Reconstruction of Palaeoclimate of Neoge

RECONSTRUCTION OF PALAEOCLIMATE OF NEOGENE-
QUATERNARY SEQUENCES EXPOSED AROUND BARIPADA

(DISTRICT-MAYURBHANJ ORISSA) USING PALAEONTOLOGICAL,
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND SEDIMENTOLOGICAL STUDIES
A THESIS
Submitted to the
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
PANJAB UNIVERSITY, CHANDIGARH
For the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
2013
Kongrailatpam Milankumar Sharma
Department of Geology (C.A.S.), Panjab University
Chandigarh-160014
DEDICATED TO MY PARENTS
(K. Gourachandra Sharma and K. Shakhitombi Devi)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is of great pleasure for me to express my deep sense of gratitude to Prof. Rajeev Patnaik,
Department of Geology (C.A.S.) Panjab University Chandigarh, for his kind, inspiring and able
guidance, and constant motivation throughout the entire course of my research. My words will
fail in expressing my deep gratitude and regards for him.
I am greatly indebted to Prof. Ashok Sahni, Department of Geology, Panjab University,

Chandigarh for his continuous encouragement and support rendered towards me till the
completion of this thesis inspite of his hectic schedule. I am also grateful to him for his paternal
affection towards me. Inspiration I got from Dr. O.N. Bhargava (Rtd. Director, GSI, Chandigarh)
and Prof. S.B. Bhatia (Rtd. Prof., Department of Geology, Panjab University) is highly
acknowledged.
I am very thankful to Prof. R.S. Loyal, Chairperson of Department of Geology (C.A.S.) for
providing me all the necessary facilities required during the completion of this thesis. I would
also like to thank Prof. Ravindra Kumar, Prof. K.P. Singh, Prof. A. D. Ahluwalia and Prof. Gill
(all retired Chairpersons of Department of Geology) for providing me their valuable helps and
assistance during their tenure of Chairmanship in this Department.
I owe my sincere thanks to Prof. Naval Kishore, Prof. Naresh Tuli, Dr. Naveen Chaudhary, Dr.
Gurmeet Kaur, Dr. Ashu Khosla, Dr. Parampreet Kaur of the Department of Geology, P.U. for
their encouragement toward the completion of my thesis.
I take this opportunity to acknowledge my gratitude to Profs. M. Takai and Thaung-Htike for
their valuable help in identification the Miocene suid Tetraconodon intermedius. I am thankful to
Dr. Dana J. Ehret and Dr. Gordon Hubbel, University of Florida, U.S.A. for their valuable helps
towards the identification of some of my shark specimens. I am equally thankful to Dr. Kishor
Kumar, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun for providing me valuable literature
and suggestions in the identification of selachians. Valuable help from Shri. Asit Mohanty and
Shri. Diptiranjan Patanayak during the field works is highly acknowledged.
I am thankful to Dr. Parth Chauhan, Research Associate, Stone Age Institute, U.S.A. for his help
and encouragement towards the completion of my research work. I feel obliged to all the
members of non-teaching staff of Department of Geology (C.A.S.) for their co-operation during
the course of my Ph. D.
I am also thankful to Prof. Anil Kumar Gupta (Director, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology,
Dehradun) for giving me the permission for XRD and EDX analysis of my samples. Guidance
from Dr. N.K. Saini (Scientist ‘F’), Dr. N. Suresh (Scientist ‘D’) and all the laboratory staffs of
Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun are highly thankful.
I would like to convey special thanks to my seniors and colleagues namely, Shri. Inder Singh
(Director, GSI, Training Institute and STM, Chandigarh), Shri. R.S. Rana (Director, TC, GSI,
Chandigarh), Shri. Damudor Singh (Asst. Prof. Thoubal College, Manipur), Dr. Premjit Singh
(Asst. Prof. Mizoram University), Dr. Birla Singh (Asst. Prof. Mizoram University), Dr. N.
Inaoba Singh, Dr. Nandalal Singh (Asst. Prof. Department of Physical Education, Panjab
University), Dr. Sharat Singh (Asst. Prof. Mizoram University), Shri. Ram Rattan Singh
(Geologist, GSI, Jaipur), Shri. Ramesh Laishram (Geologist, GSI, Chandigarh), Shri. Lalit
Mohan (Geologist, GSI, Jaipur), Smt. Satinder Dhillon (Sr. Geologist, GSI, Chandigarh), Shri.
Lalneo Haokip (Geologist, GSI, Shillong), Smt. Nivedita Sarkar (Geologist, GSI, Chandigarh),
Shri. Shyam Sundar (Geologist, GSI, Chandigarh), Shri. Tarsem Kumar (Geologist, GSI,
Chandigarh), Shri. Deep Raj Thapa (Geologist, GSI, Chandigarh), Dr. Surendra Prasad Raut
(Geologist, GSI, Chandigarh), Shri. Giridhari Das (Geologist, GSI, Chandigarh), Mr. Chirantan
Bhagwati (Geologist, GSI, Chandigarh), Mr. Tamoghno Ghosh (Geologist, GSI, Chandigarh),
Smt. Vipina P.V. (Geologist, GSI, Chandigarh), Smt. Mayukhi Ghose (Geologist, GSI,
Chandigarh), Mr. K. Lakshmanan (Geologist, GSI, Chandigarh). Their support is indeed highly
thankful.
I am highly obliged to my friends and brothers namely, Shri. S. Ranabir Singh, Shri. Y. Khogen
Singh, Shri. S. Netajee Meetei, Shri. Vinay Kumar, Shri. Longjam Gandhi, M. Sanjeev Singh,
Shri. R.K. Herojit, Shri. R. K. Meiraba, Mr. Kh. Prakash Anthony, Mr. Ksh. Rajkumar, Mr.
Devdutta, Mr. Sanjit, Mr. Premananda, Mr. Penpai, Mr. Premjit and Mr. Pradeep for their
cooperation and help in various capacity during the completion of my Ph. D.
I owe my gratitude to my uncle Shri. Th. Nando Singh, Shri. I. Mangi Singh and Shri. M. Budha
Meetei for rendering me valuable suggestions and moral support since my childhood.
I acknowledge the financial support which I got as an award of Junior Research Fellowship
(JRF) and Senior Research Fellowship (SRF) from the University Grant Commission, New Delhi
to carry out this research work. Without these fellowships, it would have been impossible for me
to carry out my Ph.D.
I am also highly thankful to my Department Geological Survey of India (Ministry of Mines,

Government of India) for giving me the permission to continue my Ph.D. while in service.
Last but not the least, words will elude me in expressing my feelings and regards to my family
members especially to my father (Shri. K. Gourachandra Sharma), my mother (Smt. K.
Shakhitombi Devi), my sisters (Smt. K. Kalpana Devi, K. Surjamani Devi and K. Gangapati
Sharma), and my brothers (K. Joy Sharma, K. Bangshidhari Sharma and K. Sharatchandra
Sharma), who always have been a source of strength and inspiration in completion of this
research work. I owe special thanks to my wife Smt. H. Ragini Devi for her inspiration, support
both morally and emotionally during the tough time of finalization of this thesis. It would have
been impossible to complete this work without their sacrifice and cooperation. They deserve
warm and greater thanks indeed.
Date: (Kongrailatpam Milankumar Sharma)

Place
CONTENTS
Sl. No. Names of the Chapters Page No.
1 CHAPTER-I: INTRODUCTION (1-17)
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Climate and Drainage System 3
1.3 Flora and Fauna 3
1.4 Objectives and Significance of the study 4
1.5 Review of literature 6
1.6 Methodology 14
1.7 Preview of Chapters 16
2 CHAPTER-II: GEOLOGICAL SET-UP (18-37)
2.1.0 Regional Geology of Orissa 18
2.1.1 Precambrian Rocks of Orissa 20
2.1.2 Gondwana Supergroup 24
2.1.3 Cenozoic Rocks of Orissa 26
2.1.4 Geology of the study area (Baripada Beds) 27

3 CHAPTER-III: SYSTEMATIC PALAEONTOLOGY (38-162)
3.1 Introduction 38
3.2 MAMMALIAN REMAINS 39
3.2.1 Material and Methods 39
3.2.2 Systematics 40
Tetraconodon intermedius 41
Rhinocetidae indet. 44
3.3.0 CROCODILIAN REMAINS 46

3.4.0 COPROLITES OF CROCODILIAN AFFINITY 48
3.4.1 Introduction 48
3.4.2 Materials and methods 50
3.4.3 Descriptive studies of coprolites 50
3.4.4 Composition and Geochemistry 56
3.4.5 Coprolite Source 59
3.5 SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF SELACHIANS 60
Genus: Isurus : 63
Isurus oxyrinchus 63
Isurus pagoda 65
Isurus desori 67
Genus: Carcharadon : 68
Carcharadon carcharias 68
Carcharadon aff. C. 70
tandoni
Carcharadon megalodon 71
Genus: Lamna : 72
Lamna sp. 73
Genus: Odontaspis : 73
Odontaspis baripadensis 74
Genus: Carcharhinus : Carcharhinus aff. C. 76
balochenesis
Carcharhinus aff. C. 77
sorrah
Carcharhinus macloti 78
Carcharhinus frequens 79
Carcharhinus (Prionodon) 82
gangeticus
Carcharhinus egertoni 83
Carcharhinus aff. C. 84
priscus
Carcharhinus perseus 85
Carcharhinus longimanus 87
Carcharhinus sp. indet. 1 89
Carcharhinus sp. indet 2 89

Elasmobranchii indet. 90
Genus: Negaprion : 93
Negaprion brevirostris 93
Negaprion eurybathrodon 94
Genus: Galeocerdo : 95
Galeocerdo cuvieri 97
Genus: Hemipristis : 98
Hemipristris serra 99
Genus: : 102
Rhizoprionodon Rhizoprionodon sp. indet. 103
Genus: Sphyrna : 104

Sphyrna zygaena 104
Sphyrna diplana 105
Sphyrna sp. indet. 1 106
Sphyrna sp. indet. 2 108
Genus: Galeorhinus : 109
Galeorhinus sp. indet. 110
3.6 SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF BATOIDAE 112
Genus: Myliobatis : 113
Myliobatis sp. indet. (A) 114
Myliobatis sp. indet. (B) 115
Myliobatis sp. indet. 1. 116
Myliobatis sp. indet. 2 118
Myliobatis sp. indet. 3 119
Genus: Aetobatus : 120
Aetobatus narinari 121
Aetobatis sp. 122
Genus: Rhinoptera : 124
Rhinoptera aff. R. 124

sherburni
Rhinoptera raeburni 125
Genus: Rhinobatos : 126
Rhinobatos sp. indet. 1. 127
Rhinobatus sp. indet. 2 129
Rhinobatus sp. indet. 3 129
Genus: : 130
Rhynchobatus Rhynchobatus sp. 131
Genus: Pristis : 131
Pristis aquitinicus 132
Genus: Gymnura : 134
Gymnura sp. indet. 134
Genus: Dasyatis : 135
Dasyatis sylvestris 136
Dasyatis mahuleinsis 137
Dasyatis menoni 138
Dasyatis sp. 1 139
Dasyatis sp. 2 141
Genus: Raja : 142

Raja tewarii 142
3.7 Systematic Description of Teleost 143
Genus: Sparus : 145
Sparus cinctus 145
Sparus auratus 146
Sparus agarwali 148
Sparus sp. indet. 148
Genus: Pagellus : 149
Pagellus sp. 149
Genus: Pagrus : 149
Pagrus robustus 150
Pagrus sp. 151
Genus: Diplodus : 152
Diplodus sp. 153
Genus: Dentex : 153
Dentex sp. 154
Dentex compressa 156
Genus: Cybium : 156
Cybium biconvexa 157
Genus: Sphyraena : 158
Sphyraena sp. 158
Genus: Trichiurus : 159
Trichurus sp. 159
Unidentified teleost tooth, 160
Type 1
Type 2
Type 3
Family: Characidae : Subfamily: Alestinae 161
Tribe indet.
4 CHAPTER-IV: SEDIMENTOLOGICAL PROXY: CLAY (163-174)

MINERALOGY
4.1 Introduction 163
4.2.0 Analytical techniques 165
4.2.1 XRD Method 166
4.2.2 Methods for Sample preparation 167
4.3.0 XRD Data 168
4.3.1 Clay Minerals 168
4.3.2 Non- Clay minerals 170
4.4 Result 170
5 CHAPTER- V: DISCUSSION (175-209)
5.1 Biostratigraphy 175
5.2 Palaeoecology 181
5.3 Taphonomy 188
5.4 Palaeobiogeography 191
5.5 Palaeoclimate 199
5.5.1 Palaeoclimatic interpretations from the study area 205
6 CHAPTER-VI: CONCLUSIONS (210-211)
Bibliography (212-241)
CHAPTER-I: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The town Baripada, which is located within the latitude N 220 54’ and longitude E 860 44’,
is situated in the northern part of Orissa, some 60 kms NW of the seashore. Baripada is the
Headquarter of Mayurbhanj District, which lies between the latitude N 210 16’ and N 220 34’
and longitude E 85040’ and E 87011’. Mayurbhanj district is bounded on the north by
Singbhum and Midnapur, on the east by Midnapur and Balasore, on the south by Balasore and
Nilgiri and on the west by Keonjhar districts. It is connected to Rupsa by rail and road. Rupsa
junction is on the Howrah-Nagpur line and connects Baripada by a narrow gauge branch. It is
also connected with Bahalda and Karanjia and with the town of Balasore and Midnapur besides
other fair weather roads connecting the other parts of state Orissa. The district has a total
geographical area of around 10,418 Sq. km. extending 180 km in length from east to west and
150 km from north to south.
Baripada was once under the sea as evidenced by occurrence of Miocene marine fossil
assemblages including shark teeth, molluscs, foraminifers, etc (Eames, 1936; Jenna, 1942 &
1943; Modak, 1952; Tewari and Awasti, 1960; Sahni et al., 1971; Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981;
Bhalla and Dev, 1975 a, b, c; Mohanty, 1966; Ghosh, 1956, 1959 and Chatterjee, 1973).
Baripada Beds are typical marine deposits indicating the various marine transgression and
regression events in the area (Mondal et al., 2009). After the deposition of these fossiliferous
sediments during the marine transgression of the Miocene time, sea has retreated to its current
position.
Certain Tertiary deposits of peninsular India including the marine and non-marine Miocene
deposits from the Kutch and Kathiawar (Gujarat), Rajasthan, Quilon, Cauvery and Pondicherry,
Andaman and Nicobar Island have yielded fossil assemblages that are correlatable with the
fossil assemblages of Baripada Beds. Here, in this piece of research work, the candidate has
tried to put together additional palaeontological and sedimentological data in order to
reconstruct the palaeoclimatic history of Baripada Beds. For this purpose, the Candidate has
visited important localities of Baripada including Mukurmatia, Itamundia, Usurdihi, Satpautia,
Paratappur, Kuliana and Kamarpal for the field work in 2008 and 2011. The localities fall in
the Survey of India Toposheet no. 73 K/9 and are connected to Baripada town by nonmetal
roads.
[1]
Fig. 1: A. Physical map of Orissa (Source, Google Earth Image, 2012), B. Geological map of
Orissa (Source, Mahallik, 1998). C. Location of Baripada town and its current distancefrom the
Bay of Bengal Sea (Source, Google Earth Image, 2012).
[2]
1.2 Climate and drainage system
Presently, the state Orissa enjoys a typical tropical climate, mainly because of its proximity
to the sea. Orissa experiences on an average annual rainfall of about 200 cm. The state
experiences three main seasons in a year, namely summer season, winter season and monsoons.
Thoughout the whole season, the weather condition at the study area is quite pleasant.
However, the best time for field work is from October to March. Orissa experience a very hot
summer season. It starts starts during the month of March and extends up to June. The summer
season of the state is characterised by very high temperature. It is normally found that the
maximum temperature of Orissa in the summer season raise upto 400C. On the contrary, the
winter season in this state is quite cold and temperature may fall upto 7 0C. Winter season in
Orissa extends from October to February. This season is quite comfortable for field
investigation. The rainy season of Orissa starts in July and lasts till October. The whole of the
state is under the influence of Southwest monsoons which begins in the month June and lasted
upto July. Mayurbhanj usually gets an annual rainfall ranging from 130 to 165 cms. By the mid
October, southwest monsoons withdraw from this region completely. During this period, the
residential area near the coast of Bay of Bengal are most vulnerable to cyclone and tornado.
The Mayurbhanj district is mainly drained by the river Budhabalanga, the river Khadkhai,
the river Salandi and numerous other tributaries rising from the Shimilipal hills falling into the
river Baitarani and the river Subarnarekha. The main rivers which drains Mayurbhanj district
are Gangahara, Sone Jambhira, Deo, Khairi, Bhandan, Salandi, Khadkhai, and Jamira. Most of
them rise from the Shimilipal hill range and most of the rivers and its tributaries are sub-
dendritic in nature, occasionally trellis patterns of drainage system are also found.
1.3 Flora and fauna
The tropical, moist and deciduous types of forest are very common in Orissa. Mayurbhanj
is a land of lush green forests. The occurrence of the following types of vegetation are
commonly found in this area: -
• North tropical moist deciduous Sal forests.

• Northern tropical semi-evergreen forests.
• Mixed deciduous hill forests.
• High level Sal.
[3]
• Dry deciduous Sal forests.
• Plain Sal forests.
• Grass land and savannah.
The Shimilipal forest of the Mayurbhanj district which is very near to the study area is well
known for its thick growth of semi-evergreen forest with trees like Sal, Piasal, Asan, Neem,
Kusum, Mahul, dhow and Sisu which are thinner towards the periphery.
Some of the very common wild faunas which are found in Mayurbhanj district of Orissa
comprises of the famous endangered Tiger, Leopard, Sambhar, Gaur (Indian bison), Elephant,
Langur, Deer, Antelope, Chevrotain, Wild dog, Monkey, Hyenas, Porcupines, Chital, Wild
boar, Sloth bear, etc. Among the officially recorded species of Birds of this district includes red
jungle fowl, hill myna, peafowl, gray hornbill, Indian pied hornbill, Malabar pied hornbill,
alexandrine parakeet, crested serpent eagle, and Indian trogon. There is a considerable
population of reptiles as well. To name a few, snakes and turtles are the important ones.
1.4 Objectives and significance of the study
Although, Baripada Beds have been studied by previous workers, the palaeoenvironmental
and palaeoclimatological aspects have never been dealt with. Therefore, the focus of the
present study has been emphasized to provide a comprehensive palaeontological,
biostratigraphical and sedimentological database in order to interpret the palaeoenvironmental
and palaeoclimatic conditions.
The area of investigation selected for this research work covered the marine and freshwater
beds exposed along the river Burbhalang (literally mean old twister) near the villages,
Makurmatia (N 210 50’ 39.34”: E 860 43’ 5.6”), Itamundia (N 210 53’ 35.9’’: E 860 43’ 35”),
Kuliana (N 22° 4' 4.07"N; E 86° 38' 10.46"E ), Kamarpal (N 220 02’ 09.5”: E 860 36’ 15.7”),
Satpautia (N 210 51’ 52.1”: E 860 43’ 0.13”), Partappur (N 210 48’ 1.18”: E 860 44’ 6.2”), and
Usurdihi (N 210 53’44.95”: E 860 43’ 17.60”) (also see, Fig. 2).
[4]
Fig. 2: A. Physical map of India (Source, Google earth image, 2012). B. Location map of study
area (Source, Google earth image, 2012).
The main scope, objectives and significance of this research work are as follows:
1. To reconstruct a high resolution palaeoclimatic history of Neogene and Quaternary sequence

of Baripada Beds.
2. To study the diversity of various taxa, their morphological and physiological behaviors in the
past.
3. To determine the precise age of these beds by using short ranging fossil floras and faunas.
4. To study the sedimentology and taphonomic processes in order to understand depositional

environment of these sediments.
There are several techniques of analyzing sedimentary rocks for palaeoclimatic

reconstruction. Primarily, rock type offer valuable insights into past climates, asrock
composition tells about the climate at the time of their deposition. However, depositional
climatic conditions vary not only due to actual climatic changes but also due to continental
movements. Marine deposits provide some of the longest proxy records available, and offer a
glimpse on palaeoclimatic dating going back to the age of the dinosaurs, some 100 million
[5]
years ago. On the other hand facies analysis reveal how the rock type changes in space and
time, and therefore offer a potential tool to understand ancient climatic change. For example, a
sedimentary formation consisting of a shale layer (fine-grained mudstone) interbedded between
two sandstone layers may indicate a changing sea level, linked to climatic change which in turn
might have been caused by epeirogeny. Therefore, a change in the rock type in the vertical
cross section may reflect a change in the sea level and related coastline movements. Beside,
facies analysis, other techniques, including analysis of sedimentation rates, sediment grain
morphology and chemical composition are applied to comprehend climatic conditions
prevailing at the time of parent rock weathering.
The kind and distribution of marine and continental fossils within fossil-bearing rocks
(mainly limestone and mudstones, but sometimes sandstones) are important palaeoclimate
indicators in the present study area. There are certain organisms that are very sensitive to
climate; therefore their fossil counterparts can also be excellent palaeoclimate indicators. Most
palaeoclimatic data comes from planktonic microfossils, but benthic groups have also yielded
important clues to climate and the evolution of the oceans (Parrish, 1998).
1.5 Review of literature
The geological investigations of Baripada Beds have been carried out since 1872.
Associated fossil sharks, rays, skates and other teleost remains indicate the deposition of these
beds to be in warm, tropical and shallow water environment close to the sea shore. The fish
assemblage along with invertebrate fossils suggest an early Miocene age to the fossil-bearing
beds (Mishra, 1985). Many authors have studied the faunal assemblages from different parts of
India and suggested correlation with those of Tertiary deposits of the Baripada Beds. Blanford
(1872) carried out the geological investigation of Orissa for the first time. This was followed
by a study by P.N. Bose (1904), who for the first time recorded the Tertiary rocks from the
Mayurbhanj strata of Orissa. He divided the then Mayurbhanj District into two sections in
which one of the sections consist of a hilly tract of gneissic rocks which are at some places
highly granitoid and traversed by pegmatitic veins and the other is a plain area. He discovered
the Tertiary rocks from the locality Mahulia which is around 3 km from Baripada. The Tertiary
deposits were found exposed along the sections of Burbhalang River from which the yellowish
and yellowish brown fossiliferous limestone deposits were also found. On the basis of the
presence of Ostrea, Bose (1904) designated these deposits to be of Quaternary period. The
[6]
collected fossils were studied by Pilgrim (1906), who compared a few specimens of Ostrea
with Ostrea multicostata recorded from the Upper Eocene of the Paris basin and Ostrea torresi
from the Magellanian beds (Oligocene) of Patagonia. He further observed that the specimens
show affinity to an undescribed species of Ostrea found in the Upper Nari beds of Baluchistan
(Oligocene). Thus, for the first time in the eastern India the occurrence of Tertiary bed was
reported. Based on the above findings, Eocene to Oligocene age was assigned to the Baripada
Beds (Pilgrim, 1906).
Bose again in 1906 collected some fossil material from the limestone beds of Baripada
which was identified by Pilgrim (1906) as Amphistegina. These collections were done from the
bore holes dug to ascertain the availability of coal in association with these deposits. Even at a
depth of 46.4 m the base of these tertiary deposits was not reached. The limestone sample from
the depth of 43 m was associated with the presence of Amphistigina. Pilgrim (1906) regarded
Baripada Beds to be marine in nature and he assigned a Miocene age based on presence of
Amphistigena along with Ostrea.
Tipper (1906) extracted a large number of foraminifera from the fossiliferous limestone and
marls and assigned Amphistegina to Rotalia. Tipper (1906) compared the specimens with
Rotalia orbicularis from the Arabian Sea taking the help of N. Anandale. As Rotalia has long
geological age, ranging from the Jurassic to the present day, he suggested that the mere finding
of these fossils could not be diagnostic enough to assign a Tertiary age to these deposits. Later
in 1935, Sahni published a note on probable underground occurrence of Tertiary beds near
Puri. In this, he found Tertiary deposits in the north east of Puri and correlated the Baripada
fossil assemblages with those from the Puri deposits. On the basis of the preservation and
resemblance of the shells to a Miocene form, Paphia gregaria, he suggested that the deposits
were definitely of Tertiary age.
Eames (1936) received six specimens of mollusk given to him for the study by the
Geological Society of India. He identified those specimens to be identical to Ostrea
(Crassotrea) gajensis and not to Ostrea multicostata and Ostrea torresi as suggested by P.N.
Bose (1904). Further, he found that the Baripada specimens had large and massive ligament
areas which are very similar and closer to Ostrea (Crassotrea) gajensis recorded from the
Upper Gaj from northwest India and Burma. On the basis of the presence of the Ostrea
gajensis, he assigned the age of the Baripada limestones to be of Gaj (Lower Miocene) age.
[7]
In 1937, M.R. Sahni and W.D. West collected some vertebrate fossil remains from Balasore
and the collections were examined later by Hora (1939). The collection were from tube well
boring between 30 to 60 m below the surface of the ground from Balasore while some other
collections were from a white sand deposit of thickness between 42 m to 52.5 m below the
surface from a well at Siro, Balasore district. The samples yielded a huge amount of Shark
teeth, spine of Rays, part of pectoral and dorsal spine of cat fishes and teeth of certain
Scombroid fishes. Hora (1939) described a new genius of elasmobranch- Carchariolamna
Hora, Oxyrhina Agassiz, Prionodon Mueller and Henle, Scoliodon cuvier, Arius cuvier and
Tricherius linnaeaeus. According to Hora, the presence of Siluroid and Scomber fishes in the
collection indicated a Middle Tertiary age for these sediments.
Jena (1942) recorded an assemblage containing lamellibranchs, gastropods, fishes, crabs

