1
irrespective of the magnitude of difference between two units of observation
(here States).
Table 14.7: Statewise Indicators of Socio-Economic Development in

India, 2011-12.
Sl. States PCI 2011- Literacy 2011 Pucca Houses BMI of Women
No. 12 (X1) (X2) (X3) (X4)
1 Andhra Pradesh 80060.5 67.02 70.2 50.9
2 Arunachal Pradesh 73540 65.39 26.2 74.8
3 Assam 41142 72.19 20.6 55.7
4 Bihar 21750 61.8 44.5 50.4
5 Chhattisgarh 55177 70.28 30.1 51
6 Delhi 185001 86.21 98.2 58.7
7 Goa 259444 88.7 77.4 51.9
8 Gujarat 87481 78.03 62.3 47
9 Haryana 106085 75.55 92.9 51.2
10 Himachal Pradesh 87721 82.8 78.5 56.6
11 Jammu and Kashmir 53173 67.16 61 58.6
12 Jharkhand 41254 66.41 34.1 51.7
13 Karnataka 90263 75.37 48.3 49.2
14 Kerala 97912 94 77.3 53.9
15 Madhya Pradesh 38497 69.32 46.5 50.8
16 Maharashtra 99597 82.34 65.6 49.3
17 Manipur 39762 76.9 12.1 72
18 Meghalaya 60013 74.43 42.6 80.1
19 Mizoram 57654 91.33 47 75
20 Nagaland 53010 79.6 48.1 76.2
21 Odisha 48499 72.89 32.8 52
22 Punjab 85577 75.84 90.4 51.2
23 Rajasthan 57192 66.11 65.3 54.4
24 Sikkim 158667 81.42 55.9 73.5
25 Tamil Nadu 93112 80.09 61 50.6
26 Tripura 47155 87.22 10.6 55.9
27 Uttar Pradesh 32002 67.68 60.5 54.8
28 Uttarakhand 100314 78.82 92.7 57.2
29 West Bengal 51543 76.26 36.3 49.6
Mean 79399.91 76.2469 54.7931 57.38621
Standard Deviation 50028.91 8.331811 24.16438 9.789233
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Table 14.8: Ranking of States on Developmental Indicators.
Sl. States
Rank in PCI
with Normal
Percentage
of Women
No.
Literacy
Rank in
Rank in
Rank in
Houses
Sum of
Ranks
Pucca
BMI
1 Andhra Pradesh 13 25 1 22 61
2 Arunachal Pradesh 14 28 2 4 48
3 Assam 25 20 3 12 60
4 Bihar 29 29 4 25 87
5 Chhattisgarh 18 21 5 21 65
6 Delhi 2 5 6 7 20
7 Goa 1 3 7 17 28
8 Gujarat 11 12 8 29 60
9 Haryana 4 16 9 19 48
10 Himachal Pradesh 10 6 10 10 36
11 Jammu and Kashmir 19 24 11 8 62
12 Jharkhand 24 26 12 18 80
13 Karnataka 9 17 13 28 67
14 Kerala 7 1 14 15 37
15 Madhya Pradesh 27 22 15 23 87
16 Maharashtra 6 7 16 27 56
17 Manipur 26 13 17 6 62
18 Meghalaya 15 18 18 1 52
19 Mizoram 16 2 19 3 40
20 Nagaland 20 10 20 2 52
21 Odisha 22 19 21 16 78
22 Punjab 12 15 22 20 69
23 Rajasthan 17 27 23 14 81
24 Sikkim 3 8 24 5 40
25 Tamil Nadu 8 9 25 24 66
26 Tripura 23 4 26 11 64
27 Uttar Pradesh 28 23 27 13 91
28 Uttarakhand 5 11 28 9 53
29 West Bengal 21 14 29 26 90
The composite score reflects their relative position to each other in the scale
from the lowest score as high levels of development to the highest score as
low levels of development. In this case the composite score and levels of
development are inversely related as the reflection of best level is reflected by
rank 1. Accordingly the states may be classified into various categories of
levels of development like high, moderate, low and very low following various
methods of classification like range, Mean and SD, natural break, etc.
14.3.6 Z- SCORE METHOD