and fragmentary bones of vertebrates from the Ostrae bearing limestone exposed at
Mukurmatia, about 11 km south of Baripada. He could identify only Cardium
protosubrogosum and Nucula virgo because of the fragmentary nature of the collected fossil
remains. In 1943, Jena reported fossiliferous assemblage of limestone bed exposed at Usurdihi,
3 km south of Baripada from where he collected Ostrae, Carcharadon and Oxyrhina and other
forms of lamellibranches, gastropods, crabs, bones of vertebrates and fishes remains. On the
basis of the faunal assemblage, he correlated the Baripada Beds with the faunal assemblage of
Pegu beds (Miocene) of Burma. Chatterjee (1945) reported several fossil remains of Ostrea and
a specimen of Nucula from the limestone bed of Usurdihi. However, he did not give the age of
this bed.
Modak (1952) reported the occurrence of some lamellibranch and elasmobranch including
Trigonia, Cardida, Nucula, Ostrae, shark teeth, Myliobatis spine and fragments of fish vertebra
and a fragment of caudal spine from Mukurmatia. He identified some of the teeth as
Hemipristis Serra by comparing them to those of the Pegu beds of Burma (Lower Miocene).
He also identified the fragment of caudal spine to be of Myliobatis. The identification of Ostrae
promensis and Hemipristis serra facilitated Modak (1952) to suggest an age of Lower Miocene
to Baripada Beds. On the basis of similarity of fossil assemblage of Baripada Beds with the
Pegu beds of Burma, Modak (1952) suggested marine transgression event in this bed during
that time.
Ghose (1956) reported some fossil fish faunas from the limestone beds exposed on the left
bank of Burbhalang River at Usurdihi. The assemblage consisted of the following species:
[8]
Carcharadon megalodon, Carcharadon megalodon robustus, Carcharias (Prionodon)
egertony, Carcharias frequens, Hemipreistis serra, Pristis aquitanicus, Myliobatis sp.,
Rhynoptera sherboni, Rhinoptera raeburni, Aetobatus arcuate baripadensis and Hypolophus
sylvestris mohuliyi. Ghose (1956) assigned the age of Baripada Beds to be much closed to
Eocene age on the basis of presences of Rhinoptera sherborni, R. raeburni and Hypolophus
sylvestris as they are very close to Eocene Nigerian forms. Thus, he was of the view that the
fixing of the age of Baripada Beds to be Lower Miocene should not be accepted till further
detailed studies are carried out. Sharma (1956) studied and measured certain sections of
Baripada Beds which included the locality Mukurmatia, Satpauatia and Usurdihi along the cut
sections of Burbhalang River. His assemblage includes Astarte, Cardita, Cardium, Leda,
Barbatia, Pristis, Oxyrhina, Gavialis, etc. He also reported for the first time smaller
foraminifera comprising Anomalina, Bolivina, Discorbis, Elphidium, Globigerina, Lagena,
Nonion, Nodosaria, Rotalia, etc. He assigned the age of this bed to be ranging between Eocene
to Miocene. Chauduri (1958) collected two mammalian teeth of Potamochoerus and Gazelle
from the upper part of the pale greenish clay and sand bed of Mukurmatia. On the basis of these
mammalian teeth with the association of some other foraminifera species he assigned the age of
this bed to be Lower Pleistocene.
Ghosh (1959) collected several shark teeth from the fossiliferous yellowish brown
arenaceous limestone, interbedded with bands and lenses of greenish clay of the left bank of the
river Burbhalang west of Usurdihi. These fossil assemblages included one isolated tooth of
Carcharadon megalodon , one isolated teeth of Carcharadon megalodon robustus , two
imperfect isolated tooth of Carcharhinus (Prionodon) egertony, one isolated tooth of
Carcharhinus (Aprionodon) frequens, two isolated tooth of Hemepristis serra, one isolated
tooth of Pristes aquitanicus, fragment of a spine of Myliobatis sp., two isolated teeth of
Rhinoptera raeburni, Rhinoptera seborni, one isolated tooth of Aetobatus arcuatus
baripadensis, one isolated tooth of Hyhpolophus sylvestris mohulovi. He suggested an Eocene
age to these beds on the basis of the presence of Rhinoptera raeburni, Rhinopterfa sherborni
and Hypolophus selvistris.
Tewari and Awasthi (1960) reported a number of shark teeth, tail spines and fragments of
bones from the grey shale and marls of Baripada Beds. Their collections comprised of
Carchariolamna heroni, Hypropion horai, Prionodon gangeticus and two new species of
Aprionodon horai and Aprionodon misrai with several species of Rotalia. They also reported
[9]
some foraminifers including Bolivina, Buliminellella, Cibicides, Elphidium, Globigerina,
Nonion, Uvigerina, Rotalia, etc. On the basis of the presence of Prionodon gangeticus and
Myliobatid tail spines from this bed similar to those of Yenengyoungian (Lower Miocene) of
Burma, Tiwary and Awasthi (1960) favour a Miocene age for Baripada Beds instead of an
Eocene age as suggested by Gosh (1959).
Chatterji and Adyalkar (1962) gave a description of the gravel deposits of Baripada. This
deposit lies above the pink sandstone of Miocene age. These gravel deposit were found capping
by laterite deposits on the top at some places. They assigned an age of Plio-Pliestocene to these
gravel deposits overlying the fossiliferous deposits of lower Miocene age. Chatterji (1972,
1973) reported some more foraminifers’ species including Rotalia, Textularia, Globorotalia,
Valvulineria, Ammonia, etc. from these beds.
Mohanty (1966, 1980) recorded a large number of Lamellibranchs, Gastropods, crabs and
fish remains along with fragmentary remains of Bryozoans, Balanids, Echinoids, reptiles and
mammals. The fauna included: Parallelipidodium cf. prototortuosum, Pectene cf. kokenianus,
Ostrea cf. papyracea, Desinia cf. Protojuvinilis: Leda, Arca, Barbatia, Crassatelle, Cardita,
Lisga, Cardium, Venus, Paphia, Solen, Thracia: Turitella cf. lydekkeri, Natica cf. gracillor,
Calyptreae aff. C. rugoss, Ficus (ficus) conditus: Vermitus, Torinia, Cypraea, Ramella, Olivia,
Conus: Ginglymostoma sp., Odontaspis (Synodontaspis) cuspidate, Oxyrhina spallanzanii,
Hemipristis serra, Galaeocerdo aduncus, Carcharhinus egertoni, Carcarhinus pagoda,
Aprronodon cf. collata, Sphyrna prisca, Galeaus cf. canis, Pristis sp., Raja sp., Hypolophus
sp., Rhinoptera cf. studeri, Myliobatis sp., Aetobatus arcuatus, Siluroid remains, Tretrodon cf.
lecointrae Lerich, and Sphyraeena sp. On the basis of palaeontological evidences, he assigned
a Neogene age to these beds.
Sahni, et al. (1971), in their abstract published in the proceeding of the Indian Science
congress, reported new collections of fossil fish fauna from the Baripada Beds. Their collection
consisted of spine, dermal denticles, teeth, vertebrae and skull fragments in fossil fish fauna
from the arenaceous limestone of Baripada Beds. They opined an age not older than the lower
Miocene and not younger than Pleistocene based on fish fauna.
Bhalla and Dev (1972) reported fossil vertebrate of reptiles from the limestone bed of
Baripada. In 1975, they again reported three species of Ostrea viz. Ostrea gajensis, Ostrea
papyracea and Ostrea promensis. They also reported megafauna such as Leda, gastropod
[10]
molds along with few fragmentary remains of vertebrates, including Chelonia which was
reported for the first time from these beds. They suggested a Lower Miocene age to these beds
after correlating with the specimen of Ostrea from the Gaj beds (Lower Miocene) of Pakistan
and Miocene beds of Burma.
Chatterjee (fide. Balasundaram, 1972) reported certain microfauna of foraminiferas from

the Baripada Beds including Elphidium sp., Rotalia sp., cibicides sp., Nonion sp., Bolivina sp.,
Uvigerina sp., textularina sp. and in his publication in 1973 he reported 19 different genera of
foraminifera which are predominantly occupied by calcareous, benthonic forms including
Globigerina and Globorotalia. He suggested a Miocene age on the basis of the predominance
of Valvulineria and Amonia.
Mehrotra et al. (1973) described twenty-two species of Miocene sharks from three widely
separated regions of India namely Baripada Beds, Kutch and Piram Island (Gujarat). Their
collection from these areas included Carcharinus jhingrani, Carcharhinus gangeticus,
Galaeocerdo cuvier, Galaeocerdo wynnei, Hemipristris sureshi, Isurus rameshi, Carcharadon
tandoni, Carcharadon megalodon, Carcharadon barcharias, Carcharadon bigelowi,
Carcharhinus baripadensis, Carcharinus heptacuspidatus, Alopias, Sphyrna, Negaprion
brevirostris, Hypoprion macloti, Scoliodon sorrakowah, Isurus pagoda, etc. They suggested a
close faunal similarity between the Indian elasmobranches and those described from Pegu beds
(Miocene) of Burma and Malu member (Miocene) of Ceylon.
Pratap et al. (1976) reported many species of smaller foraminifers from the greenish grey
shales of Baripada Beds. The most important species among his collection were; Ammonia
beccari kaboeensis, Cribroelphidium subincertum, Florilus communis, Buliminella brevior,
Bulliminella hanzawai, Bulliminella aff. B. longicamerata, Brizalina singhi, Valvulineria
sastrii, Cribrononion dattai, Lagena amphora and Cidicides tewari, etc. Other forms were
also identified upto the genus level as Triloculina, Uvigerina, Lagena etc. Ammonia beccari
occurs in abundance in the aranaceous yellowish white fossiliferous limestone. According to
their findings, they referred the greenish grey shale to middle Early Miocene to Late Miocene
with conformably underlying limestone and greenish white shale lying very likely at the base
of the early Miocene.
Mehrotra (1981) reported eighteen species of Miocene teleost belonging to six families and
eleven genera from the Baripada Beds, Kutch and Kathiawar (Gujarat). Their collection from
[11]
these areas included Arius sp., Sphyraena sp., Scombramphodon sp., Cybium biconvex,
Trichurius sp., Sparus cinctus, Sparus auratus, Sparus agarwali, Pagrus robustus, Pagrus sp.,
Diplodus laticonus, Diplodus jomnitanus, Diplodus sp., Dentex sp., Dentex compressa, Dentex
constrictus, etc. They suggested a close similarity between the teleost fauna of India with the
Miocene teleost fauna of Portugal (Jonet, 1975) and Africa (White, 1928) indicating a faunal
similarity along the mediteriotethyan axis.
Sahni and Mehrotra (1981) gave a brief description on the elasmobranch fauna of coastal
Miocene sediments of Peninsular India. They described new species including Scoliodon alae,
Carcharhinus robusta, Hypoprion menidenticulata, Dasyatis menoni, Dasyatis mahuleinsis,
Rhinobatus Sahni and Raja tewarrii. They also re-described in their monograph the presence of
Carcharinus jhingrani, Carcharhinus gangeticus, Galaeocerdo cuvier, Galaeocerdo wynnei,
Hemipristris sureshi, Isurus rameshi, Carcharadon tandoni, Carcharadon megalodon,
Carcharadon barcharias, Carcharadon bigelowi, Carcharhinus baripadensis, Carcharinus
heptacuspidatus, Alopias, Sphyrna, Negaprion brevirostris, Hypoprion macloti, Scoliodon
sorrakowah, Isurus pagoda, etc. which had been described by Mehrotra et al. (1973). The
species of Scoliodon alae and Carcharhinus robusta were differentiated on the basis of dermal
denticles and the other species by discussing the dental characters. The genus Narcine had also
been reported for the first time from the Indian subcontinent. Palaeoecological study of the
selachians and the batoids suggested pelagic and littoral habits which were restricted to 20 oC
isotherms. The presence of Carcharadon carcharias in the fossiliferous limestone beds of
Baripada, in the fossiliferous limestone lying below the ossiliferous conglomerate of Piram
Island and in the unconsolidated conglomerates of Akwa suggested the geological age of these
beds not older than Upper Burdigalian. And the presence of Galaeocerdo aduncus,
Hemipristris serra and Isurus spallanzani in the shale of Matanumadh and Lakhpat suggested
an Aquitanian-Burdigalian age to these beds (Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981). On the basis of the
faunal similarity of Miocene of the east coast of Indian subcontinent with that of the Burma and
New Zealand on the one hand; and the Miocene fauna of west coast of India with that of
Portugal, North America and South Africa, on the other, suggests that the Tethys sea covered
an immense area, stretching from the east coast of North and South America in the west and
upto New Zealand in the East (Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981).
Mishra (1985) collected a large number of fossil fishes from the grey colored and yellowish
brown limestones from Usurdihi, Mukurmatia, and Balipal. He recorded and described two
[12]
isolated teeth of Cybium species for the first time from these beds. Cybium of Baripada Beds
differs from that of middle Eocene to early Miocene of Kutch (Sahni and Mishra, 1981) and
Miocene of Kutch, Piram Island and Quinlon beds of Kerela (Mehrotra, 1982) in lacking
serration in the margins and striation on the external and internal face. Besides the Cybium
species many other fossil shark teeth belonging to Hemiprestis serra, Isurus pagoda, I.
spallanzanii, odontaspis tricuspidatus, Hypoprioln macloti, Scoliodon sorrakowah,
Carcharadon carcharias, Sphyrna diplana, Negasprion brevirostris were also found. Certain
species of Rays and Skates belonging to Myliobatus sp. Aetobatis sp. and Raja sp., teleost
Diodon sp., Sphyraena sp., Dentex sp. and Arius species were also collected from these beds.
Mishra (1985) suggested an early Miocene age and a depositional environment characteristic of
tropical, shallow marine condition.
Bhalla and Dev (1988) discussed the geological age limits of Baripada Beds which is a
matter of controversy as a result of finding of certain fossil faunas with a wide age ranges from
Eocene to Lower Pleistocene. Based on their findings of Orbulina suturalis Bronnimann from
this bed, they assigned that the age of Baripada bed can’t be older than the Middle Miocene.
However, they opined that the precise placement within the Middle Miocene is possible only
after the discovery of marker species of either Langhian or Serravalian.
Mondal et al. (2009) reported some new species from the Baripada Beds. Among them
Isurus desori, Carcharhinus aff. C. balochenisis and Carcharhinus aff. C. perseus were
described for the first time from Indian subcontinent and Isurus oxyrinchus and Galeocerdo
cuviere were also reported for the first time from Baripada Beds. Beside these, their collection
also included certain other species including Carcharhinus gangeticus, Carcharhinus macloti,
Hemipristris serra, Carcharadon carcharias, Carcharadon megalodon, Carcharias
baripadensis, Aetobatus narinari, Rhinoptera raeburni, Hypolophus aff. H. sylvestris, Dentex
sp., etc were also described from the Baripada Beds.
Milankumar and Patnaik (2010) reported coprolites for the first time from the Baripada
Beds. Most of the regular shape coprolites were of crocodilian source and the sources of some
other irregular shape coprolites are unknown. According to the coprolite findings and their
comparisons with other fossil assemblages of this region, they suggested existence of a littoral
environment of low energy level under a tropical to subtropical palaeoclimatic condition.
[13]
Many workers had also documented similar fossil assemblages from certain Tertiary
deposits of India. Bajpai and Thewissen (2002) have reported certain fossil fish faunas from the
Lower Eocene Panandro lignite mine of Kutch in Gujarat. Their collection comprises fossil
teeth of sharks, turtles, skates, crocodile and mammals. Most common fish faunas of their
collection include Myliobatis (spine and teeth), Galaeocrdo sp., Galaeorhinus sp., Isurus sp.,
etc.
Rana et al. (2004) also reported certain vertebrate faunas from the subsurface Cambay shale
(Lower Eocene) of Vastan lignite mine, Gujarat, India. Their collection comprises certain fish
remains including dental plates, isolated teeth spine and dermal denticles of Geleorhinus sp.,
Triakis sp., Abdourna sp., Eogaleoa sp., Galaeocerdo latidense, physogaleus sp.,
Rhyzoprionodon sp., Rhinobatus sp., Dysyatis sp., Heterotorpedo sp., Myliobatis sp., Enchodus
sp., Sphyrnae sp., Diodon sp., etc.
Kumar, et al. (2007) described certain fishes from the early Eocene Khuiala Formation of
Jaisalmer basin of western Rajasthan. Their collection comprises the dental remains of fishes
including those of the triakidae, Ginglymostoma sp., Hemiscyllium sp., Coupatezia, Dasyatis
sp., Gymnuridae, Rhinobatos sp., Heteroterpedo sp., Eutrichirides sp., Sphyraena sp., Sparus
sp., Diodon sp., Stephanonodus lybicus, etc. According to their findings they have assigned
these fauna to tropical, subtropical, shallow near shore habbitat.
Ralte et al. (2011) have provided a brief account of the selachian fishes from the Bhuban
Formation, Surma Group of Mizoram. Their fossil assemblages have a close similarity with the
selachian fossils of Baripada Beds. Their collections include the Lamna sp., Carcharadon
carcharias, C. angustidens, Carcharadon sp., Isurus spallanzanii, Isurus pagoda, Alopias sp.,
Odontaspis taurus, O. tricuspidatus, O. sp., Carcharhinus egertoni, Carcharhinus priscus,
Carcharhinus cf. macloti, Carcharhinus bhubanicus, Galaeocerdo aduncus, Negaprion
brevirostris, Negaprion cf. eurybathrodon, Scoliodon sorrakawah, Hemipristris serra,
Hemipristris unidenticulata, Sphyrna diplana, Sphyrna zygaena, Galaeorhinus sp., Squalus sp.,
Carcharhinidae and indeterminate vertebral centra of selachian. The presence of these fish
fauna and associated mega-invertebrates from the Lower Miocene age of Upper Bhuban unit of
Bhuban Formation suggested a depositional environment under a warm shallow marine set-up
near the shoreline in a high- energy environment.
[14]
1.6 Methodology:
Field survey:
Extensive field investigation was carried out at various localities of Baripada Beds
along the banks of Burbhalang River which included measurement of section, collection of the
samples from various lithofacies for palaeontological, sedimentological and biostratigraphic
analyses. Lithological, structural and stratigraphic data were collected for interpretating the
depositional facies of the sediments.
High resolution sampling was done in order to represent each of the lithological and
biostratigraphic units. Over 600 kilograms of the samples were collected during the field trips
(2008-2011). Maximum care was taken to avoid contaminations of the samples during
sampling. Sampling was done by digging 1 foot deep trenches at the exposed sections and the
samples were collected in the sample bags. Each of the samples was labeled with details of the
locality, horizons, lithology, etc. The details were noted in the field diary.
Laboratory investigation:
The collected micro and mega fossils were brought to the laboratory for taxonomic
identification and interpretation of the species for reconstructing the palaeoclimatic history of
the area. The following instruments were used for analysis of fossils:
1. Stereozoom microscopes
2. Scanning electron microscope (S.E.M.)
3. Polarizing microscope
The study and identification of coprolites were also done for finding the information
about the diets of the animals, feeding behavior and habitat of the animals. As coprolites are
potentially important source of palaeobiological data, habits and habitat of the animals (Glenn,
1963), it helps in reconstructing the palaeoenvironmental set up of an area and consequently the
relevant palaeoclimatic conditions.The collected samples were transported to the laboratory,
where they were subjected to various techniques involving disintegration and maceration to
recover microfossils. In this regard different types of maceration techniques were carried out in
the laboratory depending on the type of the samples which included the following type:
[15]
a. Maceration with water: In this method, the samples were macerated with water by
wet sieving and drying process.
b. Maceration with water and acetic acid: In this method the dried samples were first
put in acetic acid and then water is poured into it. This type of maceration was undertaken on
harder samples such as hard clays, sandstone, shale, etc. The strength of the acid and the time
of dissolving the sample into it depended on the type of the samples.
c. Maceration with kerosene and water: In this process the sample was purely dried at
first before putting it in kerosene for 3-4 hours. If the sample is not dried well then the kerosene
will not enter into the sample. After the sample is fully soaked with kerosene, kerosene is
drained out of the sample which is followed by pouring water into the tubs containing the
samples. Due to the pressure created by the oil coming out of the interstice and the water
forcing into it the sample starts disintegrating by itself. This type of maceration technique is
applied to samples such as hard mudstone.
The loose macerates of the above samples were further subjected to wet sieving process
in which the macerates were passed through different size of sieves. The residues collected
from the sieves were made dry at first and then they were seen under the binocular microscope
for picking the fossils contained in it. Samples for S.E.M. analysis were prepared in laboratory
and these samples were analyzed under Scanning Electron Microscope housed at the SEM
laboratory of Department Geology, Panjab University, Chandigarh. Different slides were
prepared for study of clay minerals under XRD and SEM. The details of clay mineralogical
study including the methodology and techniques involved in the analyses are given in chapter-
VI.
Among the various methods of biostratigraphic study, the following methods were
applied in the current research work:
1. Quantifications of assemblage zones;
2. Quantification of index fossils concept.
3. Reconstruction of sequence of events,
1.7 Preview of the chapters
Chapter-II of this thesis deals with the study of the regional geological setup of Orissa
[16]
and the geology of the Baripada Beds based on previous works and present study. Chapter-III
discusses the systematic palaeontology of vertebrate fossils including mammalians, sharks,
myliobatoids and teleost collected from different localities. In this chapter, newly reported
coprolite materials from Mukurmatia have been described and analysed using EDX, SEM data.
Morphological analyses of the coprolites, their source of the producers have also been
discussed to reconstruct the palaeoecological and palaeoclimatic history of the area.
Chapter –IV of this thesis deals with the study of clay mineralogy as a sedimentological
proxy. The study of clay mineralogy can give useful information of the climatic condition
during the deposition of these beds as the distribution of clay minerals is controlled by
contemporary climatic condition. Clay mineral assemblages may provide integrated records of
overall climatic impacts, whereas other techniques are more likely to reveal local or temporary
climates. The study of marine clays is widely useful for reconstruction of palaeoclimate of the
study area. SEM analysis of the clay samples were done at the SEM laboratory of Department
of Geology, Panjab University and XRD analysis was performed at XRD laboratory of Wadia
Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun.
Chapter -V deals with the discussion of age of these fossiliferous beds. Study of
taphonomy & biostratigraphy is also dealt in this chapter. Palaeoecological and
Palaeobiogeographical set-up of the Indian subcontinent during the Miocene period based on
the fossil assemblages and its correlation with faunal assemblages of other part of the World
has also been discussed. In this chapter a brief account on the palaeoclimates of the study area
during the Miocene period have been discussed based on palaeontological and clay
mineralogical data and a review of the previous work of many geoscientist on Tertiary deposits
of India and abroad. A brief account on Cenozoic climatic history of the world is also given in
this chapter.
Chapter-VI provides a point wise conclusion based on overall findings of the present
research work.
[17]
CHAPTER-II: GEOLOGICAL SET-UP
2.1.0 Regional geology of Orissa

The state of Orissa, situated at the eastern fringe of the Peninsular India, constitute a part of
the Eastern Ghat hills. It is bounded by the latitude 170 49’- 220 34’N and longitudes 810 23’-
870 29’ E. It has a total area of about 1, 55,707 sq. km with a 477.6 km long coastline. The state
has geological continuity with the bordering states including West Bengal, Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh, which together comprise some of the important group of
rocks in the Indian stratigraphy.
In Orissa, the oldest Precambrian rocks cover over 72.5% of the area of the entire state and
the rest of it is occupied by the younger rocks of Phanerozoic and Cenozoic ages covering an
area of 8% and 19.5% respectively (Mishra and Jena, 1998). The geology and the rock types of
the state can be broadly divided into two groups namely the older Precambrian and the younger
Phanerozoics. The generalized geological map of Orissa is given in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3: Regional Geological Map of Orissa (After Mahallik, 1998).
[18]
The geomorphology of the state is mainly controlled by various regional structures and
tectonic settings. The central highland is marked by linear hill ranges trending NE-SW in the
southern part and WNW-ESS in the central part. It is again separated by the upthrust parallel to
the Hill ranges from the western part of the state which is basically the continuation of the
central Indian plateau-land. It is again further cut across by the NW-SE trending Mahanadi
Graben, along which the river itself flows from the West to East. Thus, Mahanadi along with
Brahmani lineaments form a tectonic zone dividing the central highland into Southern
Granulite facies lithoassemblage which continues upto Andhra Pradesh and a northern granite-
greenstone assemblage of Achaean age which continues upto Jharkhand. The northern segment
of the central highland and the western plateau land are similar in geological set up and are
known respectively as the Orissa Craton and the Bastar Craton. In the middle, between the two
lies the Gondwana Super Group of Mahanadi Graben bounded by a fault. These Gondwana
deposits have rich deposits of coal resource. The coastal plain is marked by the laterite deposits
and a few patches of Tertiary deposits.
The following (Table no. 1) gives a glimpse of the area wise geological entities of Orissa
according to Nanda and Mohanty (2006).
Sl. Age Geological units Sectors and broad litho-association Area

N in
o. sq. km
1. Cenozoic Eastern Coastal plain: - Alluvial sediments, interstratified
(Quaternary Quaternary
Phanerozoic formation and small ash beds and low level laterites. Residual hills and tors exposing 30,381
patches of Tertiary) Precambrian rock types occur in this coastal plain. Some sectors of
deltaic fans extending into off-shore region have prospects of oil and
gas.
Mesozoic Central Orissa: - In the valley of Brahmani, Mahanadi and Ib river 12,415
(Gondwana and some of their tributaries.
Supergroup) The sedimentary rock formations, the lower stratigraphic column have
coal deposits.
Western Orissa: - Platformal sedimentary formations and associated
limestone deposits resting on Archean gneisses and supracrustals.
Northwestern Orissa: - Metasedimentary of low or medium

Precambrian Proterozoic metamorphic grade of Gangpur Group having manganese, limestone
2
and Pb-Zn deposits.
Granulites belt: - Lithopackage comprising of Khondalites,

Charnockite, Migmatite, Anorthosite, and alkaline rocks having
associated deposits of manganese, graphite and occurrence of
112911
gemstones.
[19]
Northern Orissa (North Orissa Craton): -
a. Supracrustal belt including Iron Ore Supergroup having

deposits of iron, manganese, gold and base metals.
b. Gniess, granites and migmatites including Singbhum, Bonai
Archean and Mayurbhanj plutons.
c. Mafics and ultramafic intrusives, some with deposits of
chromites, Ti-V magnetite and PGE especially of Sukinda
and Baula.
Western Orissa (Bastar Craton): - Gniess, granites and migmatites
including some Sn-Ta-Nb bearing granite pegmatites and the
Supracrustal assemblages.
Table no. 1. Regional geological entities of Orissa after Nanda and Mohanty (2006).
2.1.1 Precambrian rocks of Orissa
The Precambrian geology of Orissa which lies at the northeastern part of India span from
about 3.8 billion year upto 600 million years. This stable landmass is divided into two main
components, the older being a cratonic block of Achaean (2500 M.Y.) age comprising of
granite, gneiss and migmatites and intervening supracrustals of low to medium metamorphic
grade greenstone belts. The greenstone belt comprises of meta-acid/ basic volcanics and
sediments with immense economic deposits of iron, manganese, gold and base metals. The
cratonic block which occurs in the western and northern parts are known as the Bastar and
North Orissa or Singbhum cratons, respectively, which are girdled by the proterozoic mobile
belt e.g. the Eastern Ghats Belt in the southeast and Gangpur belt in the northwest.
The North Orissa Craton comprises of Archean granitoids, gneisses, migmatites

interspersed with supracrustal assemblages which are intruded by mafic-ultramafic intrusive
and layered magmatic complexes.
Newer Dolerite dykes and sills c.1600-950 Ma
Mayurbhanj granite c.2100 Ma
Gabbro, Anorthosite and Ultramafics c.2100-2200 Ma
Kolhan Group
Jagannathpur lavas, Dhanjori-Similipal lavas, Malangtoli lavas Dhanjori Group
Quartzite and Conglomerates c.2300 Ma
Pelitic and arenaceous metasediments with mafic sills Singbhum Group