Open and use Table 14.7: Statewise Indicators of Socio-Economic
Development in India, 2011-12 (file data.xlsx in your exercise folder).
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Transform or standardise each value of an indicator (a column) by deducting
its mean and dividing the standard deviation. The formula for this is:
̅
Xs (Standardisation) = (Where x̅ is the mean and σ is the standard
deviation of the respective indicator.
Transformed values are given in Table 14.8. After transformation, the

transformed values are added horizontally to get a Composite Index, which is
the combination of all indicators. This way a consolidated or overall picture is
obtained for various units of study like states in this example. The composite
index gives the relative positions of various units in terms of its selected
indicators.
Table 14.8: Transformed/Standardized Values of Indicators and

Composite Index.
Sl. States X1s X2s X3s X4s Composite
No. Index
1 Andhra Pradesh 0.01320 -1.10743 0.63759 -0.66259 -1.11922
2 Arunachal Pradesh -0.11713 -1.30307 -1.18328 1.77887 -0.82460
3 Assam -0.76472 -0.48692 -1.41502 -0.17225 -2.83890
4 Bihar -1.15233 -1.73394 -0.42596 -0.71366 -4.02590
5 Chhattisgarh -0.48418 -0.71616 -1.02188 -0.65237 -2.87459
6 Delhi 2.11080 1.19579 1.79632 0.13421 5.23712
7 Goa 3.59880 1.49465 0.93555 -0.56043 5.46856
8 Gujarat 0.16153 0.21401 0.31066 -1.06098 -0.37478
9 Haryana 0.53339 -0.08364 1.57699 -0.63194 1.39480
10 Himachal Pradesh 0.16633 0.78652 0.98107 -0.08031 1.85360
11 Jammu and Kashmir -0.52424 -1.09063 0.25686 0.12399 -1.23401
12 Jharkhand -0.76248 -1.18064 -0.85635 -0.58086 -3.38033
13 Karnataka 0.21714 -0.10525 -0.26871 -0.83625 -0.99306
14 Kerala 0.37003 2.13076 0.93141 -0.35613 3.07607
15 Madhya Pradesh -0.81759 -0.83138 -0.34320 -0.67280 -2.66496
16 Maharashtra 0.40371 0.73131 0.44722 -0.82603 0.75621
17 Manipur -0.79230 0.07839 -1.76678 1.49284 -0.98785
18 Meghalaya -0.38751 -0.21807 -0.50459 2.32028 1.21011
19 Mizoram -0.43467 1.81030 -0.32250 1.79930 2.85243
20 Nagaland -0.52749 0.40245 -0.27698 1.92189 1.51986
21 Odisha -0.61766 -0.40290 -0.91015 -0.55022 -2.48093
22 Punjab 0.12347 -0.04884 1.47353 -0.63194 0.91622
23 Rajasthan -0.44390 -1.21665 0.43481 -0.30505 -1.53079
24 Sikkim 1.58443 0.62089 0.04581 1.64607 3.89719
25 Tamil Nadu 0.27408 0.46126 0.25686 -0.69323 0.29897
26 Tripura -0.64453 1.31701 -1.82885 -0.15182 -1.30819
27 Uttar Pradesh -0.94741 -1.02822 0.23617 -0.26419 -2.00364
28 Uttarakhand 0.41804 0.30883 1.56871 -0.01902 2.27656
29 West Bengal -0.55682 0.00157 -0.76530 -0.79538 -2.11593
The composite index may be classified and interpreted as explained in the

ranking method for deriving meaningful insight.
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The advanced method for combining a number of indicators into one index
(factor score) is Principal Component Analysis. The above two methods are
simple and do not statistically consider the interrelationships. This method
considers multicollinearity (interrelationships in the positive direction) and
condenses all similar indicators into a single score as an overall reflector of the
study units. For this you will study and get hands-on from the course on
Methods of Geographical Analysis: Quantitative and Qualitative (MGGL-002).

Exercise 14.1: Prepare descriptive statistics for the given data.
187
EXERCISE 15
DIAGRAMS
Structure
15.1 Introduction Pie Diagram
Expected Learning Outcomes Line Diagram
15.2 Making Diagrams 15.3 Practical Exercises
Bar Diagram
15.1 INTRODUCTION
You have already had the hands-on on the data processing and analysis and
base data preparation in the Exercise 14 for the mapping and diagram making.
In this Exercise 15, you will have hands-on exercises on making of Bar, Pie
and Line diagrams.

After doing this exercise you should be able to:
 Understand the importance of diagrams; and

 Draw bar and pie diagrams.
15.3 MAKING DIAGRAMS

Diagrams are the data representation in pictorial form, which communicate
the facts from of the statistics and proportional relationships to reader in a very
simplified manner. There are several types of diagrams like line diagram, bar
diagram, column diagram, surface/area diagram, block diagram, pie diagram,
spider/radar diagram, etc. and ther variants. In this exercise, we will do hands-
on for making bar diagram, pie and line diagrams.
Let us start with bar diagrams. Bar diagrams are the illustrations of data or
representation of data by a series of proportional horizontal or vertical columns
or bars, whose lengths or sizes depends on the quantities (data) they
represent. They may be simple, stack or compound, single and multiple bar
diagrams.
Let us now learn to draw simple Bar Diagram with the help of below given
example.
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Example 15.1: Draw a Bar Diagram for the given data.
Month Rainfall in mm
Jan 54
Feb 18
Mar 14
Apr 51
May 22
Jun 132
Jul 235
Aug 250
Sep 85
Oct 4
Nov 2
Dec 11
Solution:
First we need to observe the data given in columns of the table, here it is
Month and Rainfall. We are going to make simple bar diagram for the rainfall
(mm) which is received in each month. In the data the minimum value is 2
(Nov) and maximum is 250 (Aug). You need to fix the scale so that the values
are fit in the graph.
First take a white paper or graph paper and draw horizontal line as X-axis and
perpendicular line as Y-axis. Horizontal line will be the base line.
When one set of data is described as a collection of categories, a bar chart is

commonly made; this set (months) will be the base. The other axis will provide
rainfall values for the base groups.
Choose the number of bars you need to draw, here it is 12 bars (12 months).
So, mark twelve months at appropriate equal distance along the base line.
In this example, you should label the X-axis with the names of each of the
months you will be using. After marked down all of the months that you are
categorizing, you can give the entire axis a label. In this case, let us label the
axis "Month".
Divide the Y-axis with the chosen intervals to represent each bar on the base
X-axis. Mark the intersection of the axes as 0. In this example, we have rainfall
data, and the range of rainfall is set to be between 50 mm and 250 mm. The
vertical axis should then be labelled in 50-point increments, beginning with 0,
then 50, 100, 150, 200, and 250.
Finally, sketch the bars. Extend the bottom axis base you marked to the
horizontal line designated with the value of that bar. The bar graph is seen in
Figure 15.1. Along with the title, you may name the rainfall values on the top of
the bar.
190
Unit 7 – Representing Socio-Economic Data Exercise 15 –Diagrams
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Rainfall Distribution in Different Months

249
250Y 235
200
Rainfall in mm
150 132
100 85
54 51
50 22
18 14 11
6 4
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec X
Month
Fig. 15.1: The Bar Diagram shows the Rainfall Distribution in Different
Months.
Let us do another example using software.
Example 15.2: Draw a Bar Diagram for the given data with the help of
Excel Software.
Solution:
Open the data data.xlsx from Exercise folder/directory (same data used in
Exercise 14) in the MSEXCEL software. Select two columns with column
heading row as shown in Fig. 15.2a.
Fig. 15.2a: Selection of Data for Bar Diagram.

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Click on Insert and Columns as shown in Fig. 15.2b and Fig. 15.2c for drawing
a bar diagram.
Fig. 15.2b: Selection of Bar Diagram from the Insert Menu.
Fig. 15.2c: Selection of Simple 2D Bar Diagram from the Insert Menu.
The bar diagram will be drawn on the window as seen in Fig. 15.2d. Select
any one of the column type. In this exercise, 2D column is selected just for an
example. Drag the corner of the graph to enlarge so that all states on X axis
are seen.
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Fig. 15.2d: Stretching Diagram to show the complete Representation of

Data Selected.
Select the Chart Title and retype the correct title. Then click on the Layout
menu and navigate to Axis Title and assign Primary Horizontal Axis (X Axis)
and Primary Vertical Axis (Y Axis Title) (Fig. 15.2e). Finally you may copy and
paste the diagram on the word file like Fig. 15.2f.
Fig. 15.2e: Inserting X and Y Axis Titles.
Fig. 15.2f: The Simple Bar Diagram.