(c.2300-2400 Ma)
[20]
Singhbhum Granite Phase B c.3100 Ma
(Main phase of Bonai Granite)
Mafic lava, tuff, acid volcanic, tuffaceous shale, banded hematite jasper and
banded hematite quartzite with iron ore, ferrugineous cherts, orthoquartzites
sericitic quartzite, conglomerate. Iron Ore Group
Singbhum Granite Phase A c.3300 Ma

(main phase of Nilgiri Granite)
Pallahara- Kamakhyanagar Granite gneiss
Folding and metamorphism of older Metamorphic Group and

Older Metamorphic Tonalite Gniess c.3400-3500 Ma
Older Metamorphic Tonalitic Gniess ( OMTG) c.3775 Ma

Older Metamorphic Group (OMG) with pelitic schists, quartzite, para and orthoamphibolite
c.4000 Ma
Table no. 2: Generalised chronostratigraphic succession of the rocks in Singhbhum- North

Orissa craton (Saha, et al., 1988).
The Older Metamorphic Group occupies an area of about 200 sq. km. to the west of
Champua within the Singhbhum granitic batholiths. The rocks mainly consist of medium grade
pilitic schists, arenites, calc-schist, para and orthoamphibolites which are intruded by an
extensive suite of biotite tonalite to trondhjemite tract occupying an area of about 900 sq. km in
west central part of the batholithic complex which is also known as Older Metamorphic
Tonalite Gneiss (OMTG).
The Singhbhum Granite Batholithic complex occupies an area of about 8000 sq. km which
is made of atleast 12 magmatic bodies of biotite-granodiorite-granite which were emplaced in
three distinctive phase of emplacement ranging in age between 3.3 Ga to 3.1 Ga. The phase-I
rocks are relatively potash poor granodiorite-tronjemite while the rocks of phase-II and III are
granodiorite grading to adamellitic granite. According to Saha et al. (1988) the magma of phase
I and II are formed by the partial melting of freshly accreted amphibolites at the base of the
crust at about 3.3 Ga and the magma of phase III granites were formed by partial melting of
crustal rocks of siliceous garnet-granulite at about 3.1 Ga. Beside these, there are three other
smaller granitic intrusive namely the Bonai Granite, Nilgiri Granite and Mayurbhanj Granite
which closely resemble the intrusives of phase-I and II.
The Banded Iron Formations also occurs at Gorumahisani, Daitari, Malyagiri, Deogarh and
Joda-Noamundi area which are of economic value. The BIF of Daitari is intruded by ultrabasic
rocks which host the chromite and nickel deposits of Sukinda valley. All the Banded Iron
[21]
Formations have undergone green Schist facies metamorphism except in Kamakhyanagar-
Malyagiri sector.
The Similipal and Keonjhar plateaus are formed by the massive volcano-sedimentary
assemblages which are included within the iron ore Super Group. In Similipal, they consist of
an alternating sequence of spilitic lava and quartzites lying unconformably above the
Singhbhum Granite and intruded by pyroxene granite, granophyres, gabbro and anorthosite
(Iyenger and Banerjee, 1964; Iyenger et al., 1965). The rocks of Keonjahar plateau consists of
extensive basic lavas and quartzites. These two assemblages are believed to be equivalent of
the Dhanjori Group even though some of the workers are of the opinion that the quartzite of the
Keonjhar plateau belongs to Kolhans (Saha, 1994; Sinha et al., 1997).The extensive basic
volcanic rocks are also associated with BIF occurrences of Deogarh Group which are older
than the banded hematite quartzite member. These volcano-sedimentary rocks are of the Early
Proterozoic in age (Saha, 1994).
The important groups of the metasedimentary assemblages of Proterozoic basins consist of

the deformed Darjing Group, Gangpur Group and undeformed Kolhan Group. The Gangpur
Group of rocks forms an anticlinorium underlying the surrounding Iron Ore Group of rocks.
They are much younger than the Iron Ore Group and Bonai Granite (Mahalik 1987). They
consist of a sequence of arenaceous, calcareous, carbonaceous and argillaceous rocks. The
following table shows the revised stratigraphic sequence of Gangpur Group of rocks after
Kanungo and Mahalik (1967).
Goriajhor Formation Staurolite and garnet schists, calc schists, manganeferous metasediments.
Kumarmunda Formation Banded carbonaceous quartzite and phyllites.
Birmitrapur Formation Limestone, dolomite, quartzite and phyllite.
Liangar Formation Carbonaceous shale and phyllites.
Raghunathpalli Formation Conglomerates, quartzite and slate.
……………………………………Unconformity………………………………………
Iron Ore Group Schists and phyllite
Table no. 3: Stratigraphic succession of Gangpur Group. (After Kanungo and Mahalik, 1967,
[22]
1975).
The Darjing Group of rocks consists of arenaceous, carbonaceous, and argillaceous
formations which closely resemble the Gangpur Group in their lithology, structure and
metamorphic history suggesting that they were deposited in a single basin under similar
depositional environment with sedimentary break in between representing a discontinuity
(Mahallik and Nanda, 2006). Thus both the groups can be taken as one group in which the
Darjing Group deposited earlier than the Gangpur Group. It is assumed that the Gangpur Group
forms a part of the Singhbhum mobile belt and it provides economic deposits of limestone,
manganese and Pb-Zn mineralization.
The Kolhan Group of rocks is considered to be equivalent to the Darjing Group but they are
not deformed and metamorphosed as observed in the Darjing Group. They are comprising of
purple sandstone and conglomerates overlain by limestone and slate which is exposed in
Singhbhum area forming an elliptical outcrop stretching in a SSW direction from Chaibasa to
north of Naomundi. Pebbles in the conglomerate which were derived from Singhbhum granite
and Iron Ore Group suggest that they were deposited over the basement of Iron Ore Group and
Singhbhum granite.
The Eastern Ghat mobile belt occupies most of the southern and central portion of Orissa.
It extends over 1000 km from Orissa to Andhra Pradesh. The rocks of eastern Ghat Supergroup
comprises of metasediments, charnockites, khondalites, mafic granulites, migmatitic granite,
gneiss, alkaline and massif anorthosite complexes which had undergone intense polyphase
deformation. The rock had suffered upto granulite facies of metamorphism during the
Proterozoic (Bose, 1979; Nanda and Pati, 1989; Ramakrishnan et al., 1998; Gupta 2004;
Mahalik and Nanda 2006). Isotopic dating of this Precambrian terrain gives an age ranging
from late Archean to Pan African (Sarkar and Paul, 1998; Krause et al., 2001; Aftalion et al.,
2000 and Crowe et al., 2001).The study of this belt is important as it has a unique position in
reconstructing the unfragmented Rodinia and Gondwanaland and in comparing the geological
evolution of east Antarctica (Dasgupta and Sengupta, 2003). Beside these, the EGMB is also an
important treasure of certain economic minerals including, bauxite, manganese, graphite,
gemstones, marble (cement grade), etc.
The western part of Orissa has a different lithology from that of Eastern Ghat belt. The
study of the lithology of the western Orissa is significant as it is more complex than that of
EGMB and Singhbhum craton. It is characterized by the presence of Proterozoic sedimentary
[23]
basins beside the Archean suprastructural and intrusive which are observed either in
Singhbhum craton or within the Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt (Mahalik and Nanda 2006).
According to Naqvi and Rogers (1967) the summarized stratigraphy of the area modified after
Crookshank is given in the table below: -
Puranas (Cuddapah and Upper Limestone, purple shale, slate, etc.

Vindhyan)
Lower Sandstone, shale, quartzite, grit,
conglomerate, etc.
………………………………………..Unconformity………………………………………........
Dolerite dyke
Igneous
Intrusives Granite and Pegmatite
Greenstone and
Granite gneiss
…………………………………………..Unconformity………………………………………........
Eastern Ghat Group Khondalite
Bailadila (BIF) Group Banded hematite quartzite, quartzite.
……………………………………..Unconformity………………………………………...............
Bengpal Group Multiple schist, gneiss containing andalusite; basaltic flows.
Sukma Group Quartzite, Schists and gneiss containing sillimanite.
Table no. 4: Showing the summarized stratigraphy of the area According to Nagvi and Rogers
(1967).
The economic minerals occurring in this area consists of limestone from the Proterozoic
sedimentary basins at Dogri, Kotpad, Kottameta. The Sukma Group consist of high grade rocks
such as cordierite gneiss, pyroxene gneiss, diopside quartzite, etc which differs from that of
Bengpali Group in their degree of metamorphism.
2.1.2 Gondwana Supergroup
The term ‘Gondwana’ was first used by Medlicot in 1872 to describe the conglomerate,
sandstone, shale, and coal sequence of fluviatile and lacustrine origin from Indian Peninsula,
ranging in age from Carboniferous to Lower Cretaceous. The Gondwana Supergroup of rocks
are also exposed in a large area of about 12,400 sq. km. along NW-SE trending linear belt
along the Mahanadi Graben in the three major basins namely Talchir, Ib River and Athgarh.
[24]
Besides these localities, small patches of the Gondwana Supergroup of rocks are also exposed
in Anugul, Dhenkanal, Sambalpur, Sundergarh, Phulbani, Baudh, Bolangir, Cuttak, Khurda,
Puri and Ganjam districts.
The Talchir and the Ib River basins are the chief coal producing basins. The Gondwana
assemblages of Orissa also bears rich fossil assemblages of Glossopteris indica, G. browniana,
G. decipiens, G. longicolis, Gangamopteris cyclopteroids, G.angustifolia, Vertebraria,
Schizoneura, Sphenopteris, Cladophlebis, etc of Permo-Carboniferous age ( Lower
Gondwana).
The Middle Gondwana fossil assemblages comprises of Glossopteris indica, G. Conspicua,

G.sticta, G.browniana, G. communis, G.retifera, Vertebraria indica, G.angustifolia,
Schizoneura gondwanesis, etc. of Permo-Triassic age from Kamthi and Ib-River basins.
The stratigraphy and the lithology of the Gondwana Supergroup of Orissa can be
summarized as in the following table.
Age Group Formation Lithology Area
Lower Cretaceous Upper Gondwana Athgarh Conglomerate, sandstone, shale, fire clay Athgarh basin Ganjam
Lower to Middle Middle Conglomerate, ferruginous sandstone, red Ib river basin Talchir
Triassic Gondwana Kamthi shale. basin
.....………………………………………………Unconformity………………………………………………….
Upper Permian Lower Gondwana Raniganj Fine to medium fine grain sandstone, siltstone, Ib river basin
clay beds, coal.
Middle Permian
Barren Measure Sandstone, shale, clay, ironstone, shale. Ib river basin, Talchir
basin.
Lower Permian Barakar Conglomerate, sandstone, shale, fireclay, coal. Talchir basin, Ib river
basin, Athmallik,
Gaisilat, Katrangia
basin.
Karharbari Conglomerate, sandstone, shale, coal. Talchir basin, Ib river

basin, Gaisilat.
Upper Carboniferous Talchir Boulder beds, green shale, Sandstonse, Talchir basin, Ib river
Lower Permian marlstone. basin, Gaisilat.
.....………………………………………………Unconformity………………………………………………….
Precambrian Granites, Gniess, Amphibolites, Migmatite s.
[25]
Table no. 5: Stratigraphy of Gondwana Supergroup of Orissa according to Pandya (2006).
The Gondwana sedimentation was initiated in a post-glacial warm climatic condition which
was replaced by a humid and warm climatic condition during the Karharbari and Barakar times
that is evidenced by the luxuriant growth of vegetation that ultimately formed the thick coal
seams. However, the deposition of the Talchir group shows the deposition during the period of
glaciations which is evidenced by the Talchir Boulder beds, tillites, dropstones, etc (Blanford et
al., 1856) which was a switch over to warmer phase towards the end of the Talchir time as
evidenced by stromatolitic limestone and marls (Pandya, 1987).
The formation of Kamthi Group took place during the sub-arid climatic condition which is
evidenced by the finding of red ferruginous beds of sandstone and thereafter might have been
warm and humid which favour the growth of diverse floras.
2.1.3 Cenozoic rocks
The Cenozoic rocks occupied about 20% of the total geology of Orissa. These rocks which
are not older than 65 million years are most commonly found along the major river valleys and
coastal tracts of the state. They are represented by the Baripada beds, laterites, bauxites and
coastal alluvia. The Cenozoic deposits of Orissa can be easily classified as the Tertiary deposits
which are represented by the Miocene deposits of Baripada Beds and Quaternary deposits
which are represented by the laterites and bauxites, coastal alluvium, etc.
The Quaternary deposits of Orissa mainly comprises of both the Pleistocene and Holocene
deposits which are exposed at the surface or hidden in the subsurface of both onshore and
offshore. The Pleistocene sediments are represented by the laterites, bauxites, china clay,
residual soil, marine sediments and minor occurrence of volcanic ash beds (Mahalik, 2006).
The laterites are formed from the certain variety of parent rocks including khondalites, BIF,
metabasic rocks, Gondwana sediments and Quaternary residual soils and coastal sediments.
The bauxites which are extensively found in the southern part of Orissa are of economic value.
The study of borehole cutting drilled by Danish International development Agency (DANIDA)
for groundwater development along the coastal tract of Orissa indicated the possible evolution
of Mahanadi delta with marine and fluvial phases (Mahalik, 2000, 2006). However, the
demarcation of the Pliestocene sediments within the coastal alluvia in the geological map is
very difficult. Volcanic ash beds having the affinity to Toba volcanic of Indonesia of 74,000
years B.P. occur in Vansdhara-Nagavalli and Mahanadi-Brahmani river (Acharya and Basu,
[26]
1993; Basu and Biswas, 1991; Devdas and Meshram, 1990). The residual soils ranging in age
from Pleistocene to Holocene periods also developed over most of the Archean, Proterozoic
and Gondwana deposits. The details of the Cenozoic deposits of Orissa has been discussed here
under the subheading of the geology of the study area. The Cenozoic deposits of Orissa are of
great economic significance. These including bauxites, laterite ores of manganese and iron,
China clay, ilmenite, monazite, limeshell, etc. Reserves of Oil and natural gas at the offshore of
Orissa is under the surveillance of Reliance Industries limited.
2.1.4. Geology of the study area
Blanford (1904) divided the area into two physiographic sections: the flat area covered with
alluvium and the hilly terrain consisting of crystalline gneisses. The deposits of Baripada Beds
lie conformably over the Precambrian metamorphic basement. Bose (1904) recorded the
Tertiary rocks in Orissa which are exposed in the erosional cut section of Burbhalang River.
The Baripada deposits are typical marine deposits showing various marine transgression and
regression episodes. These fossiliferous marine deposits are conformably overlain by
conglomerate beds of Pleistocene age in some areas including Kuliana, Itamundia, Kamarpal,
etc, which is again overlain by lateritic and alluvial deposits. The marine sediments are rich in
various vertebrate and invertebrate fossils of different taxa.
Many previous workers have tried to establish the generalized geological set up of the
Cenozoic deposits Orissa. Devdas and Meshram (1990, 1991) attempted to establish the
generalized stratigraphic overview of both the fluvial deposits in the inland and the upland river
basins. After the culmination of various works done by certain previous workers like Niyogi
(1970, 1975), Roy et al.(1988), Bharali et al. (1991), Dash (2000), etc. Mahalik (2006)
established the generalized stratigraphic sequence of Cenozoic deposits of Orissa as under the
table no. 6.
Age Nature of Deposits
Holocene Recent deposits, beach sand, younger alluvium, older alluvium, residual soil, etc.
Quaternary
Pleistocene Laterites, Bauxites, china clay. Residual deposits, marine and fluvial deposits of
Mahanadi, delta, Toba ash beds.
………………………………Unconformity…………………………………..
[27]
Miocene-Pliocene Baripada beds, Tolapada beds (in Puri district)
………………………………Unconformity…………………………………..
Tertiary Oligocene Offshore area, not present at Onshore areas.
………………………………Unconformity…………………………………..
Eocene and Palaeocene Limestone and clastics in offshore areas and Puri-Konark onshore basin
Gondwana and Eastern Ghat rocks.
Table no. 6: The generalized stratigraphic sequence of Cenozoic deposits of Orissa

(Mahalik, 2006)
In general Baripada Beds show a sedimentary sequence consisting of limestone and shale
which is overlain by lateritic soils at the top. The Baripada sequences can be divided into three
lithological units namely, Unit (1) -dark green to grayish–green shale; Unit (2) - yellow to
yellowish–brown limestone; and Unit (3) - grey to grayish–green shale (Bhalla and Dev, 1988).
The litho and bio facies analysis at the coprolite bearing locality, Mukurmatia of Baripada
Beds (Aquitanian to Burdiganian) comprises a thin marine sediments of about 12 m thickness
which is again overlain by lateritic sediments of Quaternary age. The bottom of this bed
comprises of green shale which lie below the water level. This is overlain by a thin hard
limestone bed of about 1.5 m. The limestone bed is again overlain by bluish white shale of
about 10m thick. This shale bed is greenish at the bottom. As it goes up toward the top, the
colour of the sediment changes from greenish to yellowish along with increasing aranaceous
nature of the shale component towards the top. The shales are thinly laminated and yield
abundant shark teeth and foraminifera. The limestone bed is characterized by the presence of
fossil oysters. Presence of shark teeth is sporadic in this bed. The greenish shale is
characterized by the presence of foraminifera. Coprolites are been collected from the bluish
shale horizon which lies above the limestone bed.
Many attempts were made to study the geology and stratigraphy of these beds by boring
and drilling. The borehole records suggested that these beds are very thick even though we
can’t measure the exact thickness of these beds. The present study of these beds were based on
the finding of the geological sections exposed along the cuttings of the Burbhalang River at
different localities from where samples were also collected for palaeontological and
sedimentological studies. The exact thickness of the shale deposits is not known as the base is
[28]
not exposed.
Fig. 4: Exposure of the unfossiliferous Quaternary lateritic deposit and fossiliferous shale bed
of Baripada Beds along the Bank of Burabhalang river at Mukurmatia.
The Baripada Beds in Orissa shows a sedimentary sequence consisting of limestone and
shales which is overlain by lateritic soils at the top. These exposed sequences of Baripada Beds
can be divided into three lithological units which show a certain amount of variation in
lithology and thickness at different localities. According to Bhalla and Dev, (1988) the
proposed stratigraphy can be discussed as: Unit (1) is lowermost unit and is composed of green
to grayish green shale which is sandy at places near the contact with limestone constituting
Unit (2). The succeeding Unit (2) is composed of yellow to yellowish brown generally dark
green to grayish –green shale; Unit (2) - yellow to yellowish –brown limestone; and unit (3) -
grey to grayish –green shales.
[29]
Fig. 5: A. Physical map of India (Source, Google earth image, 2012), B. Location map of
Study area (Source, Google earth image, 2012). Correlation of various lithounits from different
litho-sections of certain localities of Baripada Beds, Orissa. C. Litho-section at Usurdihi
village. D. Litho-section at Satpautia village. E. Litho-section at Itamundia village. F. Litho-
section at Mukurmatia village.
[30]
A very well exposed section along the river Burbhalang at Itamundia shows a fossiliferous
sedimentary horizon of shale which is below the water level. The shales are aranaceous toward
the top. This bed has yielded certain microfossils, shark teeth, spines, etc. This bed is overlain
by fossiliferous limestone bed of thickness of 4-5 feet. The limestone bed is hard, compacted.
Certain invertebrate fossils including bivalves were collected from this bed. This bed has
yielded a large number of oysters and so the name oysters bed has been assigned to this bed.
Certain shark teeth and unidentified bone fragments were also collected from this bed. The
bone fragments were collected from the top of this bed. This bed is overlain by grey shale
having a thickness of about 3-4 feet. This shale bed is more arenaceous than the previous one.
The shale is finely laminated and has yielded abundant foraminifera. The availability of
bivalve, gastropods was also reported from this bed. Above this grayish shale bed lies a thick
yellowish shale deposit. This shale deposit is coarser and arenaceous than any other shale
below. Above this bed lies a thick, hard, compacted deposit of conglomerate bed. The contact
between this bed and the shale bed marks a sharp boundary. The conglomerate bed is of
Pleistocene age. The collection of stone tools from this bed indicates presence of early humans
in and around Baripada. The stone tools are of early Palaeolithic age. No significant fossils are
collected from this bed. The conglomerate bed is overlain by recent lateritic deposits.
The conglomerate bed expose at Pratappur area (Fig. 6) has ferruginous matrix which is
silty to sandy in nature, hard and compacted. The matrix shows a particular vermicular
structure which is normally associated with laterite and hence it clearly indicates that the matrix
were lateratised. Modal analysis of the conglomerate bed shows that the conglomerate is
polymictic, polyclastic, moderately sorted; clasts are gravelly to pebbly in nature which is
mainly consisting of quartzite, granite, gneiss. The sizes of clasts are variable in size from 1cm
to 8cm with an average size of 4 cm (length in maximum axis). The clasts are subangular to
subrounded, occasionally rounded pebbles are also found. The study of the conglomerate bed is
suggestive of the high carrying capacity of the Burabhalang River and its tributaries which is
possibly during the pluvial period.
[31]
Fig. 6: The exposure of Quaternary conglomerate bed overlying the Miocene shale of Baripada
Beds at the locality Pratappur.
Sharma (1956) encountered a sequence of three rock units in Usurdihi, Satpautia and
Mukurmatia. According to him, the following succession is the main stratigraphical section of
these beds..
In the locality Usurdihi, which is about 3 km from south of Baripada, the following
lithounits with their thickness are found:
The proposed stratigraphy of Usurdihi beds after Sharma (1956):
• Laterite deposits with the thickness of 3 m.
• Bluish white shale bed with the thickness of 5 m.
• Limestone bed with the thickness of 1 m.
[32]
• Bluish grey shale bed (the thickness of this bed is not known as it lies below the water
level of the river and the base is not exposed).
The total thickness of this bed is around 12 m or above.
In the locality Satpautia, which is about 6 km from south of Baripada town, the following
litho units with their thickness are found:
The proposed stratigraphy of the Satpautia beds:
• Laterite deposits with a thickness of 3 m.
• Bluish white shale bed with a thickness of 5 m.
• Limestone bed with a thickness of 1 m.
• Bluish grey shale bed (the thickness of this bed is not known a it lies below the water
level of the river)
The total thickness of this bed is around 10 m or above (Sharma, 1956).
A very well displayed section along the river Burbhalang at Itamundia shows a
fossiliferous sedimentary horizon of shale, marls and limestone. The lithounits and the
thickness of the section of this locality may be represented as below:

• Conglomerate bed with a thickness of 2 m.
• Yellowish grey shale bed with a thickness of around 3 m.
• Limestone beds with a thickness of around 1.5 m.
• Bluish grey shale bed with thickness not known as it lies below the water level.
[33]
Fig. 7: Exposure of late Miocene fossiliferous shale bed and Quaternary unfossiliferous lateritic
bed lying over the Baripada Beds along the banks of Burbhalang near Mukurmatia.
In Mukurmatia, which is about 9 km from the Baripada town, the following lithounits
with their thickness are found: -
The proposed Stratigraphy of the Mukurmatia beds:
• Bluish white shale bed with a thickness of 7 m.
• Limestone bed with a thickness of 1.5 m.
• Bluish grey shale bed (the thickness of this bed is not known as it lies below the water
level of the river)
The total thickness of these bed is around 13 m or above.
The above finding shows the expose of same beds in different localities. However the
thickness of these beds vary from place to place. Thus, this fossiliferous marine deposit is
conformably overlain by conglomerate beds of Pleistocene period in some areas including
[34]
Kuliana, Itamundia, Kamarpal, etc, which are again overlain by lateritic and alluvial deposits.
The marine sediments are rich in various vertebrate and invertebrate fossils of different taxa.
There is no report of any fossil material from the Quaternary bed.
Age Lithology Environment Thickness
Holocene Clay, sand, sandy, silt, grainstone. Marine, shelf, transgressive phase 30 m (?)
Pleistocene Claystone, fine to medium sandstone, Marine and prograding deltaic deposits on basin
claystone with few interbeds of sands margin.
Pliocene 4200 m
and silt.
Upper- Claystone, siltstone, calcareous Deep outer shelf to progressional deltaic; tectonic uplift
Middle- claystone with minor sand in the upper of the source area leads to the deposition of the fine
1903 m
Lower part sandstone, dolomite, and clastics. Shallowing of the depositional basin upward.
Miocene limestone in the lower part.
…………………………………….Unconformity…………………………………..
Oligocene Claystone, siltstone, shale, with Abrupt deepening of basin due to subsidence and tilt
interbedded sandstone. Fossiliferous in the basin floor.
640 m
argillaceous limestone.
…………………………………….Unconformity…………………………………..
Eocene Fossiliferous, dark grey to buff massive Inner to deep marine shelf; gently sloping stable shelf
limestone, dolomite and thin interbeds cut by numerous gullies, mild uplift of source area,
772 m
of calcareous shales, and calcareous reduced erosion, carbonates and minor clastics.
sandstone; limestone and clay stone.
Late Fine grained argillaceous limestone with Shallow supratidal to deltaic middle shelf; sloping
palaeocene interbeds of shale/sandstones. shelf with clastic sediments due to intense uplift of
source area
Early Gray calcareous shale with interbeds of Deltaic shallow marine. 198 m
Palaeocene glauconite sandstone, calcareous silt,
shale, and sandstone.
…………………………………………….Unconformity………………………………………..
Upper Fine-grained sandstone, shale, basalts Rift related volcanism; lacustrine sedimentation 293 m
cretaceous with layers of volcanic tuff, clays and during volcanic sequence.
carbonaceous, shale and siltstone
..…………………………………….Unconformity…………………………………..
Precambrian Metamorphic basement
[35]
Table no. 7: - A generalized stratrigraphy of Orissa offshore (Faruque, 2006; Fuloria et al.,
1992; Bharali et al., 1987 and Faruque and Lahiri, 2002)
The study of the subsurface geology of the eastern coast of Orissa by GSI and Oil India
limited suggested that the basement of the area is characterized by metamorphic rock of
Precambrian age. The generalized stratigraphy of important features of the major sedimentary
sequences which are found inside the drilled wells are summarized in brief in the above table
no. 7.
The geological and the geophysical survey of the shelf area carried out by GSI vessels
Samudra Manthan and Samudra Kaustabh could decipher the geology of Holocene to
Pleistocene deposits, whereas the Early Cretaceous to Recent stratigraphic succession has
been found in the drilled well of Oil India Limited (Bhareli et al., 1987; Bhareli et al., 1998;
Dash, 2000). The basement of the offshore continental shelf of eastern coast of India is made
up of Eastern Ghat granulites and gniesses of Precambrian age. The basement Precambrian
rocks are overlain by volcanic sequences made up of basalt, tuff and intertrappean of
Cretaceous age with a marked unconformity (Fuloria, 1992). This is overlain by a thick
sequence of sandstone, shale with minor limestone deposited at an environment of inner shelf
to shallow mid shelf. Various palaeontological and palynological data suggested an age of
Late Cretaceous and it comprises a maximum thickness of 500 m (Fuloria et al, 1992).
The Palaeocene deposits unconformably overlie the Cretaceous rock. It is comprised of

argillaceous limestone, shale, siltstone and greenish gray to gray sandstone which were
deposited in an environment of deltaic to shallow marine condition. It is then overlain by a
fossiliferous limestone with subordinate shale and fine grained sandstone of Eocene age. The
Oligocene sediment is comprised of claystone, siltstone, calcareous claystone with minor
sandstone, dolomite and limestone. It is exposed at the northern shelf of Orissa which is not
found at the southern shelf.
The Miocene sediment comprises of a thick sequence of clastic sediments made of

claystone and siltstone with minor association of interbedded sandstone which overlies the
Eocene carbonate sediments. The fossiliferous limestone layer is sporadically found at the
lower part of the unit. These terrigenous sediments were deposited at the deltaic to open
marine condition. It has a maximum thickness of 1903 m (Fuloria et al., 1992).
[36]
The Pliocene deposits are unconformable to gradational with the underlying Miocene
sequence. It consists of argillaceous deposits of coarse grain to fine grain unconsolidated
sand, silty clays which are deposited in shallow shelf prodeltaic marine environment (Fuloria,
1992). The Pleistocene deposit has a transitional and conformable contact with the Pliocene
deposit and is mainly consisting of loose sand, clay and silt of deltaic to shallow shelf facies
with a maximum thickness of 1100 m.
The Pleistocene deposits conformably overlie the Pliocene deposits. The contact between
them is transitional in nature. The Pleistocene deposits are made up of loose sand, clay and
silt of deltaic to shallow facies. Maximum thickness of it is about 1100 m. The Holocene
deposits are characterized by coarse to fine sand, clayey silt to silty clay. They are mostly
deposited at the coastal shelf area. These fined to coarse relict sands constitute the Holocene
transgressive deposits on the shelf of Orissa coast (Faruque, 2006).
[37]
CHAPTER-III: SYSTEMATIC PALAEONTOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
The collected faunal remains from the localities mentioned above mainly comprise of fish
teeth of both Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes. A rare collection of mammalian teeth from
the Baripada Beds is represented by the isolated tooth of Tetraconodon intermedius and
Rhinoceritidae. About 300 isolated fishes teeth, scales, spine and skeleton remains have been
collected from different localities. The collected specimens were studied and investigated in
the micropalaeontological laboratory of the Department of Geology (C.A.S.) Panjab
University, Chandigarh. The micro-teeth remains were studied with the help of Scanning
Electron Microscope and the mega specimens were studied by naked eye and digital
photographs were also taken. Most of the collected specimens were well preserved with little
evidence of wearing and tearing due to transportation. The mode of preservation of the
species is mainly due to thenatocenosis. This observation is going to be important in
reconstructing the palaeoecological condition of the study area.
The identification of the fish teeth needs a systematic study of the morphology and a
comparison with their extant counterparts. The main difficulty in identification of fossil
selachian resulted from an important character of their dentition, heterodonty, which is the
general rule except for families like the Rhincodontidae and Cetorhinidae which have
secondary homodonty due to a regression of denticles (Cappetta, 1987, p 11). The
heterodonty can be monognathic (Compagno, 1970); the teeth in one jaw having different
morphology, or it can be dignathic, teeth of the upper and lower jaws having different
morphology (Cappetta, 1987, p.12). The same species can also possess both the form of
dentition; however, dignathic heterodonty is more common in most of the specimen for
example as in the case of Carcharinus in which the upper teeth have higher crown than the
lower teeth.
The variation of the teeth within the same individual is called intra-individual variation.
Such variation in the morphology of the teeth is due to heterodonty nature of dentition of the
individual itself. The teeth of the same individuals are found to vary according to the age e.g.
the teeth of the same individual in young age is different from the teeth of the adult one.
Generally, the teeth of young specimen are sharper and narrower than the adult teeth. Even
the teeth at different positions on the same jaw can be misidentified into different genera and
families. In this case height/ width ratio of the crown can give important information for
[38]
identification of the position of the tooth. The greater the distance from symphysis, the
smaller is the relative height of the crown.
The variation of the teeth within the same species is called intra-specific variation. This
type of variation occurs mainly because of their variation of the position of the teeth in the
jaw. The study of intra-specific variation of teeth requires a large collection of teeth of the
same species as well recent comparative material. Most of the selachian teeth are alike in
both the upper and lower jaws. However, the upper teeth are wide having a cusp which is
slanted toward the rear and the lower teeth are narrower, slender and have straight cusp. The
anterior teeth are sharper and narrower than the lateral teeth. The upper teeth have more
serration than the lower teeth and the teeth at the corner of the mouth are broader, blade-like
and more oblique.
3. 2. Mammalian Remains
During the field work carried out between the Summer and Winter seasons of March
2008 to April 2011, the author was able to find two mammalian fossil remains from the
Baripada Beds. One of it is an isolated tooth of Tetraconodon intermedius which is described
below in this subchapter and the other one is an enamel fragment of a large mammalian tooth
showing close affinity to those of Rhinoceratids. Prior to the present work, mammalian teeth
were recorded by Chaudhari (1958) from the clay and sand bands of Baripada Beds. His
collection consists of two isolated teeth of Potamochoerus and Gazelle. The present findings
give an additional data on the mammalian fossil fauna from these fossiliferous marine
deposits. The current findings are significant as these are the first records of such mammals
from the Eastern coast of India. These mammalian remains were collected from the bottom of
bluish grey sandy shale bed which is overlying the limestone bed near the locality, Itamundia.
3. 2. 1 Material and Method

For the analysis of the Tetraconodon tooth, dental terminology used in the description and
the method of measurement is followed after Thaung-Htike et al. (2005) (see, Fig. 8A). All
measurements were taken using vernier calipers. Dental measurements of the M3 of
Tetraconodon intermedius specimen of Baripada Beds is compared with other correlated
Tetraconodon specimens of Thaung-Htike et al. (2005) and Made and Han (1994) (See,
Table 8.) The mean dental measurements of Propotamochoerus wui (Made and Han, 1994)
[39]
(Lufeng, China) recovered from the upper Miocene deposits of the same East Asian regions
that yield Tetraconodon is used to compare dental measurement ratios.
The analysis of Rhinoceratid tooth involved the microstructural study of the dental
enamel. It was carried out using JEOL S.E.M. JSM 6490 housed at the Geology Department,
Panjab University, Chandigarh.
Fig. 8: A: Dental terminology and measuring method of tetraconodontine teeth. All are
occlusal views of right cheek teeth. Abbreviations: BL= Base line; L = Mesiodistal length; W
= Bucco-lingual width; W1 = first lobe width; W2 = Second lobe width; W3 = Third lobe
width of M3/3(upper third molar/lower molar) (After, Thaung-Htike et al., 2005). B: M3 of
Tetraconodon intermedius (Mks/pal/pu.1020) and its dental terminology.
3.2.2 Systematics
Family: Suidae Gray, 1821

Subfamily: Tetraconodontinae Lydekker, 1876
Genus: Tetraconodon Falconer, 1868
Conohyus Pilgrim, 1926
Type species: Conohyus sindiensis (Lydekker, 1884).
Or Tetracondon Falconer, 1868
Tetraconodon magnus Falconer, 1868.
[40]
Type species: - Tetraconodon magnum Falconer, 1868 (including Tetraconodon mirabilis
Pilgrim, 1926).
Other included species —Tetraconodon minor Pilgrim, 1910; Tetraconodon intermedius
Made, 1999; Tetraconodon malensis.
Diagnosis: - The Genus Tetraconodon differs from the other tetraconodontine genera in
having extremely enlarged P3-4/3-4 (upper third-fourth premolar/ lower third-fourth premolar),
simple and relatively small M3/3, and thick and highly wrinkled enamel in P3-4/3-4, and less
wrinkled enamel in M1-3/1-3. (also see, Thaung-Htike et al., 2005).
Tetraconodon intermedius Made, 1999

(Fig. 8: B)
Tetraconodon intermedius Thaung-Htike et al. 2005, p. 5, fig. 4

Tetraconodon intermedius Made, 1999, p. 203-205.
Tetraconodon mirabilis Pilgrim, 1926 (in part), p.16, p l. 3, fig. 4.
Tetraconodon cf. mirabilis Pilgrim, 1926, p. 16 – 17, pls. 4, 6.
Diagnosis: - Tetraconodon of intermediate size.
Specimen: - Mks/pal/pu. 1020, an isolated right upper M3.
Locality: Itamundia
Horizon and Age of the Locality: - Baripada Beds, Late Miocene.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1020 is a right upper third molar (M3). The tooth is elongated and
narrower distally than mesially; anterior cingulum is convex, protopreconule is not distinct,
furchen are prominent in well developed paracone, protocone, hypopreconule, metacone and
hypocone; protocone is little bit larger than the paracone; pentapreconule is tiny, pentacone is
large and the surface is worn. The measurements of the specimen and its comparison with
other described specimens are given in table no. 8.
Discussion and comparison

A morphological comparison of the present specimen shows that it is identical to the
Tetraconodon intermedius of Thaung-Htike et al. (2005). The comparison of the size with M3
teeth of other Tetraconodon specimen shows that the present specimen is little bit smaller
than Tetraconodon intermedius and T.cf. intermedius, described by Thaung-Htike et al.
[41]
(2005) and larger than P. wui (Made & Han, 1994) (See, Table no. 8). T. cf. intermedius
(Thaung-Htike et al., 2005) differs from the present specimen in having a small minor
cuspule at the lingual side and small pentacone (Fig. 8: B). As the upper molar M3 tooth of
Tetraconodon intermedius is rarely described in the previous literature, at the moment it is
difficult to evaluate the interspecific variability of size of the teeth. However, based on the
morphological features as well as the relative size of the tooth, the present specimen can be
safely assigned to Tetraconodon intermedius (also see, Fig. 9). So far the early literature is
concerned, fossil specimen of Tetraconodon have not been reported not only from Baripada
Beds but also from the East Coast and North Eastern states of India.
Specimen M3
Taxa L W1 100(L/w1) W2 W3
T. intermedius Mks/pal/pu.1020 31 21.5 144 18 11
T. intermedius Thaung- GSI B 675 43* 32*
Htike et al., 2005 130
T.cf. intermedius Thaung- NMMP-KU-IR 33.3 26.8 22.9 12.1
Htike et al., 2005 0225 120
P. wui Made & Han Mean 7-28 spec 24.1 17.4 14.9 8
(1994) 138
Table no. 8: Upper dental measurements (mm) of the new Tetraconodon intermedius from
Baripada Beds (Mks/pal/pu. 1020); T. intermedius (Thaung-Htike et al., 2005); T.cf.
intermedius (Thaung-Htike et al., 2005) and mean measurements of Propotamochoerus wui
(Made and Han, 1994). Abbreviations: L = Mesiodistal length; W1 = first lobe width; W2 =
Second lobe width; W3 = Third lobe width of M3; * ¼ estimate (Source, Thaung-Htike et al.,
2005).
The genus Tetraconodon was founded by Falconer (1868) based upon the maxilla
containing M2 and M3 from the Markhanda Pass near Durand (Pilgrim, 1926). It was
probably derived from the oldest known Asian tetraconodontine, Conohyus sindiensis, from
the lower middle Miocene (Kamlial or lower Chinji) of the Siwalik Group of Indo-Pakistan
[42]
and Nepal; this species also occurs from the middle Miocene deposits of Thailand (Thaung-
Htike et al., 2005). Teeth of Tetraconodon differ from Conohyus in having greater relative
enlargement of the premolars (Pilgrim, 1926; Made, 1999). Made (1999) suggested that the
genus is likely to have separated from Sivachoerus lineage before the Late Miocene which is
the age of the oldest fossil assigned to Tetraconodon (also, Fig. 50 in Chapter -V). Both the
Sivachoerus and Tetraconodon having greatly enlarged premolar of gigantic size are
undoubtedly derived from Conohyus (Colbert, 1935).
Fig. 9: I. Bivariate plot (L versus W1) for the M3 of Tetraconodontinae; II: Bivariate plot (L
versus W2) for the M3 of Tetraconodontinae; III: Bivariate plot (L versus W3) for the M3 of
Tetraconodontinae; IV: Bivariate plot (W2 versus W3) for the M3 of Tetraconodontinae. The
indices in the figures is given as; A = Tetraconodon intermedius (Mks/pal/pu.1020), B = T.
intermedius Thaung-Htike et al., 2005 (GSI B 675), C = T.cf. intermedius Thaung-Htike et
al., 2005 (NMMP-KU-IR 0225), D = P. wui Made & Han (1994).
[43]
The teeth of Tetraconodon minor are larger than that of Conohyus but they are smaller
than Tetraconodon mirabilis and Tetraconodon minor, which has been considered to be the
smallest and the most primitive Tetraconodon (Pilgrim, 1926; Colbert, 1935a; Made, 1999;
Thaung-Htike et al., 2005). However, Tetraconodon minor teeth are found to be three times
larger than Conohyus sindiensis (Thaung-Htike et al., 2005). Pickford (1988) and Made
(1999) concluded that geologicaly younger tetraconodontine suids have larger tooth size.
Recently, a large morphological gap existed between Tetraconodon minor and Conohyus
sindiensis, which has been filled by T. malensis described from Central Myanmar (Thaung-
Htike et al., 2005, fig. 7). According to Thaung-Htike et al. (2005), this newly described
species Tetraconodon malensis is having a close similarity with C. sindiensis and is smaller
than C. indicus (Lydekker, 1884) and C. thailandicus (Ducrocq et al., 1997). However, the
relative size of the enlarged P4 with respect to M1 and the relatively small size of M3
distinguished it from C. sindiensis.
Tetraconodon mirabilis described by Pilgrim (1926) from Jammu which is synonymous

to T. intermedius described later by Made (1999) is considered to be approximately of Dhok
Pathan or Late Nagri equivalent and that of T. minor from the base of Irrawady series is Early
Late Miocene age. Tetraconodon teeth of the Western coast of India from the Khari Nadi
Formation of Kutch is of Early Miocene age. Tetraconodon magnus which is a large size (M1
length of about 31.1 mm) species of Tetraconodon from between Markhanda Pass and
Pinjore is of Late Miocene age (Made, 1999). Made (1999) discussed the sequence of T.
minor (Yenangyoung) – T. intermedius ( Haritalyangar, Jammu) – T. magnus (Hasnot), in
which he suggested that T. minor is probably equivalent to lower part of Nagri Formation and
that of T. intermedius ranges from the upper part of Nagri Formation to, at least apart of the
Dhok Pathan Formation (see, Fig. 50 in Chapter-V).
Rhinocetidae indet.
(Fig. 10)
Material and Horizon: - Mks/pal/pu. 1021 from the bluish grey sandy shale just above the
limestone bed of Itamundia, Baripada Beds, Orissa.
[44]
Fig. 10: A and B: isolated tooth fragment of Rhinoceridae sp. indet.; C & D: SEM image of
the enamel microstructure of Dentine, EDJ, HSB, RE of Rhinoceridae sp. indet, Hunter-
[45]
Schreger Bands (HSB) are displaying alternate dark and light bands; E: Enamel showing the
crystallites of Prismatic and Interprismatic Matrix; F: Radial enamel in the Rhinoceridae sp.
indet; G & H: Prism in cross section with an open prism sheath; I: the outer enamel surface
of the enamel.
Description:-
The tooth surface shows growth lines of Perikymata (Fig. 10: A & I). Enamel prisms are
clearly visible in the present specimen (Fig. 10: E & F). These prisms start at the Enamel-
Dentine Junction from where they grow out towards the outer surface of the tooth (Fig. 10: C
& D). The prisms are bounded by interprismatic matrix; in the etched enamel surface two
distinct series of prism direction are found in the enamel surfaces which are occurring in
alternate tracts along the enamel (Fig. 10: E). Alternate light and dark bands of enamel
(Hunter-Schreger Bands) can be seen under the microscope due to the variation in the
reflective property of prism sets, depending upon the direction of the prisms with respect to
the source of light (Fig. 10:D). The HSBs are inclined towards the occlusal surface of the
tooth. It is seen in both the occlusal surface and side of the teeth. Radial enamel is seen at the
top portion of the enamel (Fig. 10: C & F). Thus, schmelzemuster of the tooth is represented
by Hunter-Schreger Bands and Radial enamel.
Remarks: - Rensberger and Koenigswald (1980) discussed the complexity in a study of

microstructures of the enamels of Rhinoceros teeth. As the present specimen is only fragment
piece, the identification of the specimen up to the genus and species level is difficult.
However the microstructural features observed in the SEM image suggest that the tooth is
having closer affinity to the Family Rhinoceritidae. The dark and light band of HSB which is
diagnostic of Rhinoceritidae (Rensberger and Koenigswald, 1980) is present in the specimen.
3.3.0 Crocodilian Remains

Order: Crocodilia
Suborder: Eusuchia
Family: Crocodilidae
Crocodilus sp. indet
(Fig. 11: A, B)
[46]
Material and Horizon: - Mks/pal/pu. 2030 from the yellowish grey shale bed of
Mukurmatia, Baripada Beds, Orissa.
Fig. 11: A and B photomicrograph of a tooth of Crocodilus sp. indet. in lateral view.
Description: - Tooth not well preserved, medium size, isolated, conical in shape, backwardly
curved, tapering towards the acute apex; fine longitudinal serration are found along the
crown (Fig. 11). The basal part shows an oval shape in the cross sectional view.
Remarks: - Crocodiles are most commonly found in the tropical and subtropical region. The
lack of well preserved tooth makes it difficult to identify the specimen. The fossil teeth of
crocodilian have also been described from the Siwalik of India (Patnaik and Schelich, 1993),
Siwalik of Nepal (Schleich, 1993), from the Middle Eocene of Subathu Formation of India
(Sahni et al., 1978), Eocene Kuldana Formation of Pakistan ( Buffetaut, 1978), Tertiary of
Kutch (Sahni and Mishra, 1975). It is considered that Ghavialis are well adapted to the
tropical woodlands with wide river systems, deep permanent water channels and associated
riverine shore areas ranging from rocks, sand banks grassbanks. Crocodylus on the other
hand seems to be more restricted to hot swamp areas ranging from small riverine forests with
side channels, streams to ponds, lakes and slower river part of tropical climate (Patnaik and
Schelich, 1993).
[47]
3.4.0 Coprolites of crocodilian affinity
3.4.1 Introduction
‘Coprolite’ is a scientific name for the fossilized excrement, faeces or droppings of

ancient animals (Buckland, 1935). The term coprolite was first assigned to bodies found in
the Lias of Lyme Regis, England, by W. Buckland (1829) and he was also the first scientist to
correctly interpret the origin of coprolite. By examining coprolites, one can infer the diet of
the animals (if bones or vegetal remains are present). The best evidence for specific dietary
components may come from preserved stomach contents or coprolites, but such evidence is
exceptionally rare (Chin and James, 1998). Coprolites are also faunal materials; they attest to
animals presence at a site and their study is an invaluable source of information on animal
behavior and on site ecology (Chin and James, 1998; Francoise et al., 2003). Even though the
fossilization of coprolites is rare, a detailed study of few coprolites can give useful
information regarding the palaeoenvironment of the area (Callen, 1969; Lumle, 1969). A
detailed study of the taphonomic history of the coprolite can give important information of
the depositional environment in which certain organisms and their remains are buried in
relation to the environment in which they thrived, providing valuable clues to the
palaeoecological construction of the study area (Thulborn, 1991; Hunt, 1992; Hunt et al.,
1993, 1994, 1998; Jamie et al., 2008; Chin, 1994, 2007; Chin and Gill, 1996). Species of
animal coprolites are identified based on knowledge of the faeces of local faunal and on
morphometric characters associated with macro and microscopic analysis, including parasites
(Araujo et al., 1989; Ferreira et al., 1991).
The study of coprolite is as important as the study of the fossilized bones in the
interpretation of taphonomy, palaeoenvironment and the palaeoecological set up of the site.
Coprolite gives a handy data on the diets of the animals, their feeding behavior and habitat.
The plant and animal tissues present in the coprolitic mass give us first hand information on
the dietary habit and digestive system of the producer (Mohabey and Samant, 2003).
Information about the plants and animals in the coprolite can tell us about the animal that
produced the coprolite. Even though the identification of the coprolite producers’ species is a
matter of challenge a careful study of their morphology, preservation patterns their internal
contents can give an idea of coprolite producers. Thus, coprolites can give an important
[48]
source of palaeobiological information. Coprolites constitute a potentially vast source of
information on animals and the ecology of the site in which they lived (Jouy-Avantin et al.,
2003; Thulborn, 1991). However indirect evidences such as their size and association with
the skeleton remains have proved significant in establishing relationship between the
coprolitic mass and their producers (Mohabey and Samant, 2003). Thus, they provide a
unique and important source of palaeobiological information (Thulborn, 1991; Hunt, 1992;
Chin, 1994; Hunt et al., 1994; Chin and Gill, 1996; Northwood, 2005).
Fig. 12: A: Locality map of Baripada. B: Stratigraphic section of coprolite bearing Baripada
Beds at Mukurmatia.
Coprolites can be used in reconstructing the palaeovegetation, palaeoclimates and diet of

the coprolite producing animals (Vijaya et al., 2009). If the coprolites yield spores, pollen
together with the presence of woody, vegetable matter and plant remains, the source of the
coprolite producing animal is herbivore. The study of the organic chemical composition of
[49]
coprolites and the molecular composition of the same can be a clue to the digestive efficiency
of the source animals and the components of the diets even in the absence of macroscopic
inclusions (Chin et al., 1991; Chin and Brassell, 1993; Northwood, 2005). The abundance of
granular lumps of vegetal matter and wood pieces of varied shape and size is suggestive of a
complex local plant community (Vijaya et al., 2009).
Coprolite material were collected from the locality of Mukurmatia (210 54’40”: 860
44’15”), which is about 12 km northeast of Baripada (Fig. 12). More than 40 coprolite
specimens were collected from the bluish shale which lies above the limestone bed. This
shale bed is greenish in colour at the bottom, and as it becomes sandier towards the top, the
colour of the sediments changes from greenish to yellowish.
3.4.2 Materials and Methods

The Candidate collected more than 40 specimens (along with coprolite fragments) during
the fieldwork conducted in the month of May 2008 to April 2011. The measurement of the
coprolite samples were carried out using vernier caliper. S.E.M. study of the samples was
carried out using JEOL S.E.M. JSM 6490 housed at the Geology Department, Panjab
University, and Chandigarh.
3. 4. 3 Descriptive studies of coprolites