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Pie diagram as its name is a circular diagram also known as pie-chart, which
represents data in proportional slices in a complete circle total adding to 100
percent. A pie chart is a circular statistical graphic, which is divided into slices
to illustrate numerical proportion. Each slice of pie is proportional to the
respective data it represents. The slices are divided proportionally taking 100
percent as 360 degree angle of a complete pie or circle.
Let us learn the entire process of construction of pie diagram with the help of
below given example.
Example 15.3: Make a Pie Diagram with the help of given data. .
Month Rainfall in mm
Jun 133
Jul 235
Aug 750
Sep 85
Solution:
Pie diagram contains different segments in which each segment of a pie chart
forms a specific portion of the total (percentage). The sum of all the data is
equal to 360°.
The angle of each component = (Value of each component/Sum of values of

all the components) ✕ 360°
Arrange the given data in descending order and calculate the angle for each
sector representing different rainfall in months.
The calculations are as follows:

750 / 1203 = 0.62 = 224.40 = 2250
235 / 1203 = 0.20 = 70.30 = 700
133 / 1203 = 0.11 = 39.80 = 400
85 / 1203 = 0.07 = 25.40 = 250
Roundoff the resultant values.
Now you can draw a pie chart.
Draw a circle of suitable radius preferably in the range of 3-5 cm. Draw the
above calculated angles at the centre of this circle to show rainfall. Use the
protractor to measure the degree of each sector. It is always convenient to
draw the diagram by drawing sectors in a clock-wise direction.
Give different shades to the sectors and prepare an index below the diagram
accordingly. Complete the diagram by adding the title and sub-title.
After completion of these steps, your diagram will appear as shown in Fig.
15.3 below.
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Rainfall in Different Months

85
133
Aug
Jul
235
750 Jun
Sep
Fig. 15.3: Pie Diagram Representing Rainfall (mm) Distribution in

Different Months.
Example 15.4: Draw a Pie Diagram for the given data with the help of
Excel Software.
Solution:
We will draw a pie chart with two variables only to see the proportions of
number of villages with or without education facility in a district.
For this, prepare a table in as given below and save it in Exercise directory as
data pie_diagram.xlsx.
Number of Villages with Education Facility

Facility Number of Villages Percent of Villages
Available 587 68.4
Not Available 271 31.6
Total 858 100
Open the data pie_diagram.xlsx from your exercise folder. Select two columns
and two rows of data as shown in Fig. 15.4a.
Fig. 15.4a: Selection of Data for drawing Pie Diagram.
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Thereafter, select click on Insert menu and select simple 2D Pie (Fig. 15.4b).
Fig. 15.4b: Selection of Simple 2D Pie and Plotting the Pie.
After this, you may add data label (number and percentage in the pie diagram)
and title of the diagram. After adding data label, format data label and add
number and percentage (Fig. 15.4c-f).
Fig. 15.4c: Inserting Pie Title.
Fig. 15.4d: Adding Data Labels (Number and Percentage).
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Fig. 15.4e: Adding Data Labels.
Fig. 15.4f: Formatting Data Labels and adding Number and Percentage.
Finally, Pie Diagram is ready (Fig. 15.4g) for interpretation and analysis of the
data, which is represented through the pie diagram.
Fig. 15.4g: Pie Diagram.

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In a line diagram, the data is represented by a line. The line is drawn as
horizontal, X-axis, and the other line runs vertically is known as the Y-axis.
The origin of the X and Y axes serves as the 'zero' or 'starting point'. The
measurements along the X and Y axes are known as the abscissa and
ordinate, respectively. The line graphs are several types including simple line
graph, combined line graph, polygraph or multiple line graph, and compound
line graph.
Let us learn the process of construction of line diagram with the help of below
given example.
Example 15.5: Make a Line Diagram with the help of given temperature
(ºC) data.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
5 12 20 24 32 35 30 28 28 27 23 18
Solution:
(i) First we have to select the scale by considering the maximum and
minimum values of the given data as well as the size of the paper. Note
the maximum temperature value i.e. 35ºC and minimum is 5ºC.
(ii) Draw two lines horizontal along X-axis and vertical line as Y-axis. Mark the
independent variable i.e. months in this example on the X axis and the
dependent variable i.e. monthly temperature on Y axis at an equal interval.
(iii) Select an appropriate scale and mark it on Y-axis. In this case, we have
selected 1 cm = 5ºC. Calculate the remaining values accordingly.
(iv) Plot all the twelve months data to depict month-wise values of
temperatures according to the selected scale on Y-axis. Mark the location
of the plotted values by a dot and join these dots by a free hand drawn line
and complete the diagram.
40
35
30
Temperature in ºC
25
20
15
10
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Month
Fig. 15.5. The Line Diagram.

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You must remember that the graph must be properly labeled. In order to
facilitate reading, labeling should be done in a horizontal direction. Different
design of lines like broken line, dotted line, and broken lines with a dot can
also used when more than one line drawn on a single graph.
Example 15.6: Draw a Line Diagram for the given data with the help of
Excel Software.
Monthly Rainfall Data.