Description is an important component of study of coprolite (Jouy-Avantin et. al., 2003).
However, lithified coprolites are highly variable in size and shape present special challenges
for paleontologists (Chin, 2007). Coprolites can be identified by analyzing their structural
patterns, such as spiral or annular markings, mineral contents and the inclusion of undigested
food fragments and by studying their associated fossil remains. However, small coprolites are
very difficult to differentiate from other inorganic pellets or eggs. The main criteria in such
cases relate to the structures that are preserved on the outside surface of the animals’ food
which help to recognize the questionable bodies.
Besides the study of shape, size, morphology, etc. study of the composition of the
specimen is an important tool to identify the source of the faecal matter. As the important
information regarding the ancient diets, tropic relationships, digestive efficiency, soft tissue
preservation, etc are usually hidden inside the specimens; description of coprofabric and the
analysis of coprolite mineralogy are often very useful for classification of the coprolite type
[50]
(Chin, 2007).
.
Fig. 13: Scatter plot showing the variation in diameter of the coprolites from the Mukurmatia
locality, Baripada Beds.
Most of the coprolites are incomplete (Figs. 14), therefore the exact length of the
specimens are difficult to estimate in most cases. However, some specimens are found to be
complete (Figs. 14). The specimens ranged in lengths from 10-40 mms and in diameters from
10-25 mms. The longest coprolite recovered is of 40 mms in length. Certain coprolites are
found with their lengths exceeding their maximum diameter. The variation in diameter of the
coprolites from Mukurmatia is given in the scatter plot in Fig. 13. The coprolites are mostly
well rounded at the centre. The lateral ends are usually categorized as either convex
(rounded), pointed, dorsoventrally flattened, indented or having a cleavage scar.
All the coprolites collected from the Baripada Beds are anisopolar, non-spiral coprolites.
Baripada coprolites can be divided into four groups by analyzing their definite shape, forms
and sizes. These groups are briefly discussed as below.
Group 1. This type consists of an incomplete, tear-drop shape (Fig. 14: 1) coprolite in
[51]
which the initial end is broadly rounded; however the terminal end is typically a clear
nipple-like projection. Only one specimen of such type of coprolite was collected. It
attains a maximum diameter of 2.1 cm. The external surface is smooth and whitish-grey in
colour with rare scratches on it.
Group 2, Type 1. A total of six specimens of ovoid-shape to sub-cylindrical coprolites
(Figs. 14: 2-5) fall under this category. The diameter of these coprolites ranged between
2.8 and 3.3 cm. However the exact lengths of the specimens is unknown as they are
incomplete.
They possess gently tapering terminal end with straight longitudinal axis. Some
specimens have a smooth surface whereas others have a rough surface. One of the
specimens possesses a rough blackish ferruginous concretionary coating on the surface
with a circular constriction at the circumference of the coprolite representing an arrested
stage in the breaking up of the faeces into segments (Fig. 14: 2). The presence of a
wrinkle on the smooth surface is due to muscular pressure exerted during its dropping
through the rectum. A close examination of the polished section of this type of coprolites
shows the presence of small holes inside the coprolite formed due to escaping of gas from
the excrement (Fig. 15: 8).
Group 2, Type 2. This variety consists of one kidney-shaped coprolite (Fig. 14: 6). The
surface of this coprolite is smooth with an abrupt bending in the middle forming a kidney
shape. The terminal ends are little convex.
Group 3. Type 1. Four incomplete and three complete specimens of cylindrical shape
coprolites are included under this category (Fig. 14: 7-10). The coprolites are circular in
cross-section, in which the longitudinal axis is straight. The length of the specimen usually
exceeds the maximum breadth. The length of these coprolites varies from 2 to 5 cm with
the maximum diameter of 3.2 cm. The terminal ends of these coprolites are bluntly
rounded. Surface of some of the coprolites are smooth and some other coprolite contains
numerous holes and burrows that might be due to the action of coprophages, bacteria and
fungi (Fig. 14: 9, 10); Circular opening in these coprolites represent the depression usually
left by the escaping gas bubbles. One of the incomplete coprolites bears longitudinal
striation and ribbing (Fig. 14: 9) at their surfaces, which may be formed due to the puckering
[52]
of the intestinal mucosa during peristalsis.
Fig. 14: 1: Typical teardrop-shaped crocodilian coprolite having a smooth surface

feature with a maximum diameter of 2.1 cm; 2: Ovoid-shaped crocodilian coprolite
[53]
having a circular constriction at the circumference, 3.3 cm diameter; 3: Ovoid-shape
crocodilian coprolite in which the outer surface is pile out; 4: An incomplete Ovoid-shape
crocodilian coprolite with scratches, eroded and striated surface feature marks on the surface,
3.5cm diameter; 5: Ovoid-shape crocodilian coprolite; 6. Kidney-shaped coprolite (?)
crocodilian coprolite, 2.5 cm diameter; 7. Cylindrical crocodilian coprolite, the surface
of which is marked with scratches, trail of invertebrates, 2.7 cm diameter; 8: A
cylindrical shape crocodilian coprolite having little constriction and a smooth surface, 2.3 cm
diameter; 9-10: Cylindrical-shaped crocodilian coprolites containing numerous cavities
and burrows which are due to the action of coprophages, bacteria and fungi: 2.2 –3.2 cm
diameter; 11: Spindle-shaped (?) reptilian coprolite showing a longitudinal furrow,
probably of crocodilian origin, with sharp tapering and trailing end, 2.5 cm diameter;
12: Small, sausage-shaped coprolite (? reptilian) with a diameter of 8 mm. Scale: all the
bars in the plate represent 1cm.
Group 3, Type 2. One complete spindle-shaped coprolite (Fig. 14: 11) with a length of 3.2
cm and diameter of 1.5 cm falls in this category. This coprolite has gently curved
longitudinal axis with a sharp trailing and tapering end. The surface is little eroded and it
appears that the dung larvae, coprophages, had made craters into the dung.
Group 3, Type 3. One small incomplete sausage-shaped coprolite (Fig. 14:12) falls in this
category. It has broadly rounded initial end. The longitudinal axis is curved; the external
surface is smooth with a sub-circular outline. The maximum diameter of the specimen is 8
mm. This specimen differs from others in size, which might have been produced by a
different source.
Group 4. Certain coprolites are found to be of irregular in nature. They don’t posses regular
shape and form (Fig. 15: 1-5). Most of such irregularly shaped coprolites are dorsoventrally
flattened, the surfaces of which is characterized by significant burrows and cavities. The
surface might have been caused by the activities of dung eating larvae, coprophages,
microorganisms and fungi.
[54]
Fig. 15: 1-5: Irregular shape coprolites, dorsoventrally flattened (source unknown), surface
of some of the irregular coprolites bears boring caused by the activities of dung eating larvae,
coprophages, microorganisms and fungi; 6, 7: Crocodilian coprolite showing inclusion of
fish teeth (? Sparus cinctus Agassiz) that has not been digested (SEM image); 8:
Cylindrical coprolite showing spherical cavities inside due to escaping of gas bubbles
(SEM image); 9: Cylindrical-shaped crocodilian coprolite showing slightly weathered
[55]
and eroded surface feature (SEM image); 10, 11: Cylindrical coprolite showing the surface
boring filled with clay (SEM image).
3.4.4 Composition and Geochemistry
Most of the coprolite specimens are found consisting of calcium phosphate due to the
phosphatization of a part of the original organic matter (Hantzschel et al., 1968). Thus it is
easily differentiable from the surrounding sediment. The fine grained ground mass of the
coprolites are usually found with inclusions of unaltered organic matter of both animal and
plant remains such as bones, teeth, scale, otolith, keratin, chitin, woody tissue, cuticles,
phytolith, seed, etc. and inorganic matter including carbonates and silica which are the result
of complex mechanical and replacement processes within the original organic matter (Walter
et al., 1968; Thulborn, 1991).
The composition of the coprolite is vital in tracing the source of the producers and
feeding strategies of the source animals. In case, if the dietary residue is destroyed by
digestion and digenesis, it becomes difficult to identify the producer. So, the study of
chemical composition of the coprolite plays an important role in tracing the source animal.
Thus, the carnivore droppings tend to be rich in phosphates because they often include
skeletal debris derived from the prey (Retallack, 1984; Thulborn, 1991). Bradley (1946)
suggested that carnivore feaces are preferentially fossillised because of the availability of
dietary calcium phosphate. However, the droppings of herbivores are deficient in phosphates
and their survival as coprolites frequently depended on mineral enrichment (Bradley, 1946;
Thulborn, 1991). Coprolites of herbivores sources contain wide range of microspores of wide
varieties of plant groups and certain palynomorphs (Andrew, 1977; Vijaya et al., 2009).
The primary composition of many coprolites may be altered by diagenesis and

lithification (Hantzschel et al., 1968). Thus, in most coprolite samples we usually find the
original composition which has been altered and the chemical components have lost the
surrounding rocks or inclusion of the surrounding sediments. At some occasion the chemical
exchange between the coprolites and the surrounding replaces the original components partly
or completely by other minerals such as silica, calcium carbonates, dolomite, iron oxides,
pyrite, siderite, galena, etc (Hantzschel et al., 1968; Thulborn, 1991). In such cases,
[56]
identification and differentiation of coprolites from inorganic nodules and concretions is very
difficult (Amstutz, 1958; Hunt et al., 1994).
To know the geochemical composition of the coprolites, two of the coprolite samples
were analyzed using Energy Dispersive X-ray Detector System (EDX) with X Flash Detector
4010, 10 mm, type 1106. Make: Bruker axs, Germany. The analysis was carried out at the
Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology. The accuracy of the instrument is 100 ± 5 %. One
specimen each from regular shape coprolite and irregular shape coprolite were analyzed with
Energy Dispersive X-ray Detector System for studying the geochemical composition of the
coprolites. The details of the results are given below: -
The irregular coprolites show wider varieties of elemental composition consisting of Ca,
Fe, Si, P, Al, K, Mg, Ti and O. The composition of the irregular coprolites shows that the
specimen is not fossilized at an ideal condition rather it has suffered some sort of deformation
during the process of fossilization as intrusion of some of the elements, which are not
commonly found in coprolites for example Al, K, Ti, etc. have occurred. This observation
suggests that the specimen had been disturbed at the time of deposition and fossilization
either by the load of the overlying sediment or by the action of the moving water which might
have brought these elements into the coprolites. In Fig. (16) and table no. (9), the variation of
composition of different elements in the irregular coprolite is given.
The regular shaped coprolite shows ideal geochemical composition comprising of Ca

(38.66%), O (43.27), P (16.12) and Si (0.44) (Also see, Fig. 17 and Table no. 10). Not much
deformation in the shape of the coprolite shows a normal fossilization condition of the
specimen under a normal and low energy environment. The coprolite is phosphatic and
silicified. The faecal matter is very fine grained and homogeneous without vegetal inclusion.
No food material is identified in thin sections except for inclusion of fish teeth in one of the
coprolite sample.
[57]
cps/eV
3
O Mg Al Si P K Ca Ti Fe
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
keV
Fig. 16: EDX graph of an irregular shape coprolite from the locality Mukurmatia of Baripada
Beds.
Elemen Atomic Series unn. C norm. C Atom. C Error

t number [wt.-%] [wt.-%] [at.-%] [%]
Al 13 K-series 4.57 4.41 3.91 0.2

Ca 20 K-series 18.45 17.81 10.63 0.6
Fe 26 K-series 14.68 14.16 6.07 0.4
K 19 K-series 1.96 1.89 1.16 0.1
Mg 12 K-series 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.1
O 8 K-series 42.44 40.94 61.21 22.1
P 15 K-series 8.09 7.81 6.03 0.3

Si 14 K-series 12.23 11.80 10.05 0.6
Ti 22 K-series 0.44 0.43 0.21 0.0
Total 103.6 100 100
Table no. 9: Elemental composition of an irregular shape coprolite from the locality Mukurmatia
of Baripada Beds.
[58]
cps/eV
12
10
O Si P Ca
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
keV
Fig. 17: EDX graph of regular shape coprolites from the locality, Mukurmatia of Baripada Beds.
Element Atomic Series unn. C norm. C Atom. C Error

number [wt.-%] [wt.-%] [at.-%] [%]
Calcium 20 k-series 38.66 39.25 22.94 1.2

Phosphorus 15 k-series 16.12 16.36 12.37 0.7
Silicon 14 k-series 0.44 0.45 0.37 0.0
Oxygen 8 k-series 43.27 43.94 64.31 5.4
Total : 98.4 100 100
Table no. 10: Elemental composition of a regular shape coprolite from the locality Mukurmatia
of Baripada Beds.
3.4.5 Coprolite source

The study of coprolites and identification of the source animal that produced them is a very
[59]
challenging task. Certain coprolite features including size, shape, surface marks and inclusion
can be used to assign the specific producers of the coprolites (Chin and James, 1998; Thulborn,
1991; Case, 1922; Augusta, 1936; Truesheim, 1937; Matley, 1939; Walter et al., 1968; Andrew,
1977; Caroline, 2005; Sawyer, 1981). A detail comparison of shapes, sizes and structures of
these coprolites with other crocodilian coprolites suggested that the majority of the coprolites
from the Baripada Beds are of crocodilian source. The study of crocodilian coprolites with
definite shapes and forms which were previously used by Sawyer (1981) is used as a reference
for the identification of the source of producers. A typical crocodilian coprolite is characterized
by its teardrop, ovoid, cylindrical and kidney shapes (Skoczylas, 1979). Again spindle shape
coprolites have been found to be typically of reptilian origin most probably belonging to
crocodiles. A clearly nipple like projection at the terminal end of the coprolite appeared to be
often seen in the coprolite of crocodilian origin (Skoczylas, 1979; Micheal, 1997). Some of the
crocodilian coprolites contain inclusion of fish teeth (Fig. 15: 6, 7). There is hardly any evidence
of other inclusions such as the vegetal remains, which could be due to the presence of a very
high gastrointestinal acid inside the stomach and intestine of crocodile (Waldman and Hopkins,
1970). Moreover, lack of any macrofloral remains in these coprolites may also indicate a non
herbivore origin. One of the specimens in our collection (Fig. 14: 12) is quite different from the
other coprolites in size and shape which may suggest a different source of producer. The sources
of the irregular shape coprolite are unknown to us. The identification of the source of these
coprolite materials to crocodiles is supported by the presence of crocodilian teeth from this
horizon.
3.5 Systematic description of Selachians

The proper identification of the selachian needs a systematic study of its morphological
characteristic of the teeth, the size and shape of the teeth, etc. In Fig. 18, certain morphology of
shark teeth and their respective terminology is described. Shark teeth consist of enameloid
(covered part), the crown and the basal root. The size of the tooth is measured in terms of height
of the crown plus the height of the root. The height of the crown is taken from its base to the
apex of the tooth. In sharks, the crown shows a more or less sharp point. The teeth are measured
both from the external as well as internal surface. The external (labial) and internal (lingual) face
ends at the sharp cutting edge at the cusp which may also be found blunt on the anterior teeth.
The lateral margin of the teeth may be serrated or smooth. The serration may be coarse, medium
[60]
or fine. The lateral margin is designated as anterior or outer margin i.e. edge towards the snouts
and posterior or inner margin i.e. the edge towards the caudal region of the fish.
Fig. 18: Typical morphology and terminology of Shark teeth. A: Galeocerdo sp.; B: Odontaspis
sp.
Some of the key tooth terminology used in this thesis for identification and description of the
specimen as according to Purdy (2003) are as given below:
[61]
Cutting edges:
• Angular- Refers to t he angularit y of the shallow notch, whi ch occurs about
midwa y between the apex and base of the cutting edge; it m ay be sub -angul ar
(sli ghtl y arched).
• Arcuate - Forming an arc.
• Notch, deep - Distal cutting edge of the crown is more or less vertical and forms a distinct notch
with the shoulder.
• Notch, shallow - Refers to the notch on the cutting edge about halfway between the apex and the
base of the cutting edge forming a very obtuse angle.
Crown attitude:
• Recurved - Apical portion of crown or denticle is curved
Serrations:
• Weak - Can be seen clearly only with the aid of a magnifying glass or a microscope.
• V e r y f i n e - N o t e a s y t o s e e w i t h t h e n a k e d e ye ; c a n b e f e l t b y r u n n i n g
finger nail along the cutting edge.
• Fine - Visible to the naked eye; the number of serrations is not easily countable with the naked
eye.
• Coarse - The number of serrations is easily countable with the naked eye.
Terms indicating direction:
• Labial - Lip side of tooth; it is usually flat or the flattest side.
• Lingual - Tongue side of tooth; it is usually rounded, and on the root, this side has a central
foramen (circular opening) or a transverse groove.
• Mesial - The side of the tooth toward the midline of the jaws where left and right jaws
meet.
• Distal - The side of the tooth away from the midline of the ja ws.
Class: Chondrichthyes
Subclass: Elasmobranchii
Order: Selachii
Suborder: Galeoidae
[62]
Family: Isuridae
Genus: Isurus Rafinesque, 1810
Generic Characteristics: - In this genus, teeth are small to large (upto 7 cm), slender, awl-
shaped; the crown edge is smooth, pointed, without lateral denticles. The cusp is having a more
or less cambered lingual face and a flat labial face slightly overhanging the labial face of the
root. Anterior teeth are asymmetrical. It is higher than broad; the crown hight is more that the
height of the root. The root is bulky with long lobes, well developed and wider than the crown,
strongly bifurcated with the shallow incision of median nerve. Lateral teeth show a broad
triangular crown, straight on the lower jaw. The root of the lateraly teeth is lateral flat with
expanded lobes. Lateral edges are straight and basal edges are concave. The lateral branches of
the root are short and thick. The lingual face of the crown is more convex than the labial surface
which is smooth to sometime concave.
Geographical Distribution and Habitats: - The species of the genus Isurus are widely
distributed in the present day seas surrounding India, South East Asia, Japan, Australia, Hawaii,
New Zealand, Chile, Africa, etc. The genus is mainly found in the tropical to temperate seas.
Isurus oxyrinchus Rafinesque, 1810

(Fig. 19: 1, 2)
Isurus spallanzani Bonaparte, 1839, pl. 1. fig. 1.

Carchariolamna heroni, Hora, 1939, pl.13, fig. 1-4, text-fig. 1b.
Carchariolamna heroni, Tewari, 1959, p. 232a, pl. x.
Isurus spallanzani, Mehrotra et al. 1973, pl. 1, fig. 10, p. 181-200.
Isurus spallanzani, Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981, pl. 1, fig. 1, p. 83-121.
Isurus spallanzani, Tiwari et al., 1998, p. 12, pl. 1, fig. 7, 8.
Isurus spallanzani, Mondal et al., 2009, p. 144, pl. II, fig, 12, 13, 14, 15.
Material and Horizon: Two isolated teeth under the specimen nos. Mks/pal/pu. 1050 and 1051
from the limestone bed of Itamundia, Baripada Beds, Orissa.
Diagnosis: - Teeth are medium in size; the crown is slender, lenceolete and elongated unlike that
of Isurus pagoda which is having an arrow-head shape crown. The erect to hook crown of the
[63]
lateral teeth are wider than those of the anterior teeth. The tip of the crown is having labial
recurvature (Purdy et al., 2001). In labial view the roundness of the crown foot obscures the
definition of the mesial and distal cutting edges (Purdy et al., 2001). The mesial and distal
cutting edges of the teeth never extend downward to the crown base (Garrick, 1967). The species
also differs from Isurus hastalis having outwardly curved apex of the crown. The root is thick,
bifurcation is deep and it is distinct from I. reteroflexus which has strong divergent lateral
branches.
Description: - Teeth are medium in size; roots are incomplete; the crown is slender, lenceolete
and elongated and is higher than broad. The lateral edges of the crown are smooth and lack
serration. The crown shows slight curvature towards the inner side of the base and at the outer
side the curvature is at the apex. The lingual surface of the crown is slightly concave towards the
base and a little bit convex at the apex (Fig. 19: 1) while the labial surface of the crown is flat , it
is slightly convex towards the base. The lateral edges are nearly rounded towards the base and
slightly sharp at the apical half. The enamel of the crown overhangs the root. The root is well
developed, thick and bifurcated, internal branches of the root are short, width of the root is more
than the width of the crown. The internal surface of the root is moderately convex and bears a
sharp longitudinal incision for the insertion of the median nerve. The convexity is maximum in
the central part while on the lateral branches it slopes down. The basal margin of the root is
semicircular. These characters indicate that the root may be a median root of either the upper or
the lower tooth. In Fig. (19: 2), the root is incomplete, much elongated, and its width is more
than the height. The crown is short and thin, its lateral edges are smooth but sharp. It may be
identified as one of the lateral tooth.
Discussion: - Mehrotra et al. (1973) and Sahni and Mehrotra (1981) described Isurus spallanzani
from the lower Miocene limestone bed of Baripada. Hora (1939) previously described the
species as Carchariolamna heroni from Balesore, Orissa. The present specimens are closely
identical to their specimen. Even though the roots are not well preserved in one of the specimen
(Fig. 19: 2) the crowns are identical to Isurus spallanzani. The species is also found in the west
coast of India in the lower Miocene shales of Lakhpat and Matanumadh and the Miocene
limestone lying below the ossiliferous conglomerates of Piram Island (Mehrotra et al., 1973). It
has also been reported from the Miocene of Mizoram (Tiwari et al., 1998). Recently, the species
is found to be conspecific with Isurus oxyrinchus since there are many similarities in the
[64]
diagnostic characters and therefore Isurus spallanzani has been taxonomically revised as Isurus
oxyrinchus (Mondal et al., 2009).
Oxyrhina spallanzani and Oxhirhina pagoda had also been reported from the Pegu System of
Burma (Noetling, 1901). Jordan (1967), in his classification of fishes put the Oxyrhina as a
synonym of Isurus. Bigelow and Schroeder (1948) put Oxyrhina as synonym to Isurus while
describing the fishes of the Northwesst Atlantic. They put Oxyrhina spallanzani as a synonym
of Isurus oxyrhinchus on the basis of their morphological characters besides dental morphology.
However, White (1926) on the other hand preferred to maintain the name Oxyrhina while
describing Oxyrhina desori var. praecursor from the Eocene of Nigeria. The name Oxyrhina has
been dropped and Isurus is being used in the recent literature (Antunnes and Jonet, 1970). Purdy
et al. (2001) considered I. desori as the junior synonym of I. oxyrinchus.
Isurus pagoda Noetling, 1901

(Fig. 19: 3)
Isurus rameshi Mehrotra et al., 1973, p. 188, pl. 1, fig. 12.

Isurus pagoda Mehrotra et al., 1973, p. 188, pl. 1, fig. 11.
Isurus pagoda Sahni & Mehrotra, 1981. pl. 1, fig. 7.
Isurus pagoda, Mondal et al., 2009, pl. III, 1, 2, 3.
Materials and Horizon: -One isolated tooth under the specimen number Mks/pal/pu. 1052,
from the limestone bed of Baripada Beds, Orissa.
Diagnosis: - The teeth of this species are small to medium in size, the crown is having an arrow
headed shape towards the apex which makes it easily distinguishable from other species of
Isurus. The lingual face of the crown is slightly depressed at the middle half. The root is broad,
thick and bifurcated with acutely pointing lateral branches.
Description: - Tooth is medium size, chisel shape; the crown is higher than the root and assumes
the shape of an arrow-head towards the apex. Both the lingual view (internal surface) and the
labial view of the crown is convex, crown margin is smooth, rounded except in the apical part;
the apical part is like an isosceles triangle and is compressed. The thickness of the crown is
maximum at the base; the immediate cusp-root boundary in the lingual view is convex, but it is
flat in the labial view. The root is arched towards the lingual surface in profile. The root is thick,
[65]
bifurcated; lingual surface bears a shallow depression in the middle where median nerve is
present in the centre. The lateral branches of the root are short with pointed apices; the width of
the root is more than the width of the crown. The root is circular in cross-section and becomes
gradually flattened at the apex. The tooth may represent the median part of the jaw.
Fig. 19: 1-2: Isurus spallanzani. (Mks/pal/pu. 1050 & 1051), 1a, 2a in lingual view and 1b, 2b;
3: Isurus pagoda (Mks/pal/pu. 1052); 4: Isurus desori (Mks/pal/pu. 1053); 1a, 2a, 3a, 4a, in
lingual view; 1b, 2b, 3b and 4b in labial view and 1c and 3c in labio-lingual view.
[66]
Remarks: - Mehrotra (1973) and Sahni and Mehrotra (1981) have previously described Isurus
pagoda from the limestone beds of Baripada Beds, Orissa and Piram Island (West coast of
India). Isurus desori can be easily distinguished from Isurus pagoda by the absence of arrow
head and fine serration on the cutting edges. Mondal et al. (2009), revised Isurus rameshi,
described from Baripada Beds by Mehrotra (1973) as Isurus pagoda as it has no pronounced
arrow like head and its lateral surface is straight. In the Indian Ocean only two species of Isurus
are flourishing namely, I. glaucus and I. guntheri (Mishra, 1969). Bigelow and Schroeder (1948)
described I. oxyrhinchus from the Atlantic Ocean, I. glaucus from the Pacific and Indian Ocean
and I. gunthera from the Indian Ocean.
Isurus desori
(Fig. 19: 4)
Isurus desorii, Agassiz, 1843, p. 202, p. 37, fig. 8-13

Isurus desorii Chapman and Cudmore, 1924, p. 132, pl. 10, fig. 32.
Oxyrhina desori Leriche, 1957, p. 26. Pl. 44, fig. 18-23.
Isurus desori, Pledge, 1967, p. 152, pl. 4, fig. 7.
Isurus desori, Mondal et al., 2009, p. 142, pl. 2, fig. 7-11.
Materials and Horizon: - A single specimen under the specimen number Mks/pal/pu. 1053
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1053 is a medium size tooth with a narrow crown which is narrower
than Isurus hastalis. The crown is little curved, equilateral, slender, sigmoidal curvature in the
upper anterior teeth. The crown is elongate and much higher than broad and erect. The labial face
(Fig. 19: 4b) nearly flat and the lingual face (Fig. 19: 4a) are strongly convex, medial depression
is present at the middle near the root. The strongly bifurcated root is broader than high, thicker at
the middle and thinner at the distal. A long and constricted nutritive groove is present at the
middle of the root in lingual face which continues upto the base of the root. The cutting edges are
sigmoidal, apex pointing externally.
[67]
Remarks: - Mondal et al. (2009) had reported the species for the first time from the Baripada
Beds as well as from India. However, the specimen had been reported from Australia (Pledge
1967), from North and South America, Netherland, Chile. Chapman (1918) reported Isurus
desori and Isurus hastalis from the Miocene bed of Burma. This extinct species were found at
the age ranging from Middle Eocene (?) to lower Miocene (Pledge, 1967). It is believed that
Isurus desori gave rise to I. oxyrinchus and the evolution was anagenetic (www.fossilguy.com).
Order: Lamniformes Berg, 1958.

Family: Lamnidae Muller and Henly, 1838.
Genus: Carcharadon Linnaeus, 1758.
Generic Characteristics: - Teeth are small to large, flattened labio-lingually, erect; crown
triangular, broad near the base and sometimes narrow rapidly towards the apex at the lateral file,
teeth nearly as high as broad. Lateral edges of the crown are uniform and coarsely serrated in
contrast to the Carcharias in which narrower cusped teeth possess fine serrations. It differs from
other genera in the presence of a collar between the root and crown. Isurus and Lamna differ
from Carcharadon in having slender teeth with smooth edges. Teeth are with or without
denticles. Lingual surface of the crown is convex and the labial surface is flat. Root is thick,
wide, and deeply bifurcated. Lower jaw teeth are smaller and more slender than the upper jaw
teeth.
Geographical distribution and Habitat: - They are pelagic fishes, cosmopolitan form and
found in most of all warm tropical, subtropical to temperate seas and oceans including the
Mediterranean.
Carcharadon carcharias Linnaeus, 1758

(Fig. 20: 1, 2, 3, 4)
Carcharadon carcharias Mehrotra et al., 1973, p. 191-92. Pl. 2, figs. 2, 6 a-b.