Year June July Aug
1901 59.1 129.4 252.7
1902 57.3 123.8 285.6
1903 66.3 131.4 298.9
1904 77.2 169.2 271.9
1905 62.3 112.1 263.5
1906 45.6 185.3 290.7
1907 41.8 160.9 236.3
1908 52.5 135.7 327
1909 59.9 208.1 314.9
1910 50.6 213.2 251.3
Solution:
We will draw a line diagram with time series data to see the trend of rainfall
from the year 1901-1910 for the months of June, July and August.
Prepare a data table in excel sheet for doing this exercise. Save the table as
linediagram.xlsx in the Exercise folder/directory. Open the data in Excel to
draw the line diagram.
Fig. 15.6a: Selection of Data and Inserting Line Diagram based on

Selected Data.
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Fig. 15.6b: Selection of Line Diagram Type.
After selection of line diagram type, the diagram will be drawn as shown below
in Fig. 15.6c.
Fig. 15.6c: Line Diagram.
After appearance of line diagram on screen, all other information are needed
to be labled like titles and sub-titles, x-axis title and y-axis titles. In the diagram
below, the values at x-axis are just numbers from 1 to 10 in the example
representing various years, which need to be labled properly with years. For
this right click on the diagram and go to select data as shown in Fig. 15.6d.
Fig. 15.6d: Selection of X Axis Labels.

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In the pop-up dialogue box, click on the Edit option for defining X Axis Lables
as shown in Fig. 15.6e.
Fig. 15.6e: Selection of Data Source for Labelling X Axis. ‘

Next click on Select Range and axis label in new pop-up dialogue box. After
this, select the data in column A for Years ranging from 1901 to 1910 and after
selection click OK. The vales of years will appear in the dialogue box as
shown in the Fig. 15.5i. Again click OK, the x axis will automatically be labeled
with years (Fig. 15.5j).
Fig. 15.6f: Selecting Range for X-Axis Label.
Fig 15.6g: Adding Axis Labels.

201
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Fig. 15.6h: Selecting the Data (1901 to 1910 from Column A having Year)
Fig. 15.6i: Follow the Steps given in the Bar Diagram above for Inserting
Title and Sub-Title, X-axis and Y-axis titles.
Fig. 15.6j: Line Diagram.
202
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Exercise 15.1: Draw a vertical diagram and its drawing process.
Exercise 15.2: Draw a pie diagram and explain its drawing process.
Exercise 15.3: Draw a line diagram and explain its drawing process.
203
EXERCISE 16
SINGLE AND COMPOSITE MAPS

Structure
16.1 Introduction 16.3 Making Composite Map
Expected Learning Outcomes 16.4 Practical Exercises
16.2 Making Single Map
16.1 INTRODUCTION
You have done exercises on data processing and diagrams under
representing socio-economic data in the Exercise 14 and Exercise 15,
respectively. In this Exercise 16, you will have hands-on exercises on single
and composite mapping, in which you will learn how to make a map of multiple
themes in single sheet.

After doing this exercise you should be able to:
 Learn the basics of single and composite mapping, and

 Have hands on experience on single and composite mapping.
16.2 MAKING SINGLE MAP

For the preparation of maps and the construction of diagrams, the data is
required. Thus, to do this exercise you must recapitulate the types and
sources of data required for their representation through maps and diagrams.
There are various thematic maps like quantitative maps and non-quantitative
maps including choropleth and chorochromatic maps. Choropleth maps are
very popular means of representation of socio-economic data. In this, dot
maps are also prepared. There are various types of diagrams also prepared to
represent the socio-economic data like line graphs, bar diagrams, pie charts,
proportional squares, circles, spheres and cubes, proportional symbols, ,
Star-diagrams and block diagrams, etc.
In this exercise we will learn to do the thematic mapping. Single purpose