Carcharadon carcharias Tiwari et al., 1998, p. 12, pl. 1, fig. 5, 6.
[68]
Carcharadon carcharias Sahni & Mehrotra, 1981, p. 112-113.
Carcharadon carcharias Modal et al., 2009, p.141, pl. II, figs.1-4.
Material and horizon: - Four specimens under the specimen number Mks/pal/pu. 1054-1057
and many unnumbered specimens from the bluish grey shale bed of Mukurmatia, Baripada Beds,
Orissa.
Diagnosis: - The teeth of this species are medium to large size, triangular to sub-triangular, erect
or slightly oblique, nature of teeth distinguishes it from C. megalodon. Crown is higher than the
root. The lateral edges of the crown are uniformly serrated. In upper jaw teeth, edges are with
slight convexity at the base. In lower jaw teeth the crown is narrow and the lateral edges are
concave unlike that of C. angustiden and C. bigelowi. Lingual face is convex and the labial face
is flat. The root is U-shaped, bearing a transverse groove and a lingual protuberance, broader
than high, and in lower jaw teeth the root is prominent with a strongly convex lingual surface and
a flat labial surface. The root is without bifurcation.
Description: - The teeth specimen number Mks/pal/pu. 1054-1057 are large, higher than broad,
equilateral triangular in shape, apex is pointed, erect or slightly oblique towards the distal or
posterior side; crown compressed, higher than the root, the lateral edges of the crown are sharp,
fully serrated; the lingual face of the crown is convex while the labial face of the crown is flat, no
lateral denticles at the cusp. The crown is narrow and lateral edges of the crown are little concave
suggesting that the tooth is a lower jaw tooth (Plate 2: fig. 3, 4). The upper teeth have edges with
slight convex at the base. In specimen no. Mks/pal/pu. 1054, the height of crown is nearly equal
to the width of the root (Fig. 2: 1). The lower teeth have high cusps and serration in the crown
blade (Fig. 20: 3, 4). The root is prominent, bilobate and a nutritive groove is developed at the
middle of the root lobes. The roots of the lower teeth possess lingual protuberance (Fig. 20: 4).
The base of the root is slightly convex. Both the lingual and labial surface of the root is more or
less flat.
[69]
Discussion: - The present specimen resemble Carcharadon carcharias described from the
limestone bed of Baripada Beds (Mondal et al., 2009), Lower Miocene shales of Matanumadh,
Lakhpat (Mehrotra et al., 1973; Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981) and Piram Island (Prasad, 1974).
These specimens have close resemblance with Carcharadon carcharias reported from the
Bhuban Formation of Mizoram (Tiwari et al., 1998; Ralte et al., 2011). Carcharadon carcharias
is known primarily from the Pliocene and later times (Casier, 1966; Gillette, 1984). Carcharadon
carcharias has also been described from the Miocene of Panama and Tertiary Caribbean faunal
province (Gillette, 1984), Miocene Pirabas Formation of Northern Brazil (Reis, 2005) and in the
Pliocene of Angola (Antunes, 1978).
Carcharadon aff. C. tandoni, Mehrotra et al., 1973

(Fig. 20: 5)
Carcharadon aff. C. tandoni, Mehrotra et al., 1973, p.189, pl. 2, fig. 4a-b.
Material and horizon: - Mks/pal/pu. 1058 and a few unnumbered specimens from the bluish
grey shale bed of Mukurmatia, Baripada Beds, Orissa.
Diagnosis: - According to Mehrotra et al. (1973), the teeth of Carcharadon tandoni are nearly as
high as broad; the crown is uniformly serrated. The margin of the crown is a concavity at the
base which distinguishes it from C. carcharias to which it closely resemble. It is easily separated
from C. megalodon robustus in its smaller size and from C. angustidens in the absence of lateral
denticles.
Description: - The specimen Mks/pal/pu. 1058 (Fig. 20: 5) is of medium size; the height of the
tooth is nearly equal to the breadth; crown triangular, slightly oblique towards the distal margin
and the crown is acutely pointed. In lingual view (Fig. 20: 5a), the crown is convex and
uniformly serrated and the serration is not bifid while in the labial view (Fig. 20: 5b) it is flat and
bears a small longitudinal groove which runs upto the middle of the crown orienting towards the
base. Lateral denticles are absent. A thin collar separates the crown and the root. The root is low,
thick, broad; its height is nearly equal to the height of the crown. In lingual surface, a median
nutritive groove is present. The base of the root in labial view is slightly curved.
Discussion: - The present tooth is closely similar to Carcharadon aff. C. tandoni described from
the limestone beds of Baripada Beds (Mehrotra et al. 1973, Pl. 2, fig. 4). They distinguished
Carcharadon tandoni from C. anguistiden in the absence of lateral denticles and from C.
[70]
megalodon and C. megalodon robustus in smaller size and from C. carcharias in having
concavity on the posterior margin of the crown. So, far there is no report of C. tandoni from the
Western Coast of India.
Carcharadon megalodon Agassiz, 1838

(Fig. 20: 6, 7)
Carcharadon megalodon Ghosh, 1959, p. 675-676, pl. 88, fig. 10, 19.
Carcharadon megalodon Mehrotra et al., 1973, p. 189, pl. 2, fig. 1.
Carcharadon megalodon Mondal et al., 2009, p. 142, pl. II, fig. 5-6.
Material and Horizon: Mks/pal/pu. 1059 from the greyish shale bed of Mukurmatia, Baripada
Beds, Orissa.
Diagnosis: - Teeth of this species are large, triangular, higher than broad. Teeth of the upper jaw
are slightly oblique but those of lower jaw are symmetrical. Both the mesial and distal edges are
uniformly weakly serrated. The lingual face of the crown and the root are strongly convex and
the labial face is concave. The thickness of the root is more than the thickness of the crown.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1059 is large size tooth which is robust, erect and higher than broad.
Crown triangular, margins of the crown finely serrated; height of the crown is nearly as high as
the height of the root, the lingual faces (Fig. 20: 6a, 7a) are convex and the labial face (Fig. 20:
6b, 7a) are flat, lateral cusplet absent. Root strongly developed, broad, collar present between the
root and the crown. Middle of the margin root base is deeply concave forming a V-shape (Fig.
20: 6), margins of the root are nearly vertical.
Discussion: - Carcharadon megalodon had been earlier described from the Baripada Beds
(Ghosh, 1959; Sahni & Mehrotra, 1981; Mondal et al., 2009), Lower Miocene shale of Lakhpat
(Mehrotra et al., 1973). Carcharadon megalodon was previously considered as belonging to the
genus Procarcharodon (Casier, 1966). The species is found through the Miocene to Pliocene
deposits of coast and pelagic zones of tropical and subtropical seas (Serralheiro, 1954; Antunes
& Jonet, 1970), including the Tertiary Caribbean Faunal Province (Longbottom, 1979; Gillette,
1984) and Pliocene of Angola (Antunes, 1978). The genus Carcharodon occurs as early as
Burdigalian, Miocene in Switzerland (Leriche, 1927), however it is possible to question this
occurrence (Antunes, 1977).
[71]
Fig. 20: 1-4: Carcharadon carcharias (Mks/pal/pu. 1054-1057); 5: Carcharadon aff. C. tandoni
(Mks/pal/pu. 1058); 6: Carcharadon megalodon (Mks/pal/pu. 1059); 1a, 2a, 3a, 4a, 5a, 6a and
7a are in lingual view; 1b, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5b and 6b are in labial view .
Genus: Lamna Cuvier, 1817

Generic characters: - The teeth are of medium size (upto 2cm high), anterior teeth have a
straight, triangular cusp which is broader at the base; a pair of low cusplet is well separated from
the base of the cusp. The base of the labial face of the crown overhang the labial face of the root.
The enameloid of the lingual face of the crown is completely smooth. The root is bilobate, thick
with a groove, the extremity of the roots are well separated lobes having rounded outline. In
[72]
lateral teeth, the crown extends transversely, and the cusplets are more distant from the base of
the cusp. In young individuals, the anterior teeth often lack cusplets and in those teeth the heel
lacks cutting edges.
Geographical distribution and habitats: - The genus Lamna is common in continental offshore
waters but range inshore to just off beaches. They are found favorably occuring in the northern
Pacific Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea in both coastal waters and in the open ocean mostly within
30–70°N and 30–50°S latitudes.
Lamna sp.
(Fig. 21: 1, 2)
Material and Horizon: - Mks/pal/pu. 1061 & 1066 from the limestone bed of Itamundia,
Baripada Beds, Orissa.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1061 & 1066 (Fig. 21: 1, 2) are medium size, incomplete teeth;
crown erect, high, narrow with pointed apex, broader at the base. The edges of the crown are
smooth without any serration; lingual face of the crown is convex while the labial face of the
crown is flat or slightly convex, low cusplet present at the base of the cusp. Root poorly
preserved, bilobate, a small nutritive groove is present at the center of the root in lingual view.
Remarks: - The present species is comparable to the Lamna sp. of Mishra (1980) described from
the ossiliferous limestone of Babia stage, Middle Eocene at Nareda, Kutch and Lamna sp. from
the Miocene of Mizoram (Ralte et al., 2011). The incomplete nature of preservation of the
specimen makes it difficult to give a precise description and identification of the specimen. The
present species is the first record of Lamna sp. from Baripada Beds, Orissa.
Family: Odontaspidae
Genus: Odontaspis Agassiz, 1838
Generic Characteristics: - Teeth are mainly characterized by very sharp and very high cusplets,
particularly well developed on the lateral teeth that posses 2-3 pairs while the anterior teeth have
only 2 pairs. The crown is awl-shaped unlike that of Isurus oxyrhincus in which the teeth are
elongated and slender. The crown may or may not possess lateral denticles at the base and
shoulders. If the lateral denticles are present, it can be easily distinguishable from the closely
similar genus like Isurus. Lingual face of the crown is very convex and the cutting edges do not
reach the base of the cusp and the cusplets. The lateral edges of the crown are smooth and
[73]
rounded. The root of the anterior teeth is bilobate and two branches of the root are well distinct
while the bifurcation of the root in the posterior teeth is indistinct. In the lingual surface a mark
protuberance at the root is present.
Geographical distribution and habitats: - The genus Odontaspis (Sand Shark) are found in the
tropical and warm temperate water of Northeastern Atlantic, Pacific, Indian Ocean and the
Mediterranean usually in deep water.
Odontaspis baripadensis, Mehrotra et al. 1973

(Fig. 21: 3)
Material and Horizon: An isolated tooth under the specimen number Mks/pal/pu. 1062 from
the limestone bed of Itamundia, Baripada Beds, Orissa.
Diagnosis: - The teeth of this species are small, awl shape, without any lateral denticles. It
resembles closely to O. cuspidata but the teeth of Odontaspis baripadensis is smaller in size and
the root is wider which makes it distinguishable from O. cuspidate. It is also different from
similar looking teeth O. acutissima in having small lateral denticles and divergent root branches.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1062 (Fig. 21: 3) is very small, awl-shaped, lateral denticle absent.
The tooth is higher than broad; crown is smooth, oblique and the cusp is bent and pointed
lingually. Lateral edges of the crown smooth, margin of the crown is rounded and bear no
serration. The lingual surface of the crown is concave and the labial surface of the crown is
strongly convex. The root is thick, low and wide, median nutritive groove is present in the
lingual face.
Discussion: - The present specimen is identical to Odontaspis baripadensis of Mehrotra et al.
(1973; pl. 2, fig. 10). The specimen is also similar to O. cutissima but the specimen is distinct
from the latter in the absence of lateral denticles and divergent root branches. The genus
Odontaspis described from the West coast of India includes Odontaspis tricuspidatus,
Odontaspis cuspidate, Odontaspis heptacuspidata and Odontaspis attenueta (Mehrotra et al.,
1973; Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981).
[74]
[75]
Fig. 21: 1-2: Lamna sp. (Mks/pal/pu. 1061 & 1066); 3: Odontaspis baripadensis (Mks/pal/pu.
1062); 4-5: Carcharhinus aff. C. balochenesis (Mks/pal/pu. 1063, 1064); 6: Carcharhinus aff. C.
sorrah (Mks/pal/pu. 1065); 7-9: Carcharhinus macloti ( Mks/pal/pu. 1067, 1068, 1069); 1a, 2a,
3a, 4a, 5a, 6a, 7a, 8a and 9a are in lingual views; 1b, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5b, 6b, 7b, 8b and 9b are in
labial view.
Order: Carcharhiniformes Compagno, 1973

Family: Carcharhinidae Jordan and Evermann, 1896
Genus: Carcharhinus Blaiville, 1816
Carcharhinus aff. C. balochenesis Adnet et al. 2007
(Fig. 21: 4, 5)
Galeocerdo latidens Thomas et al., 1989, in text.
Galeocerdo latidens Case and West, 1991, pl.1, fig. 2.
Galeocerdo latidens Welcomme et al., 1997, in text.
Galeocerdo sp. Bajpai and Thewissen, 2002, txt- fig. 2i.
Carcharhinus aff. C. balochenesis Mondal et al. 2009, pl.1, fig. 1, 2.
Material and Horizon: - Mks/pal/pu. 1063, 1064 from the limestone bed of Baripada Beds
Orissa.
Diagnosis: - The diagnostic characters of the teeth of Carcharhinus balochenesis as per Adnet et
al. (2007) is given below: -
“Large fossil Carcharhinus species known only by teeth. Dignathic heterodonty with flat, blade-
like cusps in the upper teeth and weak erected cusps in the lower teeth. This species is
characterized by upper teeth with triangular crown without distal heels in anterior and
anterolateral files, respectively, its upper mesial edges appear to be deflected distally and both
cutting edges are fully serrated and doubly serrated in the lower to middle part. Root is large and
well developed in height, especially in the central part leading to a medially incurved crown-root
boundary in labial face. Lower teeth have a cusp with serrated cutting edges from apex to lateral
heels and occasionally a deeply arched root in anterior files”.
[76]
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1063, 1064 (Fig. 21: 4, 5) are large, triangular (nearly equilateral) in
shaped, crown are incomplete and slanted distally. The crown is convex in lingual view and flat
in labial surface. Both the distal and the mesial edges are fully serrated in which the serrations
are coarser at the basal half of the crown. In labial and lingual view, the mesial cutting edges are
concave in the lower part in anterior and anterio- lateral files (Fig. 21: 4) while the distal cutting
edges are straight or slightly convex. The base of the crown is highly reduced and is without a
distinct distal heel. The roots are robust, fully developed and sometime larger than the crown
(Fig. 21: 5); median nutritive groove is present at the base of the root in the lingual surface but it
is not so prominent, enamel boundary on labial face medially curved. The lateral extremities of
the root are rounded and the base margin of the root is curved and medially arched. The present
teeth are the teeth of the upper jaw as the teeth of the lower jaw have erect crown and central
cusp with uninterrupted cutting edges.
Discussion: - Adnet et al. (2007) described Carcharhinus balochenesis from the late Eocene to
early Oligocene of Pakistan. After a close examination and comparison with certain other
Carcharhinus sp., Adnet et al. (2007) observed that C. balochinesis upper teeth are
distinguished by a lower cusp, a lesser pointed apex which is deflected distally (Purdy et al.
2001), large root, nearly lobate with basal edge medially arched and an enamel boundary on
labial face often medially curved. They discussed the probability of certain species including the
Galeocerdo latidens (Thomas et al., 1989) and Galeocerdo sp. (Bajpai and Thewissen, 2002,
text-fig. 2f) and Isurus sp. (Bajpai and Thewissen, 2002, text-fig. 2i) to be related to C.
balochinesis. The present specimens have close affinity to the C. balochinesis. Mondal et al.
(2009) described Carcharhinus aff. C. balochenesis from the greenish blue shale of Mahulia.
Their specimen differs from the present specimen in having some striation marks on both the
root and the crown.
Carcharhinus aff. C. sorrah (Valenciennnes in Muller and Henle, 1841)

(Fig. 21: 6)
Carcharhinus ackermannii Santos and Travassos 1960, 4-5.

Carcharhinus sorrah Reis 2005, fig. 2.
[77]
Material and Horizon: One isolated tooth under the specimen number mks/pal/pu 1065 from
the greenish blue shale of Itamundia, Baripada Beds Orissa.
Diagnosis: - Teeth are medium to small in size, the crown is compressed, both the edges of the
crown are serrated, the root is wide, oblique, with lateral grooves and serrations. These teeth
have been assigned to the extent species of C. ackermamnii by Santos and Travassos (1960).
Description: - Mks/pal/pu 1065 (Fig. 21: 6) is small, triangular in shape with a single cusp and
serrated edges, crown is compressed. In lingual view the crown is little convex and slightly
inclined distally, the lateral edges are uniformly serrated, mesial notch is not prominent and in
labial view the crown is flat. The shoulders (heel) also have serration which are coarser then the
edges. The root is wide, incomplete, compressed, and a median nutritive groove is present.
Discussion: - The present specimen has close affinity to the Carcharhinus sorrah described from
the Miocene Pirabas Formation of Brazil (Reis, 2005). Based on the aspect of the crown, that is
wide, oblique with a lateral groove and lateral serrations this specimen originally described as
Carcharhinus ackermannii Santos and Travassos (1960) were assigned to the extant species
Carcharhinus sorrah. The incomplete nature of preservation of the tooth in the present specimen
makes it difficult to assign it to Carcharhinus sorrah. Beside this, the crown of the present
specimen is not as wide as that of Carcharhinus sorrah of Reis (2005).
Carcharhinus macloti Muller and Henle, 1841

(Fig. 21: 7-9)
Hypoprion macloti Muller and Henle, 1841, pl. 1, fig. 21.
Hypoprion macloti Mehrotra et al. 1973, p. 186, pl. I, fig. 7.
Carcharhinus macloti Mondal et al. 2009, pl. 1, fig. 6-7.
Material and Horizon: - Mks/ pal/pu. 1067, 1068, 1069 and few unnumbered specimens from
the greenish blue shale of Itamundia and bluish grey shale of Mukurmatia, Baripada Beds,
Orissa.
Diagnosis: - The teeth of this species are small in size. Crown erect to slightly oblique; the
lingual face of the crown is convex and the labial face is flat; both the mesial and distal margins
[78]
are smooth with a prominent notch at the mesial edge lateral cusplets are present at the base of
the anterior margin. Root is broader than high with a nutritive groove at the lingual face.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1067, 1068, 1069 (Fig. 21: 7-9) are small teeth, triangular in shape,
higher than broad; crown erect to oblique posteriorly with pointed apex, mesial edges with a
prominent notch, mesial and distal edges are straight and smooth without any serration. At the
anterior margin near the base small cusplets are present. In lingual view, the crown face is
convex where as it is flat in the labial view. The crown root boundary in the labial view is nearly
straight; however, it is convex in the lingual view. The root is bifurcated, broader than high,
prominent median nutritive groove is present at the middle of the root in the lingual view.
Discussion: - Carcharhinus macloti had been described under Hypoprion and it is reassigned as
Carcharhinus macloti following www.funet.fi (May, 2008). The present species had been
described from the Lower Miocene shale of Lakhpat and Matanumadh (Kutch) and limestone
bed of Baripada (Mehrotra et al. 1973). Ralte et al. (2011) described Carcharhinus aff. C.
macloti from the Bhuban Formation of Mizoram. Carcharhinus macloti shows marked similarity
with C. (P). gangeticus in having similar nature of labial and lingual surfaces, being higher than
broad and bifurcated root; however, it differs from C. (P) gangeticus in having non-serrated
crown margins (Mondal et al. 2009).
Carcharhinus frequens (Dames, 1883)

(Fig. 22: 1-3)
Carcharias frequens Dames, 1883, p. 143, pl. III, fig.7a-p.

Aprionodon frequens Casier, 1971, p. 2, pl. 1, fig. 6.
Carcharhinus frequens Case and Cappetta ,1990, p. 12, pl. 5, fig. 102-107, pl. 7, fig. 143-148
and 151-159.
[79]
Material and Horizon: Mks/pal/pu. 1072, 1073, 1074 and few unnumbered specimen from the
limestone bed of Itamundia, Baripada Beds, Orissa.
Diagnosis: - Carcharhinus frequens displays a dignathic heterodonty (Case and Cappetta, 1990).
The teeth are erect or slightly slanted, lingual face is convex mainly at the base and the labial
face is flat in the apical part. Well developed heels without cutting edge. Root strongly
developed with a thick lingual protuberance, median groove wide and deep, root lobes have
enlarged and rounded extremities.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1072, 1073, 1074 are medium size teeth; crown are convex, serration
are absent at the edges, higher than the root; the lingual face is strongly convex, the convexity is
more prominent at the base of the crown while the labial face of the crown is flat near the apical
portion and it becomes more convex near the root where the lateral cutting edges are missing.
The heels are lacking cutting edges. The median groove is wide and deep. The lower anterior
teeth have an erect cusp, well developed root with a lingual protuberance, enlarged root lobes
and rounded extremities and the root widens mesio-distally and the heels are also elongated
mesio-distally (Fig. 22: 1 & 3). The upper tooth (Fig. 22: 2) has the crown with triangular outline
and slanted distally, the lingual face of the crown is convex and the labial face is flat. Both the
crown margins are devoid of serration. Heels are oblique, long, separated from the cusp an
obtuse angle on the mesial side; it is less open on the distal side. The root is thinner than the
lower teeth (Fig. 22: 1 & 3).
[80]
Fig. 22: 1-3: Carcharhinus frequens (Mks/pal/pu. 1072, 1073 &1074); 4-8: Carcharhinus
gangeticus (Mks/pal/pu. 1070, 1071, 1076, 1077 & 1078); 9: Carcharhinus egertoni (
[81]
Mks/pal/pu. 1096); 10: Carcharhinus priscus (Mks/pal/pu. 1096); 1a, 2a, 3a, 4a, 5a, 6a, 7a, 8a,
9a and 10a are in lingual view; 1b, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5b, 6b, 7b, 8b, 9b and 10b are in labial view.
Discussion: - Gosh (1959) described an isolated tooth of Carcharhinus frequens from the
yellowish brown aranaceous limestone bed of Baripada Beds. Teeth of Carcharhinus frequens
have also been decribed from the Late Eocene of Fayum depression of Egypt (Case and
Cappetta, 1990). Their specimen were compared with Aprionodon frequens ( from Al Jubaigib,
lower part of “ Midra Saila Shales Member’, Middle Eocene of Qatar) of Casier (1971) in which
they found that Casier’s specimen possess crown which is broader at the middle part and the root
with a more arcuate and angulous basal edges. However, they didn’t rule out the possibility of
intra specific variability. The present specimens are closely identical with their teeth. The
species, which seems to be restricted to Egypt, was previously assigned to the genus Aprionodon
but it is now admitted that this cannot be separated from the genus Carcharhinus (Garrick, 1982,
1985; Compagno, 1984; Case and Cappetta, 1990).
Carcharhinus (Prionodon) gangeticus (Muller and Henle)

(Fig. 22: 4-8)
Material and Horizon: - Mks/ pal/pu. 1070, 1071, 1076, 1077 & 1078 from the greenish grey
shale bed of Mukurmatia and limestone bed of Itamundia of Baripada Beds, Orissa respectively.
Diagnosis: - The teeth of this species are of medium size with oblique crown which is a scalene
triangle in shape distinguishing it from other species of Carcharhinus. Both the mesial and distal
margins are uniformly serrated. The root is short, thick, but broad. The height of the root and
crown is nearly equal.
Description: - The teeth are moderately large, triangular in shape but typically asymmetrical,
wider than the height, oblique, both the edges have uniform serration covering upto the apex
(Fig. 22: 4-8). Serrations are more prominent towards the base. The lingual face is convex while
the labial face is flat, anterior margins broadly convex in outline and large, while the posterior
margins are smaller with prominent concavity at the base (Fig. 22: 7, 8). The roots are relatively
[82]
broader, bilobate, median nutritive groove prominent, which is deep and wide. Thickness of the
roots more than that of the crown, the lingual face of the root is convex and the labial face is flat.
Discussion: - Mehrotra et al. (1973) described the species based on the single specimen collected
from the limestone bed of Baripada Beds and distinguished from C. jhingrani by having
concavity at the base of the crown, uniform serration, and broader root. Carcharhinus sp. 2
described by Adnet et al. (2007) are comparably similar with the present species in having
oblique upper teeth, uniform serration, width exceeds height and prominent nutritive groove,
however Carcharhinus sp. 2 is smaller in size. Carcharhinus (Prionodon) gangeticus is also
comparable with C. aff. C. balochenisis described by Mondal et al. (2009) in having serration on
both the cutting edges, width is greater than the height and a large sized tooth. But, C. aff. C.
balochenisis differs in having a raised root-crown boundary, longitudinal striation on both root
and crown.
Carcharhinus egertoni Agassiz, 1847

(Fig. 22: 9)
Carcharhinus egertoni Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981, pl. 2, fig. 4.
Carcharhinus egertoni Longbottom, 1979, p. 61-61, fig. 8-12.
Material and Horizon: - Mks/ pal/pu. 1075 from the greenish grey shale bed of Mukurmatia
and limestone bed of Itamundia, Baripada Beds, Orissa respectively.
Diagnosis: - The teeth of this species are medium to large size, nearly as high as broad. The
upper teeth are compressed, robust, triangular, high with shoulder almost continous with the
crown blades. Both mesial and distal margins are serrated. In labial view the root is wide. The
lower teeth are almost vertical and strongly convex on the lingual face. The species is
distinguished from C. floridanus and C. falciformis in having coarser serration at the base of the
crown and feeble or finer serrations towards the apex (Mehrotra, 1979). Lower teeth of
C.egertoni closely resemble the lower teeth of C. obscurus and C. leucas but it is found that in
the later species teeth are feebly serrated with smooth margin in contrast to the coarsely serrated
teeth of the former. The broad root is nearly equal to the height of the crown.
[83]
Description: - Mks/ pal/pu. 1096 (Fig.22: 9) is a medium size tooth; height is nearly equal to the
width; crown erect to slightly oblique, crown broadly triangular along the wide root, edges of the
crown are serrated and the serration is coarser towards the base. Both the edges of the crowns are
concave at the base and become gently convex towards the apex of the crown. The lingual face
of the crown is convex and the labial face of the crown is flat and bears a minor ridge at the
middle which does not extend upto the apex. The present specimen is an upper jaw tooth. The
crowns of the upper jaw are short and narrow and the crowns of the lower teeth are longer,
slender, symmetrical and the labial face is more convex than that of the upper teeth. The roots
are broad, bilobate; the lower margin of the enamel between the crown and root is crescent
shape. The root possess deep nutritive groove at the lingual surface. The labial surface of the root
is more or less flat with a slight depression at the middle.
Discussion: - Ghosh (1959) described Carcharhinus (Prionodon) egertony from the limestone
bed of Usurdihi. One of his specimens has similarity with P. aculeatus Davis but it was relatively
more acute and the serration was stronger. Sahni and Mehrotra (1981, pl. 2. fig. 4) described
Carcharhinus (Prionodon) egertoni from the Lower Miocene unconsolidated conglomerates
from Akwara, Bhavnagar. The present specimens are closely similar to those of Leriche (1942,
fig. 6). White (1955) discussed the big similarity between the lower teeth of Carcharhinus
(Prionodon) egertony and that of present Carcharhinus longimanus (Poey). Reis (2005) revised
the species as C. perezii comparing this fossil with the recent teeth from C. perezii. C. perezii
occurs in the Tertiary of the Caribbean Province (Gillette, 1984) including the Ecuadorian
Miocene fauna (Longbottom, 1979) and is found today close to Caribbean, including Cuba,
Bahamas, Jamaica, Barbadas, Venezuela (Garrick, 1982).
Carcharhinus aff. C. priscus Agassiz

(Fig. 22: 10)
Carcharhinus priscus Cappetta, 1970, pl. 13, fig. 1-19 (Pl. 14, fig. 1-20).
Carcharias priscus Antunes and Jonet, 1970, pl. XVII, fig. 120-131.
Carcharias priscus Antunes et al., 1981, pl. II, figs. 18.
Carcharias priscus Karasawa, 1989, p.55, pl. VII, figs. 9-11.
[84]
Materials and Horizon: - Mks/pal/pu. 1075 from the bluish grey shale bed of Mukurmatia,
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1075 (Fig. 22: 10) medium size tooth, crown narrow, pointed,
inclined slightly distally. The tooth has fine and uniform serration along the cutting edges,
shoulder of the crown is broad; serration is uniform at the base of the cusp and towards the apex
only a few serration or no serration is found at the apex. In lingual view the crown is convex and
in labial view it is slightly convex. The root is low, broad, bilobate; median groove is prominent
in lingual view, the basal margin of the root is slightly concave.
Remarks: - The specimen presently described can be compared with the C. priscus of Cappetta
(1970, pl. 14, figs. 1-20). The lower teeth of C. egertoni (Longbottom, 1979) have close
ressemblance to the present specimen. It differs from C. egertoni which is having narrower root
and finer serration. So, far C. priscus has not been reported from Baripada Beds. From this single
specimen it is difficult to assign it to C. priscus as most of the lower teeth of Carcharhinus
appear similar. C. priscus had been described from the Miocene Bhuban Formation of Mizoram
(Ralte, 2011), Miocene sequence of Hokuriku district, Central Japan (Karasawa, 1989), Miocene
Formations of Algarve coast, Portugal (Antunes and Jonet, 1970; Antunes et al., 1981).
Carcharhinus perseus Adnet et al., 2007

(Fig. 23: 1- 4)
Carcharhinus aff. C. perseus Adnet et al., 2007, p. 309-312, fig. 4.