map or thematic map is a map showing spatial pattern of any theme or
209
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phenomena. Composite Map is a map which is made of two or more maps of
same extent and projection.
Let us start to learn how to make single purpose maps or thematic maps by
doing the given example below.
Example 16.1: Make single purpose map using the given data.
Solution:
For this exercise, prepare statewise map of India (shapefile) based on the
administrative boundaries of 2011 and join the data table (Table 14.7:
Statewise Indicators of Socio-Economic Development in India, 2011-12) given
in the previous Exercise 14. Rename the map as MappingExercise.shp and
store in the Exercise directory/folder. This exercise is explained to carry out
mapping with the use of Open Source Software QGIS. This exercise is
supposed to perform by the available facilities and expertises of Academic
Councelor at your study center.
Open the QGIS Software (Version 3.28) and follow the steps given ahead.
Click on Layer menu and go to Add Layer sub menu and select Add Vector
Layer from the options of Add Layer sub menu as shown in Fig. 16.1a.
Layer > Add Layer > Add Vector Layer
Fig. 16.1a: Adding Vector Data Layer .
Then click on Browse on the pop up dialogue as shown below:
Source Type
Location
Fig. 16.1b: Selecting Data Type and Source or Location.
210
Unit 7 – Representing Socio-Economic Data Exercise 16 – Single and Composite Maps
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Select the shapefile of the map (MappingExercise.shp) from the exercise
directory and click on Open.
Fig. 16.1c: Selection and Opening of File from the Data Location.
In the next pop up dialogue, click on Add and close.
Fig. 16.1d: Adding Data (Vector Layer or map) in the Viewer.
You will see that the map is added in the viewer (Fig. 15.5). For making a
thematic map, either right click on the added shape file in the Table of Content
window and select Properties or double click on the added shape file (Fig.
16.1e).
Fig. 16.1e: Selecting Properties for Making Thematic Map.

211
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In the next pop up dialogue box of Layer Property, select Symbology. In the
pop-up dialogue box, select graduated in the topmost drop down menu to
make a thematic map. Depending on different kinds of data and mapping, you
may choose different option here. Then click on OK.
Fig. 16.1f: Selection of Type of Thematic Mapping.
In the next step, select the variable to be mapped from the Value drop down
option, which gives the list of variables. In this exercise we will select Per
Capita Income (PCI_2011_1) for mapping.
Fig. 16.1g: Selection of Variable to be mapped.
After selecting variable select Colour Ramps as per your choice as shown in
the Fig. 16.1h.
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Fig. 16.1h: Selection of Colour Ramp or Shades.
After selecting variable and colour ramp for mapping, select the classification
criteria from the mode drop down option (you may select Equal Interval) and
also the number of classes given right side using up or down arrow. Then click
on Classify, Apply and OK. You will see the thematic map showing the
statewise distribution pattern of Per Capita Income in India on the map viewer
window. You may see the difference in the grouping of states based on
various classification criteria. For exercise you may also do the mapping using
Natural Breaks (Jenks) for classification of states.
Fig. 16.1i: Selection of Classification Criteria or Mode and Selection of

Colour Ramp.
When classes are displayed in the dialogue box, they are in ascending order.
To revert to the descending order, click on the values bar, the classes will be
reverted to the descending order as per cartographic principle. Refer to Fig.
16.1 j to l .
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Fig. 16.1j: Classes in Ascending order, Selection of Number of Classes,

Classify, Apply and OK.
Fig. 16.1k: Reverting Classes from Ascending to Descending Order by

clicking on Values bar
Fig. 16.1l: Classes in Descending Order.
After performing the above functions, the thematic map based on the variable
of theme is created in the viewer window. The spatial pattern may vary based
on the various methods of classification of data. Here two examples have
been given- one based on Equal Interval Method and the two based on the
Natural Breaks (Jenks) Method (Fig. 16.1 m and Fig. 16.1 n). You may try to
illustrate the thematic map selecting various classification methods. However,
you should also know the properties of these classification methods so that
you will be able to apply appropriate method on various kinds of data and
requirement of a map for interpretation and analysis.
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Fig. 16.1m: Thematic Map based on the Equal Interval classification criteria.
Fig. 16.1n: Thematic Map based on the Natural Breaks (Jenks)

Classification Criteria.
After the above steps, the map is brought to the map layout window and titles,
sub-titles, legends, scales, north arrow and neatline are placed to prepare a
thematic map (Fig. 16.1o) which you will learn in the Exercise 26 of this
course.
Fig. 16.1o: Thematic Map of India showing the Statewise Spatial Pattern
of Per Capita Income in the Year 2011-12 in Rupees.
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16.2 MAKING COMPOSITE MAP
Composite map is a map which is made up of two or more maps of same
extent and projection. Mannually it is done by superimposing and reflecting
various themes on a single map. The same process is done in digital mapping
to prepare a composite map. In digital mapping, it is a result of spatial join in
the GIS environment. In this exercise you will learn to prepare the composite
maps in continuation of the previous exercise of preparing single theme maps.
In this example, we will learn to make the composite map through digital
mapping on the same data and map used in the above example.
Let us start to learn for making composite map by doing the given example
below.
Example 16.1: Prepare a Composite Map.
Solution:
The process of adding map to single purpose map is the same as done in the
previous example. The following is the steps for adding layer: Layer > Add
Layer > Add Vector Layer
Fig. 16.2a: Adding Vector Data Layer.
Then click on Browse on the pop up dialogue as shown below:
Source Type
Location
Fig. 16.2b: Selecting Data Type and Source or Location.
Select the shapefile of the map (MappingExercise.shp) from the exercise

directory and click on Open as indicated below in Fig. 16.2c.
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Data File
Fig. 16.2c: Selection and Opening of File from the Data Location.
In the next pop up dialogue, click on Add and close as shown in the Fig. 16.2d.
Fig. 16.1d: Adding Data (Vector Layer or map) in the Viewer.
You will see that the map is added in the viewer (Fig 16.2e).
Following are the steps of making single theme maps:
For making a thematic map, either right click on the added shape file in the
Table of Content window and select Properties or double click on the added
shape file.
Fig. 16.2e: Selecting Properties for Making Thematic Map.

217
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In the next pop up dialogue box of Layer Property, select Symbology. In the
pop-up dialogue box, select graduated in the topmost drop down menu to
make a thematic map. Depending on different kinds of data and mapping, you
may choose different option here. Then click on OK.
Fig: 16.2f: Selection of Type of Thematic Mapping.
In the next step, select the variable to be mapped from the Value drop down
option, which gives the list of variables (Fig. 16.2g). In this exercise we will
select Per Capita Income (PCI_2011_1) for mapping.
Fig. 16.2g: Selection of Variable to be Mapped.
After selecting variable select Colour Ramps as per your choice as shown in
the Fig. 16.2h.
Fig. 16.2h: Selection of Colour Ramp or Shades.
218
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After selecting variable and colour ramp for mapping, select the classification
criteria from the mode drop down option (you may select Equal Interval) and
also the number of classes given right side using up or down arrow. Then click
on Classify, Apply and OK. You will see the thematic map showing the
statewise distribution pattern of Per Capita Income in India on the map viewer
window. You may see the difference in the grouping of states based on
various classification criteria. For exercise you may also do the mapping using
Natural Breaks (Jenks) for classification of states.
Fig. 16.2i: Selection of Classification Criteria or Mode and Selection of

Colour Ramp.
When classes are displayed in the dialogue box, they are in ascending order.
To revert to the descending order, click on the values bar, the classes will be
reverted to the descending order as per cartographic principle. Refer to Fig.
16.2j to Fig. 16.2l.
Fig. 16.2j: Classes in Ascending order, Selection of Number of Classes,

Classify, Apply and OK.
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Fig. 16.2k: Reverting Classes from Ascending to Descending Order by

clicking on Values Bar.
Fig. 16.2l: Classes in Descending Order.
After performing the above functions, the thematic map based on the variable
of theme is created in the viewer window. The spatial pattern may vary based
on the various methods of classification of data. Here two examples have
been given- one based on Equal Interval Method and the two based on the
Natural Breaks (Jenks) Method (Fig. 16.2m and Fig. 16.2n). You may try to
illustrate the thematic map selecting various classification methods. However,
you should also know the properties of these classification methods so that
you will be able to apply appropriate method on various kinds of data and
requirement of a map for interpretation and analysis.
Fig. 16.2m: Thematic Map based on the Equal Interval Classification

Criteria.
220
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Fig. 16.2n: Thematic Map based on the Natural Breaks (Jenks)

Classification Criteria.
sub-titles, legends, scales, north arrow and neatline are placed to prepare a
thematic map (Fig. 16.2i) which you will learn in the Exercise 26 of this course.
Fig. 16.2i: Thematic Map of India showing the statewise spatial pattern of
Per Capita Income in the Year 2011-12 in Rs.
FOLLOWING ARE THE STEPS FOR COMPOSITE MAPPING:
After completing the thematic mapping add the same shapefile again in the
map window following the same steps explained in the beginning.
Fig. 16.3a: Adding same layer again in the map window. It may be
another file also, having same extent and projection.
221
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
After adding the map layer, you may fill pattern on the another theme either
contained in the same map layer of another map layer. In this exercise, the
data of a different theme is also kept in the same map layer.
Right click on the newly added layer and select property as you had done for
single theme mapping. Thereafter, do the thematic mapping of the theme
related to literacy selecting variable Literacy_2. Select 5 Natural Break (Jenks)
as the classification mode and 5 classes. Click on values above the classes to
arrange it to descending order.
After this you have to click on the symbol of each class and fill the graduated
pattern according to the class value from sparse to dense as shown below.
Fig. 16.3b: Selection of Pattern.
Fig. 16.3c: Density Adjustment of Pattern-1.
222
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Fig. 16.3d: Density Adjustment of Pattern-2.
Spacing value may be increased or decreased for making a pattern dense or