Material and Horizon: Mks/pal/pu. 1080, 1081, 1082, 1083 and few unnumbered specimens
from the limestone bed of Itamundia and bluish grey shale beds of Mukurmatia, Baripada Beds,
Orissa.
Diagnosis: - According to Adnet et al. (2007) the diagnostic characters of Carcharhinus perseus
is given as “Medium carcharhinid species belonging to the Bull-group and only known by teeth.
This species is characterized by a very slight dignathic heterodonty with blade-like upper and
lower teeth. Teeth of upper and lower jaw are strongly labio-lingually compressed, cutting edges
[85]
are fully serrated (more developed on upper teeth), root is never larger than crown, arched on its
basal edge and having a weak reduction of the nutritive groove on its lingual face”.
Description: - Medium size teeth, the crown are triangular in outline, higher than broad, labio-
lingually compressed, erected to slightly oblique distally; the mesial and distal edges of the
crown are fully serrated (Fig. 23: 1-4). The serration is strong in the lower part of the crown
thereby decreasing the size of serration at the apex. The mesial heel absent in the upper jaw and
feebly developed in the lower jaw. The mesial cutting edges are convex and the distal cutting
edges are concave in the middle part however the degree of concavity may vary. The distal heel
is oblique, serrated and marks a small angle with the distal edge. The crown is larger than the
root but is also more or less equal (Fig. 23: 2); the root labio-lingually compressed, lingual face
of the crown may also be slightly convex; a narrow constricted nutritive groove is present at the
middle of the two weakly developed root lobes in the lingual face. The roots are flat in both the
lingual and labial faces. The basal edges of the root are arched in the labial and lingual view. The
extremity of the root lobes are often vertical both in lingual and labial view.
Discussion: - Adnet et al. (2007) described this specimen from the early Oligocene of Egypt,
Oman and Pakistan. They distinguished Carcharhinus perseus from the closely resembling C.
ambionensis in having a crown larger than the root, cusp more robust and having a very limited
nutritive groove on upper teeth. Adnet et al. (2007) also compared Carcharhinus perseus with C.
jingrani which were reported from Miocene of Piram Island, Gujarat (Mehrotra et al. 1973, pl. 1,
fig.1; Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981, pl. 2. fig. 3) in having equilateral crown, broad root and vertical
root. The tooth of C. jingrani possess basal edge of the root less arched and a deep nutritive
groove. Mondal et al. (2009) has described Carcharhinus aff. C. perseus from Mahulia, Baripada
Beds. Their specimens differ in having higher ratio between the crown and the root and almost
uniform serration on both the edges. This is the first record of the species from the Indian soil.
[86]
Carcharhinus longimanus Poey, 1861
(Fig. 23: 5-7)
Material and Horizon: - Three isolated dermal denticles under the specimen numbers
Mks/pal/pu. 1202, 1203 & 1204 and few unnumbered specimens from the bluish grey shale of
Mukurmatia, Baripada Beds.
Diagnosis: - The dermal denticles of Carcharhinus longimanus is having a root plate with a
broader spine. The horizontal spine is with five or sometimes seven sharp low ridges and
corresponding number of cusps of which the median cusp is the longest. The width of the spine
is more than its height. It is distinguished from C. limbatus which has curved spine and larger
root and from C. nicaraguensis which is having smaller plate.
Description: - In both the specimen, the root plates are smaller than the spine. The spines are
arched, horizontal; broader than the root plates; width of the spine is more than its height. The
spine consists of seven low but sharp ridges, the last two ridges are not preserved in (Fig. 23: 6).
In Mks/pal/pu. 1202 (Fig. 23: 5) the last two marginal ridges are faintly developed. One of the
specimen (Fig. 23: 7) consists of five low but sharp edge ridges. The median ridges are
prominent and longer than the lateral ridges. There remains a broad gap between the two
consecutive adjacent cusps of all the specimens (Fig. 23: 5-7). All the ridges join the root plate
separately.
Remarks: - Dermal denticles of Carcharhinus longimanus had been described from the Miocene
limestones of Baripada Beds (Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981). Carcharhinus longimanus is
distinguished from Carcharhinus nicaraguensis in having smaller root plate and more arched
spine.
[87]
Fig. 23: 1-4: Carcharhinus perseus (Mks/pal/pu. 1080, 1081, 1082 & 1083 respectively); 1a, 2a,
3a and 4a are the lingual view and 1b, 2b, 3b and 4b are labial view; 5, 6 & 7: Carcharhinus
longimanus (Mks/pal/pu. 1202, 1203 & 1204 respectively); 8-9: Carcharhinus sp. 1.
(Mks/pal/pu. 1205 & 1206); 10: Carcharhinus sp. 2 (Mks/pal/pu. 1207 & 1208); 12:
Elasmobranchii indet. (Mks/pal/pu. 1209).
[88]
Carcharhinus sp. indet. 1
(Fig. 23: 8-9)
Material and Horizon: - Two isolated dermal denticles Mks/pal/pu. 1205 & 1206 from the
bluish grey shale beds of Mukurmatia, Baripada Beds.
Description: - Both the specimens Mks/pal/pu. 1205 & 1206 (Fig. 23: 8-9) are incomplete, root
plates (normally rhomboidal in shape) are not preserved well; spine is nearly broad as long, the
strongly developed spines have five high and sharp ridges in which the median is the longest and
more prominent; cusps obtusely pointed. The cusps are separated by deep notches, each cusp has
a high and sharp topped ridge making the presence of intervening deep valley between the
adjacent ridges.
Remarks: - The specimens are similar in many respects to Carcharinus nicaraguensis which
had been earlier described from the limestone bed of Baripada Beds (Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981).
The absence of the root plate in the present specimen make it difficult to assign to a particular
species. They are different from Carcharhinus longimanus in having smaller root plate and
distinguished from Carcharhinus luecas which has only three prominent low cusps with broad
root plate.
Carcharhinus sp. indet 2

(Fig. 5: 10-11)
Materials and Horizon: - Two isolated dermal denticles Mks/pal/pu. 1207 & 1208) from the
bluish grey shale beds of Mukurmatia, Baripada Beds.
Description: - The specimen consists of broad root (Fig. 23: 10), Mks/pal/pu. 1208 (Fig. 23: 11)
is incomplete. The root plate is as broad as the spine. The spine is sub-horizontally fixed upon
the root plate. The spine consists of five very faint but low ridges (Fig. 23: 10). The ridges are
present on the anterior part of the spine where they meet with the root plate. Towards the
posterior margin the ridges are absent. Thickness of the spine is maximum towards the anterior
margin. The posterior margin looks smooth, ovate in shape.
Remarks: - The spine of the specimen are similar to that of Carcharhinus robusta (Sahni and
Mehrotra, 1981). However, it differs from the Carcharhinus robusta in which the root plate is
[89]
rhomboidal and its corners are well rounded and the thickness of the root plate is more than that
of spine.
Elasmobranchii indet.
(Fig. 23: 11)
Materials and Horizon: - An isolated tooth Mks/pal/pu. 1209 from the bluish shale bed of
Itamundia.
Comments: - Placoid scale, rectangular outline, root and cusp are not distinguishable; three
prominent ridges are present on the root plate: Precise identification of the specimen is not
possible.

(Fig. 24: 1-7)
Materials and Horizon: - Mks/pal/pu. 1090, 1091, 1092, 1093, 1094, 1095 & 1096 and few
unnumbered specimen from the yellowish shale beds of Itamundia and Mukurmatia, Baripada
Beds.
Description: - The teeth are small, scalene triangular in shape, erect (Fig. 24: 1, 2, 5) to slightly
oblique (Fig. 24: 3, 4, 6), labio-lingually compressed; crown higher than the root, the apex sharp
and pointed, the base of the crown is broad tapering down toward the apex. Both the mesial and
distal cutting edges are slightly concave and finely serrated throughout the margin except at the
apex. In lingual view the crown is slightly convex and in labial view it is flattened. The crown-
root margin is semicircular in outline. The root is low, flattened, median nutritive groove is
prominent at the lingual face; labial face of the root is flat, the basal margin of the root is
concave to nearly straight (Fig. 24: 1).
Remarks: - The present specimens are comparable with those of C. egertoni of Sahni and
Mehrotra (1981) in having compressed and triangular crown, crescent shape margin between the
crown and the root. However, it differs from C. egertoni in having finer serration and higher
crown with concave margins.
[90]
[91]
Fig. 24: 1-7: Carcharhinus sp. indet. 4 (Mks/pal/pu. 1090, 1091, 1092, 1093, 1094, 1095 & 1096
respectively); 1a, 2a, 3a, 4a, 5a, 6a & 7a are in lingual view and 1b, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5b, 6b & 7b are
in labial view; 8-9: Carcharhinus sp. indet. 4. (Mks/pal/pu. 1200 & 1201); 8a & 9a in lingual
view and 8b & 9b in labial view; 10: Carcharhinus sp. indet. 5 (Mks/pal/pu. 1210); 10a in
lingual view and 10b in labial view.
Carcharhinus sp. indet. 4.

(Fig. 24: 8-9)
Materials and Horizon: - Two isolated teeth Mks/pal/pu. 1200 & 1201 from the bluish grey
shale beds of Itamundia, Baripada Beds, Orissa.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1200 and 1201 are small size teeth, broader than high, crown slightly
compressed, apex acutely pointed, subtriangular in outline; lingual face of the crown is convex
and the labial face is flat; both the cutting edges are finely serrated, the serration is coarser at the
base. In Mks/pal/pu. 1200 (Fig. 24: 8), the mesial margin is convex and the distal margin is
concave. The cusp is erect in Mks/pal/pu. 1201 (Fig. 24: 9). Root low, broader than high, convex
in lingual view and flat in labial view. Deep median nutritive groove is prominent in the lingual
face and the basal margin of the root is slightly concave.
Remarks: - The present specimens are closely similar to Carcharhinus sp. of Ralte et al. (2011).
The specimens have close resemblance to the Prionodon sp. described by Hora (1939) from the
Eocene sediments of Balasore, Orissa. The closely similar C. bhubanicus of Ralte et al. (2011)
differs from the present specimen in having higher convexity at the mesial edge and more
concavity at the distal edge.

(Fig. 24:10; Fig. 25: 1-2)
Materials and Horizon: - Mks/pal/pu. 1210, 1220 & 1221 from the yellowish grey shale bed of
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1210, 1220 & 1221 small to medium size teeth. The crown erect to
slightly inclined (Fig. 25: 1) thick and as high as the root. Both the cutting edges are sharp,
nonserrated in (Fig. 24: 10; Fig. 25: 2). In Mks/pal/pu. 1220 (Fig. 25: 1) both the cutting edges
are feebly serrated, and the serration become stronger towards the heel. In the lingual view the
[92]
crown is convex and in the labial view it is flat or slightly convex. Roots are robust, thick,
bilobate. In lingual view, the roots present deep median nutritive grooves; the crown-root
boundary in labial view is straight. The basal margins of the roots are concave and the concavity
is more in Mks/pal/pu. 1220 (Fig. 25: 1). The teeth are the lower jaw teeth.
Remarks: - The present specimens can be grouped under the genus Carcharhinus on the basis of
the morphology and geometry including erect nature, feebly serrated margins at the base and
somewhat blunt apex and weakly bifid roots. As the specimens are small, identification of the
lower jaw teeth of Carcharhinus up to a particular species level is very difficult.
Genus: Negaprion Whitley, 1940
Generic Characters: - The teeth of this genus show heterodonty up to some extent. The upper
teeth are rather high, cusps are triangular, slightly bent toward the rear, the lateral heels are low
and feebly serrated, the cutting edges of the cusp are never serrated. The lingual face is slightly
convex and the labial face is flat. Root branches are much extended, basal face is rather broad
and flat with a clear median groove in lingual view. The cusps are narrower and thicker in the
lower tooth; the heels are generally not serrated.
Geographical distribution and Habitats: - The genus is found thriving well in tropical and
subtropical belt. They are found today in Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, Red sea, Gulf of Arabia,
etc.
Negaprion brevirostris
(Fig. 25: 3-4)
Material and Horizon: - Mks/pal/pu. 1212 and 1213 from the bluish grey shale of Itamundia,
Diagnosis: - Teeth are subtriangular to triangular in shape, higher than broad, crown is pointed
and base is swollen. Both the cutting edges are sharp and smooth. Teeth of the upper jaw have
serrations at the heels. The lower jaw teeth are narrower, erect with smooth cutting edges. The
root is broader than high; the convex lingual face of the root bears a median groove.
Description: - Both the teeth are medium in size, triangular, broader than high, crown oblique,
nearly as high as broad. Both the mesial and distal margin of the crown are sharp, base of the
[93]
crown finely serrated (Fig. 25: 3-4) suggesting that the teeth may belong to upper jaw. Lingual
face of the crown is convex (Fig. 25: 3a, 4a) and the labial face (Fig. 25: 3b, 4b) is flat. Root is
low, bilobate, broader than high, lingual face is convex and the labial face is slightly concave;
the median nutritive groove is prominently seen in the lingual face.
Remarks: - The present teeth are comparable reasonably with the Negaprion brevirostris
described from the Lower Miocene shales of Lakhpat and Matanumadh, Kachchh (Mehrotra et
al. (1973), from limestone bed of Baripada Beds, Orissa (Mehrotra, 1979) and from the Lower
Miocene Bhuban Formation of Mizoram (Ralte et al. 2011).
Negaprion eurybathrodon, Blake, 1862

(Fig. 25: 5-9)
Negaprion eurybathrodon, Blake, 1862.

Negaprion eurybathrodon, Longbottom, 1979, p. 61, Figs. 5-7.
Material and Horizon: Mks/pal/pu. 1214, 1215, 1216, 1217 and 1218 and few unnumbered
specimens from the limestone bed of Itamundia, yellowish grey shale of Mukurmatia, Baripada
Beds, Orissa.
Diagnosis: - Teeth are medium to large size, upper teeth have more triangular crown than in
lower teeth. The lateral extensions of enamel along the root have wavy edges. Anterior teeth are
symmetrical and not as wide mesio-distally as lateral teeth. The cusps of lateral teeth are more
distally inclined. The lack of serration at the main part of the crown distinguishes this species
from the lower teeth of Carcharhinus species in this fauna (Longbottom, 1979).
Description: Teeth are medium in size (Fig. 25: 7, 8) to large (Fig. 25: 5, 6, 9). Mks/pal/pu.
1214 and 1215 (Fig. 25: 7 & 8) have broad, triangular, distally inclined cusps and may belong to
upper lateral teeth. The labial face is nearly flat, whereas the lingual face is more convex. Long
mesial and distal shoulders are smooth to feebly serrated at the base. The edges of the cusp are
smooth and sharp, and the cutting edge is continuous with the cusp and lateral shoulders. The
root is widely expanded, median nutritive groove is deep. Lingual face of the root is convex and
the labial face is slightly concave.
Mks/pal/pu. 1216, 1217 &1218 (Fig. 25: 7, 8 & 9) have a tall, narrow, erect cusp that is
nearly perpendicular to the long lateral shoulders. They may belong to lower anterior teeth. The
labial face is nearly flat and the lingual face is convex. The cutting edge is smooth and
[94]
continuous across the entire crown. Root lobes are thin, nearly horizontal, with a deep lingual
nutritive groove (Fig. 25: 7, 8). Mks/pal/pu. 1218 (Fig. 25: 9) possess more acute apex, the lobes
are making obtuse angle with the cusp and the basal margin of the root is concave.
Remarks: - N. cf. eurybathrodon has been reported from North East India, Lower Miocene
Bhuban Formation of Mizoram (Ralte et al., 2011). The teeth of N. eurybathrodon are similar to
those of C. gibbesi. The lateral shoulders of C. gibbesi teeth are coarsely serrated, whereas those
of N. eurybathrodon teeth are generally weakly serrated to smooth. Negaprion eurybathrodon
has previously been recorded from American Eocene sites (Eastman, 1904; Longbottom, 1979;
Case and West, 1991). Adnet et al. (2007), however, suggested that Negaprion eurybathrodon
teeth are hardly differentiable from those of the other Eocene Carcharhinus species and
confusion is therefore possible with C. frequents (Dames, 1883) or C. gilmorei (Leriche, 1942).
Genus: Galeocerdo Muller and Henle, 1837.
Generic Characters: - Teeth are variable in size, oblique, height of the teeth are nearly equal to
the breadth; awl-shape and similar in both the jaws. The crown of the tooth is broad at the base
and towards the apex it is pointed with deep notch on outer margin. The margins of the tooth are
uniformly serrated. The inner margin of the tooth is convex while the outer margin is deeply
notched. Internal surface of the crown (lingual view) is strongly convex while the external
surface of the crown (labial view) is flat. Root single or sometimes apparently bifurcated. The
Galeocerdo teeth differs from the Hemipristris teeth mainly in two ways; first Hemipristris teeth
are higher than broad and less arched, secondly the serration in the Hemipristris teeth are larger
and prominent towards the apex and less prominent towards the base of the margin and ends
abruptly before reaching the apex.
Geographical Distribution and Habitat: - The enus Geleocerdo is cosmopolitan in distribution
throughout most of the ocean including the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans. It is mostly
found in temperate to tropical seas, inshore and offshore.
[95]
[96]
Fig. 25: 1-2: Carcharhinus sp. (Mks/pal/pu. 1220, 1221); 1a & 2a are in lingual view and 1b &
2b are in labial view; 3-4: Negaprion brevirostris (Mks/pal/pu. 1212, 1213); 3a & 4a are lingual
views and 3b & 4b in labial view; 5-9: Negaprion eurybathrodon (Mks/pal/pu. 1214, 1215,
1216, 1217 and 1218 respectively); 5a, 6a, 7a, 8a & 9a are lingual view and 5b, 6b, 7b, 8b &
9b are labial view; 10-12: Galeocerdo cuvieri (Mks/pal/pu.1000, 1001 & 1002); 10a, 11a & 12a
are lingual views and 10b, 11b & 12b are labial views.
Galeocerdo cuvieri Le Sueur

(Fig. 25: 10, 11 & 12)
Galeocerdo cuvieri Mehrotra et al., 1973, p. 184. Pl.1, fig.3.
Galeocerdo cuvieri Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981, p. 109, pl. 2, fig.12.
Galeocerdo cuvieri Mondal et al., 2009, p. 140, pl. 1, fig. 11&12.
Material and Horizon: - Three isolated teeth Mks/pal/pu.1000, 1001 & 1002 from the bluish
shale bed of Mukurmatia, Orissa.
Diagnosis: - The teeth are large, subtriangular, and broader than high. Both the mesial and distal
margins are serrated and the serration is fining up to the apex, right from the base. The cusp
bears a prominent notch on the distal blade. The margin below the notch is straighter as
compared to the convex margin of G. aduncus. The root is low and broad with a groove at the
middle; sometimes the root has a V-shape and a transverse groove (Reis, 2005).
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1000, 1001 & 1002 teeth are large, broad, well compressed,
subtriangular in shape and are broader than high (Fig. 25:10, 11, 12). The teeth deflect outward
in profile. The crown is labio-lingually thickened, deep notched at the mesial cutting edge,
distant margin is strongly curved. The margins are serrated; cutting edge finely serrated; in the
distal cutting edge serration are coarser at the middle which decreases towards the apex; margin
below the notch has graduated serrae, with those at the notch are the largest. Unlike the lingual
surface which is prominently curved, the labial surface is more flat. Root very broad,
compressed, internally moderately convex in which there is a small hole for median nerve (Fig.
25: 11), externally concave bearing a shallow groove. Root higher than the crown arched labio-
lingually which is thicker at the middle part.
[97]
Discussion and Remarks: - Earlier a single isolated tooth of Galeocerdo cuvieri had been
reported from the bluish shale bed of Mahulia by Mondal et al. (2009). The current specimens
are closely similar to that of Mondal et al. (2009, p. 140, pl. 1, fig. 11&12) from Mahulia,
Baripada bed, Sahni and Mehrotra (1981, p. 109, pl. 2, fig.12) and Mehrotra et al. (1973, p. 184.
Pl.1, fig. 3) from Kutch. Certain species of the genus Galeocerdo have been reported from the
Tertiary of Kutch, Gujarat (Mehrotra et al., 1973; Mishra, 1980; Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981).
Mehrotra et al. (1973) described Galeocerdo cuvieri from the Lower Miocene shales of Lakhpat
and Matanomadh (Kuthch) and Galeocerdo wynnei from the Lower Miocene shales of
Matanomadh (Kuthch) in which they distinguished G. wynnei from G. cuvieri by its small size,
very oblique and much compressed nature of the crown with the breadth 1/3rd of the height and
further the presence of serration upto the apical part of the crown, which is lacking in G. cuvieri.
Mishra (1980) described Galeocerdo sp. (G. Cuvieri and G. aduncas) from the ossifereous
limestone, Middle Eocene Babia stage, Nareda (Kutch). Sahni and Mehrotra (1981) also
described G. aduncus from the Lower Miocene unconsolidated conglomerates of Akwara,
Bhavnagar and Galeocerdo cf. semilivis White, 1926 from the Lower Miocene aranaceous shales
of Lakhpat, Kutch.
Order: Carchirhiniformes, Compagno, 1973

Family: Hemigaleidae Agassiz, 1843
Genus: Hemipristis Agassiz, 1943.
Generic Characteristics: - Teeth are large, elevated, triangular, higher than broad, crown
mostly curved or inclined backward towards apex making an awl-like shape; labio-lingually
compressed characterized by serrated distal and mesial cutting edges. The teeth of the upper jaw
are larger, flat and coarsely serrated while those of lower jaw are smooth, subulate, slender and
curved inwards without denticles or only one or two minute basal points. The crown is thickest at
the base and tapering towards the apex. Lateral edges are sharp and the serration on the upper
teeth are smaller at the base, becoming more prominent towards the apex but abruptly lacks
serration slightly before reaching the apex which makes it different from the Galeocerdo sp.
[98]
Some of the Hemipristris sp. bears serration on only one edge, others at the base and a few are
unserrated. Roots are swollen; divided into two diverge branches with prominent median ridge.
Geographical distribution and Habitats: - These sharks have been most commonly found in
neretic deposits containing warm water fauna (Cappetta, 1987) and found in most of the oceans
during Oligocene to Pliocene in Africa, Europe, Java, Burma, Ceylon, Indian, Zanzibar,
Mozambique channel, west coast of Madagascar, etc.
Hemipristris serra, Agassiz 1843

(Fig. 26: 1-4)
Hemipristris serra, Ghosh, 1959, p. 677, pl. 88, fig. 1, 6

Hemipristris serra, Mehrotra et al., 1973, p. 185. Pl.1, fig.5
Hemipristris serra, Tiwari et al, 1998, p.11, pl.1, fig.1.
Material and Horizon: - Four isolated teeth, Mks/pal/pu.1003, Mks/pal/pu.1004 and

Mks/pal/pu. 1006 are from the bluish grey shale bed of Mukurmatia and Mks/pal/pu.1005 is
Diagnosis: - Teeth of H. serra are large, erect and triangular; higher than broad. The crown is
higher than the root. The upper teeth are awl like, labio-lingually compressed and characterized
by serrated distal and mesial edge, sometimes lateral cusplets of reduced size can be observed at
the base of the crown (Marselle et al., 2007). The lower anterior teeth have a narrow and
elongate crown with lateral cutting edges ending at the midway along the lateral margins
(Cappetta, 1970). The root has a prominent lingual torus (Purdy et al., 2001), and lateral
branches are short.
Description: - Teeth are medium to large size, erect and triangular; higher than broad; crown is
slanted distally. In Mks/pal/pu.1003 (Fig. 26: 1) lingual face of the crown is convex and shows a
prominent protuberance; the labial face of the crown and root are slightly concave; surface of the
crown is slightly twisted giving an irregular profile; apex deflected strongly; a long longitudinal
[99]
groove is present at the middle of labial surface extending from the crown-root boundary towards
apex and in lingual surface also few longitudinal striations are present on the crown. Both the
edges of the crown are strongly serrated; serrations are prominent near the apex (Fig. 26: 4)
which decrease in size towards the base. The roots are thick, broader than high, bifurcated and
thicker at the middle. A deep longitudinal nutritive groove is present at the middle of the lingual
protuberance which continues upto the base of the crown.
Mks/pal/pu. 1004 & 1005 (Fig. 26: 2-3) are the teeth of the lower jaw. The crowns are
smooth, slender, and curved inward without any serration on the margin (Fig. 26: 3). The lingual
surfaces of the teeth are curve inward. The crown are convex both in the lingual and labial
surface. The root is prominent, concave in labial view making a shallow depression at the root-
crown boundary, lingual protuberance at the middle of the root is more prominent than in the
teeth of upper jaw. Deep nutritive grooves are present in the protuberance. In lingual view the
roots are sub-triangular in shape.
[100]
Fig. 26: 1-3. Hemipristris serra Agassiz (Mks/pal/pu.1003, 1004, 1005 & 1006 respectively); 1a
is upper tooth in lingual view and 1b & 4 (S.E.M. image) are upper teeth in labial view; 2a & 3a
in lingual view of lower teeth, 2c in labial view, 2b & 3b are labio-lingual view; 6-8:
[101]
Rhizoprionodon sp. indet. (Mks/pal/pu. 1222, 1223, 1224); 6a, 7a, 8a are in lingual view and 6b,
7b, 8b are in labial view.
Remarks and Discussion: - Hemipristis serra is one of the commonest shark species in
Miocene deposits and its strong dignathic heterodonty has led to erroneous identification of
fossil material (Cappetta, 1987). Dignathic heterodonty is strongly developed in the dentition of
the Hemipristris serra, with broad, recurved, very coarsely serrated teeth (David et al., 2009).
This extinct species had a worldwide distribution during the Miocene and Pliocene and has been
reported from the Pliestocene (Portell et al., 2008). Earlier Hemipristis serra has been described
from both the eastern and western coast of India including the Middle Miocene Baripada Beds in
the eastern coast (Modak, 1952: Ghosh, 1959: Mohanty, 1966, 1980; Mishra, 1985; Mondal et
al., 2009) and the Lower Miocene shale of Matanumadh and Lakpat (Mehrotra et al., 1973;
Sahni et al., 1981) at the western coast. Mehrotra et al. (1973) also described a new species H.
sureshi from the Lower Miocene shale of Lakhpat which is distinct from H. serra as it is
comparatively smaller in size, more oblique and complete absence of serration on its distal
margin. Hemipristis serra reported from the western coast of India resembles with those
described from Ceylon, Burma and Eastern coast of India (Mehrotra et al., 1973). The species is
also described from Late Eocene-Early Oligocene of Balochistan in which Adnet et al. (2007)
hypothesized that the specimens identified as Hemipristris cf. H. serra represented a transitional
species between H. curvatus Dames, 1883 and H. serra, indicating a direct ancestor-descendant
relationship between the taxa (David et al., 2009).
Genus: Rhizoprionodon Whitley, 1926
Generic Characteristics: - The teeth of this genus are small; the cusp strongly bent distally
directed towards the rear from the first file backwards. The base of the crown is extended with a
high rounded unserrated distal heel; the cutting edge and a distal shoulder or heels are complete.
In most species, this shoulder is rounded and smooth, however, the heel of R. acutus is angular
and weakly serrated. The cusps of male teeth tend to be narrower and thicker than those of the
female, mesial cutting edge less convex. The lower teeth of first file for male are thick, cusp
slender and sigmoidal. A diagnostic feature of Rhizoprionodon teeth is a recurvature of the upper
cusp. When viewed labially (or lingually) the mesial edge of the upper cusp is straight to
[102]
concave and the distal edge, convex. The teeth are small (usually less than 4.0 mm in height) and
have a root with a rectilinear basal margin and distinct nutrient groove.
Geographical distribution and habitat: - The genus Rhizoprionodon is an inshore shark which
may be found in continental and insular shelf waters and represented circum-globally in tropical,
subtropical, warm temperate waters (Richardson, 1836). Presently they are found in the Atlantic,
Indian and Pacific Ocean.
Rhizoprionodon sp. indet.