sparse. In this case the spacing values of both slanting/diagonal lines of cross
pattern have been kept as 1, 2 and 4 for the first, second and third group or
class and for the fourth class, only one slanting line with spacing value 4 has
been kept. The last class with zero values, the symbol is blank. This way the
following map is prepared with two themes- Per Capita Income as background
with colour shades and Literacy Rates in the foreground with pattern. Symbols
may also be added with other themes in the map if needed.
Fig. 16.3e: Map after assigning patterns for different classes for second
theme.
sub-titles, legends, scales, north arrow, reference grid and neatline are placed
to prepare a thematic map, which you will learn in the Exercise 26 of this
course.
223
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Fig. 16.3f: Final Composite Map.
Finally, you have learnt to make a composite map (Fig. 16.3f).

Exercise 16.1: Prepare a Single Purpose Map.
Exercise 16.2: Prepare a Composite Map.
224

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MGGL-001

Indira Gandhi National Open University

Indira Gandhi National Open University CARTOGRAPHY

Prof. K. R. Dikshit Prof. K. Kumaraswamy Prof. Subhakanta Mohapatra

Course Design Committee

Prof. H. S. Sharma Prof. Milap C Sharma Faculty of Geography Discipline

Prof. Anupam Pandey (Block 1) Prof. Ashis Sarkar (Block 2)

Transformation, Wetting and Coordination (Vol. I) - Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao,

Course Coordinators - Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao & Dr.Vishal Warpa

Cartography encompasses a wide range of geographical dimensions, from mapping and

DAY Session 1 Session 2

Our best wishes are with you in this endeavour always.

Unit 1 Introduction to Cartography

Unit 2 Map Projections

Unit 4 Development Trends

BLOCK 2 THEMATIC MAPPING

Unit 5 Terrain Elements

Unit 6 Land Use and Land Cover

Unit 7 Representing Socio-Economic Data

Unit 5: Terrain Elements

Exercise 6: Landform Mapping

Unit 6: Land Use and Land Cover

Exercise 11: Analogue Mapping

Unit 7: Representing Socio-Economic Data

Exercise 14: Data Processing

Drainage basin morphometry helps to comprehend the drainage basin's

Expected Learning Outcomes

Terrain analysis is the collection, analysis, evaluation and interpretation of

5.2.1 Identification and Measurement

Military interest in terrain also focuses on such aspects as artillery lines of

Land can only be considered in terms of geographical areas. Difficulties arise

Sedimentary rocks can show unconformities and sequences of denudation

Rocks can be classified from a geomorphological point of view by their

Slopes vary in length and steepness and can be convex, concave, or

There are three ways in which valleys can be viewed two-dimensionally. In

Roughness: Roughness is a measure of the texture of a surface which is

Waviness: Waviness is the measurement of the more widely spaced

Slope: It measures the rate of change of elevation at surface locations. Slope

A simple land system is a group of closely related topographic units, usually

A land system can be continuous or discontinuous, provided that it does not

Parametric land evaluation can be defined as the classification and

Later, a more uniform international terrain classification system “Pattern-Unit-

The procedure given here is typically followed during landform identification

5.2.3 Visualization 2D-3D

(i) checking if the maximum and minimum values are realistic;

The production of high-resolution elevation models from Light Detection and

Let us now study about drainage and its analysis.

5.3 DRAINAGE ANALYSIS

1. Dendritic: The irregular branching of tributary streams in diverse

2. Parallel: Parallel patterns are particularly prevalent in regions with a

5. Rectangular: In a rectangular drainage system, the main stream and its

6. Centripetal: The centripetal drainage pattern is the opposite of the radial

Fig. 5.1: Drainage Patterns a) Dendritic; b) Parallel; c) Trellis; d)

 A landform is a natural or human-made feature on the Earth's surface for

The following five exercises explained separately are based on terrain

Requirements: To perform the exercises, you may be required the following

3. Sharpener and Eraser

5. Drawing Sheets or White Sheets

7. Digital Elevation Model

9. Remote Sensing and GIS Software

Expected Learning Outcomes

 Identify and map landforms using topographical data; and

6.2 LANDFORM MAPPING