(Fig. 26: 6-10)
Material and Horizon: - Mks/pal/pu. 1222, 1223, 1224 and a few unnumbered specimens from
the bluish grey shale and yellowish grey shale of Mukurmatia.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1222, 1223, 1224 are small teeth, wider than high, cusp small with
extended crown at the base. Both the cutting edges are sharp, smooth without any serration. The
mesial cutting edge is long slightly concave and recurved towards the apex and the distal edge is
short (Fig. 26: 7, 8). In Mks/pal/pu. 1222 (Fig. 26: 6), the mesial cutting edge is sigmoidal. The
lingual face is convex and the labial face is flat. The distal heels are rounded with cusplet. The
crown overhangs the root. The root low, broad, median nutritive groove is present in the lingual
face of the root. The basal margin of the root concave (Fig. 26: 6, 7) to straight (Fig. 26: 8).
Remarks: - This is the first report of Rhizoprionodon sp. not only from Baripada Beds but also
from the Eastern Coast of India. The teeth of Rhizoprionodon closely resemble those of Sphyrna
and the recent Scoliodon and Loxodon (Richardson, 1848; Cappetta, 1987) and it is possible that
some fossil teeth of Rhizoprionodon may belong to one of the two genera (Cappetta, 1987). The
present teeth are comparable with lateral teeth of Rhizoprionodon fischueri (Cappetta, 1987, fig.
106, F, G, H & K) in having concave mesial edge, rounded distal heel and nearly straight basal
margin of the root. However, the present specimen differs from Rhizoprionodon fischueri which
is having more convex crown root boundary. Teeth of Sphyrna media can have concave mesial
cutting edges and convex distal heel, but Rhizoprionodon have more concave edge with cusp
narrower and its apex more vertically oriented (Cicimurri et al., 2009). Rana et al. (2004)
described Rhizoprionodon sp. from the Lower Eocene subsurface of Cambay shale in which they
compared their specimen with R. ganntourensis which is having more erect cusp. The present
[103]
specimen differs from those described by Rana et al. (2004) in having recurved mesial cutting
edges instead of arcuate mesial cutting edge.
Family: Sphyrnidae Gill, 1872

Genus: Sphyrna Rafinesque, 1810
Generic Characteristics: - Teeth are small to medium (upto 2 cm high), labio-lingual flattened,
triangular, moderately thick, oblique, each with notch on its anterior margin. The lingual face of
the crown is convex and its labial surface is flattened. Both the margins of the crown are smooth
or serrated in which the base of the crown is expanded without accessory cusps. Mesial heel is
not differentiated. The clear distal heel separates from the cusp by an acute notch. The teeth are
increasingly oblique toward the corner of the mouth. The root is low but wide with an apparent
bifurcation on its lingual surface.
Geographical distribution and Habitat: - The hammerhead sharks are today common at the
tropical water of both the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean (Gillette, 1984). They are very commonly
found at the Oligocene and Miocene deposits of U.S.A. (North and South Carolina) and Europe
including France.
Sphyrna zygaena Linnaeus, 1758

(Fig. 27: 1, 2)
Sphyrna zygaena Antunnes et al. 1981, pl. III, fig. 16.

Sphyrna zygaena Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981, p.101, pl. 2, fig.20.
Sphyrna zygaena Tiwari et al. 1998, p. 17, pl. 1, fig. 4
Sphyrna zygaena Ralte et al. 2011, p. 344, pl. 3, fig. 11
Sphyrna zygaena Cicimurri and Knight 2009, p. 635, fig. 5L.
Material and Horizon: Mks/pal/pu. 1007, 1008 and few incomplete teeth from the bluish clay
horizon of Mukurmatia, Baripada Beds, Orissa.
Diagnosis: - Teeth are of medium size, triangular, the crown oblique distally; both the cutting
edges of the cusp are sharp, smooth or feebly serrated unlike that of Sphyrna diplana. The mesial
cutting edge of the upper tooth is slightly convex while that of lower teeth is straight or even
[104]
concave, the distal cutting edge is straight. The root is low, wide, convex in lingual face and flat
in labial face. A strong nutritive median groove divides the two lobes of the root.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1007, 1008 (Fig. 27: 1, 2) are medium size teeth; triangular in shape,
and cusps are relatively thick and short; the cutting edges of the crowns are smooth, higher than
the root, oblique and very feebly serrated. Base of the crown is wide; its tip curves distally; the
cutting edges are smooth, without any serration, the mesial margin of the crown is slightly
convex and the distal one falls nearly perpendicular to the root making a deep notch of the crown
(Fig. 27: 1) while in Mks/pal/pu. 1008 (Fig. 27: 2) the mesial cutting edge is slightly concave
which may be a tooth of lower jaw. The lingual surface of the crown is slightly convex and the
labial surface of the crown is flattened. Root is low, wide, and massive and its anterior surface is
strongly convex while the external surface is flat. A prominent nutritive groove in lingual view
largely penetrates almost to the margin of the root.
Discussion: - Sahni and Mehrotra (1981) described Sphyrna zygaena from the Lower Miocene
gypseous shale of Matanumadh of Kutch. This is the first report of Sphyrna zygaena from the
Eastern coast of India. According to Bigelow and Schroeder (1948), the teeth of S. zygaena
have uniformly fine serration while that of great hammerhead, S.tudes Valenciennes, 1822,
have coarser serration. The present specimen is also identical to the Sphyrna zygaena
described from Oligocene Chandler Bridge formation of South Carolina (Cicimurri and Knight,
2009). They commented that some teeth of Sphyrna zygaena are similar to those of
Carcharhinus gibbesi, but the cutting edges are completely smooth. S. zygaena had also been
recorded from the North-East India from the Upper Bhuban Formation of Mizoram (Tiwari et
al.. 1998; Ralte et al.. 2011). The present specimens have a close resemblance to the lateral tooth
of Sphyrna zygaena described by Cappetta (1970 A).
Sphyrna diplana Springer, 1941

(Fig. 27: 3-4)
Sphyrna diplana Mehrotra, 1973, p. 192, pl. 2, figs. 8a-b.

Sphyrna diplana Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981, pl. 1. fig. 19, p. 83-121.
Sphyrna diplana Mehrotra, 1982, p. 402, pl. 1, figs. 1a-b.
Sphyrna diplana Ralte et al., 2011, p. 343, pl. 3, fig. 10.
[105]
Material and horizon: - Mks/pal/pu. 1009, 1010 from the bluish gray shale of Mukurmatia,
Diagnosis: - The tooth small, broader than high, oblique crown; edges are smooth, lingual face
of the crown is convex but the labial face is flat; mesial cutting edge is concave and the distal
cutting edge is convex with a deep notch at the base of the crown. The root is high and broad
with a deep median nutritive groove. The thickness of the root is more than that of the crown.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1009, 1010 are medium size teeth; wider than high, the height of the
crown nearly equal to the height of the root; both the cutting edges are smooth without any
serration, lingual face of the crown is convex and the labial face is flat, mesial cutting edge is
concave, shoulder is broad (Fig. 27: 3, 4). The crown is inclined distally; distal cutting edge is
convex with a deep notch at the base of the crown. The root is high, broad, bilobate, thicker than
the crown; a prominent median furrow is present in the lingual view. Lingual face of the crown is
convex and the labial face is flat, basal margin of the root is concave. The tooth may belong to
lower jaw as compared to Sphyrna diplana (Bigelow and Schroeder, 1948, p. 415).
Discussion: - The present specimen is identical to Sphyrna diplana described by Sahni and
Mehrotra (1981, pl. 1. fig. 19) from the limestone bed of Baripada Beds, Orissa and Lower
Miocene shales of Lakhpat, Gujarat. Sphyrna diplana is distinguished from the very similar
Sphyrna bigelowi in having a narrower crown and a wider root. The specimens also differ from
Sphyrna zygaena which may have feeble serration at the edges and more straight mesial cutting
edge. Sphyrna sp. is also described from Pegu system of Burma (Stuart, 1910).
Sphyrna sp. indet. 1.

(Fig. 27: 5)
Material and Horizon: - An isolated tooth under the specimen number Mks/pal/pu. 1011 from
the bluish grey shale of Mukurmatia, Baripada Beds.
Description: - The tooth is small, much broader than high, cutting edges are smooth, the mesial
cutting edge long, convex, semicircular; mesial heel indistinct; distal cutting edge is small,
slightly convex, smooth and well separated from the distal heel by a prominent notch; one
cusplet is present in the distal heel (Fig. 27: 5). In lingual view, the crown is slightly convex
while in the labial view it is nearly flat and slightly overhangs the root forming a faint ridge. The
[106]
root is bilobate; root lobes separated by a median nutritive groove, the basal face of the root are
nearly straight.
Fig. 27: 1-2: Sphyrna zygaena, 1 & 2: Mks/pal/pu. 1007 & 1008, teeth of lower jaw in lingual
view (1a, 2a) labial view (1b, 2b); 3, 4: S. diplana (Mks/pal/pu. 1009, 1010); 5: Sphyrna sp. 1
[107]
(Mks/pal/pu. 1011); 6-7: Sphyrna sp. 2 (Mks/pal/pu.1012, 1013, 1014, 1015 & 1016); 1a, 2a, 3a,
4a, 5a, 6a & 7a are in lingual view and 1b, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5b, 6b & 7b are in labial view.
Discussion: - The present tooth is closely identical to that of Sphyrna sp. described by Rana et
al. (2006) from the Early Eocene of Kapurdi Formation, Barmer district, Rajasthan. The present
species is having mark similarity with the posterior most upper teeth of Sphyrna arambourgi
from the Miocene of southern France (Cappetta, 1970; pl. 19, figs. 8-9) but Sphyrna arambourgi
differs from the present specimen in having slightly higher cusp, indistinct cusplet and curved
basal face of the root. Rana et al. (2006) opined that the closely similar teeth from the Lower
Miocene Lakhpat and Matanumadh , Kutch, Gujarat which was earlier described as Galeocerdo
wynnei, by Mehrotra et al. (1973; pl. 1, fig. 4) may also belong to Sphyrna.
Sphyrna sp. indet. 2.

(Fig. 27: 6-7)
Material and horizon: - Mks/pal/pu. 1012, 1013 from the bluish gray shale of Mukurmatia,
Description: - Teeth are small, labio-lingually flattened, triangular, cusp oblique; the lingual
face of the crown is slightly convex and the labial face of the crown is flat (Fig. 27: 6-7). Both
the cutting edges of the crown are smooth; the distal heel separated from the cusp by an acute
notch, and the mesial cutting edges are nearly straight to sigmoidal. The labial face of the crown
minimally overhangs the root which is transversely extended. The roots are low but wide,
bilobate, prominent median nutritive grooves are present. In labial view, the crown-root
boundary is nearly straight and the basal margins of the roots are slightly concave.
Discussion: - The specimens of Sphyrna sp. 2 differ from the Sphyrna sp.1 in having sigmoidal
shape mesial cutting edges, higher crown and distinct distal heel. It also differs from S. diplana
which is having concave mesial cutting edge, higher, and more distinct mesial heel. The present
specimens resemble Sphyrna cf. S. media (Springer, 1940; Cicimurri and Knight, 2009; Purdy,
[108]
2001) but differs in having straight to concave mesial cutting edge. They also differ from the
larger S. zygaena. It is also very difficult to distinguish the teeth of Sphyrna from similar toothed
sharks like Rizopriondon, Physogaleus, Loxodon and Scoliodon as all these taxa can have highly
concave mesial cutting edges (Cicimurri and Knight, 2009; Richardson, 1848).
Superorder: Galeomorphii Compagno, 1973

Order: Carcharhiniformes Compagno, 1973
Family: Triakidae, 1851
Genus: Galeorhinus Blainville, 1816
Generic Characteristics: - According to Cappetta (1987) the generic characteristics of

Galeorhinus teeth are discussed as ‘Teeth are small, have a rather broad and thin crown, cusp
clearly bent toward the rear beginning with the anterior file; mesial cutting edges slightly
convex, sometimes sigmoidal because of upturn apex, may have irregular serration on its lower
half, mainly in the antero-lateral files. The distal heel is high, oblique, may bear five to ten well
separated cusplet of decreasing size towards the distal tooth edge. The free part of the cusp is
widely separated from the distal cusplets. The labial face of the crown highly overhangs the root
by more or less pronounced bulge. The labial face may bear oblique folds under the heels on
lateral teeth; in some species folds also occur on the lingual face at the level of the heels. The
root, generally thin, shows a broad, flat or slightly convex basal face, with a clear groove;
branches are not quite horizontal and the basal edge generally shows a weak concavity.
Geographical distribution: - The genus Galeorhinus is mainly found in coastal-pelagic

deposite of temperate continental and insular waters, ranging from bays to well out to sea (2 -
471 m). It is not present in the waters of the Western North Atlantic, but can be found in the
South Atlantic and Eastern North Atlantic, Eastern Pacific and Australia.
[109]
Galeorhinus sp. indet.
(Fig. 28: 1- 6)
Material and Horizon: - Mks/pal/pu.1221, 1223, 1224, 1225, 1226 & 1227 from the bluish grey
shale and yellowish grey shale beds of Mukurmatia, Baripada Beds, Orissa.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1221, 1224, 1225, 1226 & 1227 are small teeth, have thick crown,
height of the crown nearly equal to the height of the root; teeth subtriangular, cusp posteriorly
inclined, as high as broad; mesial cutting edges straight (Fig. 28: 1, 4) to slightly sigmoidal (Fig.
28: 3, 6) due to upturning of the cusp, lower half of the mesial cutting edges distinctly serrated;
distal cutting edges shorter, smooth; distal heels high, obliquely straight; three to five well
separated cusplet of decreasing size towards the distal tooth edge; cusp widely separated from
the distal cusplets by prominent notch; lingual face of the crown convex and the labial face flat
to slightly convex. In Mks/pal/pu. 1223 (Fig. 28: 2) the crown is pointed, much higher than the
height of the root. Root bilobate, broad, median nutritive groove is prominent without any
marked protuberance around it.
[110]
Fig. 28: 1- 6: Galeorhinus sp. (Mks/pal/pu.1221, 1223, 1224, 1225, 1226, 1227); 1a, 2a, 3a, 4a,
5a & 6a are lingual views and 1b, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5b & 6b are labial views.
Remarks: - This is the first report of the teeth of the genus Galeorhinus from the Eastern Coast
of India. Rana et al. (2006) reported teeth of Galeorhinus sp. from the early Eocene of Kapurdi
Formation, Barmer district, Rajasthan. Their specimens are closely similar to the G. affinis from
the Miocene of France (Cappetta, 1970) and G. galeus from the north Atlantic Sea (Herman et al.
1988).They distinguished Galeorhinus sp. from the closely similar teeth of Galeocerdo sp. in
[111]
having more or less straight mesial cutting edge and from Physogaleus which is having larger
teeth with robust cusp, sigmoidal mesial cutting edge and more expanded root.
3.6.0 Systematic Description of Batoidae

In case of the batoids, the teeth are of crushing type dentition and hence the crown lacks
cusps except in Torpediniforme, males of Rajiformes and Dasyatoidae. The crown height is
maximum at the occlusal plane. Batoids have globular crown, sharp transverse crest separating
the labial from the lingual face. The crown may have wrinkle or tubercle ornamentation. The
labial face of the crown may be convex or hollow, and smooth or roughened with pucker
enameloid (Cappetta, 1987). The crowns of most of the batoids are rhomboidal, hexagonal or
polygonal and the width of the crown is more than the width of the root. The width of the crown
is measured along the longest diagonal of the polygon. The surface of the crown is sometime
divided by tuberculated ridge and it is covered by vitrodentine. The distinguishable
characteristics for different genera of Batoids are discussed in this chapter.
The roots are bifid and generally oriented normal to the crown. The two branches of the
root are separated by root canal. A median nutritive groove or foramen is present at the centre of
the root canal. The height of the root may be equal to the height of the crown which may also
vary frequently. The terminologies used in the identification of batoids in the thesis are after
Cappetta (1970) which is shown in the figure below.
[112]
Fig. 29: Tooth terminology of batoids: A-B tooth of Dasyatis sp.; A, Occlusal view; B, basal
view (after, Cappetta, 1970). Lav= Labial visor; Lac= labial face of crown; Laz = Labial zone of
crown; Meh = Median labial hollow; Maa = Marginal/ labial angle; Liz = Lingual zone of crown;
Lmf = Lingual marginal face; Liv = Lingual visor; Rol = Root lobe; Lnr = Lingual notch of root;
Mrf = Mesial root lobe; Mlr = Median lingual lobe; Lic = Lingual face of crown; Tcr =
Transverse crest; Llav = Lower part of labial visor; Lar = Labial part of root; Ct = Central
foramen; Pcf = Paracentral foramen; Bfr = basal face of root; Nug = nutritive groove; Lliv =
Lower part of lingual visor.
Fig. 30: Tooth terminology of a Myliobatis sp. A. in basal view; B. in lingual view (After
Capetta, 1978).
Class: Chondrichthyes Huxley, 1880

Order: Rajiformes Berg, 1940
Family: Myliobatidae Bonaparte, 1838.
Genus: Myliobatis Dumeril (In Cuvier, 1817: 137)
Generic characters: -The teeth of Myliobatids form a single dental plate in the jaw. In general,
the dentition has a laterally expanded elongated medial file and three or four lateral files which
may be either labio-lingually or laterally elongated. The median teeth are normally transverse
and hexagonal in shape and length is nearly proportional to breadth. The lateral teeth are smaller
than the median teeth and nearly twice as broad as long. The median teeth are slightly arched
while the lateral teeth are straight. The width to depth ratio in Myliobatis teeth tends to be 4-5 to
[113]
one. The upper and lower tooth plates are of similar width, but the upper is more dorso-ventrally
curved when viewed laterally. Successive rows are interlocked and teeth tend to be severely
abraded when shed. Root laminae are lingually-directed and the labial crown face extends well
beyond the roots (to rest on a labial ledge of the younger tooth). The spines are long and bear
serration or denticles. These denticles may be straight or hook shaped, longitudinal striation are
present on the spine. The spine is widest on its distal end.
Geographical distribution and Habitats: - Myliobatids (Eagle Rays) are most commonly
found in the tropical to temperate latitudes in all the great oceans. They were undoubtedly
present during Neogene. The common eagle rays are distributed throughout the Eastern Atlantic,
including the Mediterranean Sea and the North Sea, in the Pacific Ocean, Mediterranean Seas
and in most of the warm seas.
Myliobatis sp. indet. (A)

(Fig. 31: 1-7)
Morphotype 1 (Fig. 31: 1, 2)
Materials and Horizon: - One isolated dental plate, Mks/pal/pu. 2001 and 2002 of Myliobatis
sp. indet. from the greenish yellow shale of Mukurmatia.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 2001, 2002 (Fig. 31: 1, 2) are dental plate; Mks/pal/pu. 2001 (Fig.
31: 1) consists of six rows of median teeth; the lateral teeth are not preserved as the specimens
are incomplete; Mks/pal/pu. 2002 (Fig. 31: 2) is incomplete and large in size comprising of
seven rows of median teeth. Crown thin, the hexagonal median teeth are transverse, longer than
broad, dorsal surface of the plate is flat and the basal surface is convex. Small ornamented
tubercles are present at the coronal surface and the root is marked by antero-posterior ridge and
furrows.
Remarks: - The present specimen is closely similar to Myliobatis tewarii described from the
Middle Eocene of Kutch (Mishra, 1980; p. 81, pl. 1, fig 1). It also has marked similarity with
Myliobatis species of Sahni and Mishra (1975; p.6-7, pl. 1, fig. 1) described from the Middle
Eocene shale and limestone of Babia stage, Kutch. However, the present specimens are longer
than broad unlike their specimen which is nearly as long as broad. The incomplete nature of
preservation makes it difficult to described and assign it to a particular species. Dental plate of
Myliobatus curvipaltus had also been described from the Eocene deposits of Kutch by Lydekker
[114]
(1886). The dental plates are very rare as the median and the lateral teeth in a dental plate gets
easily detached during fossilization and mostly found isolated (Mishra, 1980). This is for the first
time that a dental plate of Myliobatis is described from the Miocene deposit of Baripada Beds.
Morphotype 2
(Fig. 31: 3, 4)
Materials and Horizon: - Two isolated dental plates, Mks/pal/pu. 2003, 2004 of Myliobatis sp.
from the greenish yellow shale of Mukurmatia.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 2003 (Fig. 31: 3) is incomplete dental plate shows six rows of
median teeth. The straight rows of the median teeth are hexagonal, longer than broad and
anterio-posteriorly arched. The occlusal surface is flat (Fig. 31: 3) or slightly concave (Fig. 31:
4). In Mks/pal/pu. 2003 (Fig. 31: 4), five anterio-posteriorly arched median teeth are present;
lateral denticles are not preserved. The basal surface of root of each median tooth possesses the
numerous distinguished ridges and grooves. The coronal surface is smooth but bears numerous
micro-tubercles. The inner lateral teeth are diamond shaped, small and nearly as long as broad.
Remarks: - Many species of the genus Myliobatis have been described from the Tertiary
deposits of India, however, the scarcity and fragmentary nature of the material collected makes it
difficult to assign the specimen up to the species level. Myliobatis sp. have been described from
the Middle Eocene of Kutch (Mishra, 1980), Miocene of Baripada Beds, Orissa (Sahni et al.,
1981), Eocene of Subathu Formation, Bilaspur area (Singh,1985), Eocene of Subathu Formation,
Himachal Pradesh (Kumar and Loyal, 1987), Eocene Vastan lignite Mine of Cambay Shale,
Gujarat (Rana et al., 2004), Lower Eocene Panandro lignite field, Gujarat (Bajpai et al., 2002),
Early Eocene Kapurdi Formation of Rajasthan (Rana et al., 2006), etc.
Myliobatis sp. indet. (B)

(Fig. 31: 5, 6 & 7)
Materials and Horizon: - Mks/pal/pu. 2005, 2006 and 2007 are pieces of the caudal spine of
Myliobatus sp. were collected from the limestone bed of Itamundia and the greenish shale of
Mukurmatia.
[115]
Description: - The spines are long and wider towards the base, hook shape denticles present at
the lateral edges which are directed distally, upper surface of spine are curve and the lower
surface are more flattened, and longitudinal striations are present (Fig. 31: 5, 6, 7). Mks/pal/pu.
2007 (Fig. 31: 7) have broader base as compared to the other specimens. The sharpness of the
lateral hook shape denticles also decrease from the bottom towards the top.
Remarks: - The spines resemble to that of M. meriodionalis (Leriche, 1957). However the
designation of the specimens into a particular species by studying only its spines remain is very
difficult. Myliobatis spines had been earlier described from the Miocene deposits of Baripada
Beds by Hora (1939), Ghosh (1959) and Sahni et al. (1981). The caudal spine of Myliobatis sp.
have also been reported from the Tertiary deposits of Kutch (Sahni and Mishra, 1975, Bajpai and
Thewissen, 2002).
Myliobatis sp. indet. 1

(Fig. 32: 1)
Materials and Horizon: An isolated tooth, Mks/pal/pu.1228, from the greenish shale of
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1228 is an isolated tooth, hexagonal in shape with rectilinear outline;
the crown is as thick as the root. The crown and the root are well separated by a minor groove
(Fig. 32:1a & 1c). The basal surface of the root is flat with 23 root lobes separated by grooves.
The tooth is much broader than long. The specimen represents the tooth of median file as the
teeth of lateral file are longer than broad. The crown is flat, bears minor tubercle in occlusal
view.
[116]
Fig. 31: 1, 2: Myliobatis sp. indet. Morphotype 1 (Mks/pal/pu. 2001, 2002); 3: Myliobatis sp.
indet. Morphotype 2 (Mks/pal/pu. 2003); 4: Myliobatis sp. indet. Morphotype 3 (Mks/pal/pu.
2004); 5-7: Myliobatis sp. indet. Morphotype 4 (Mks/pal/pu. 2005, 2006 and 2007). 1a, 2a, 3a
and 4a are in basal view and 1b, 2b, 3b and 4b are in the occlusal view.
[117]
Remarks: - The present tooth is comparable with the Myliobatis sp. of Welton (1972, Plate 1,
fig. 8) in from the Miocene Coaledo Formation along the Oregon coast. Though the author didn’t
describe the specimen, the hexagonal shape, flat surface of root, flat crown and separation of the
root and crown by a minor depression. However, Coaledo specimen posses thicker crown as
compared to the present specimen. Gillette (1984) distinguished Myliobatis teeth from the
closely similar Rhinoptera teeth in having transverse diameter atleast four times greater than the
anterio-posterior diameter which is having transverse diameter no more than three times greater
than the antero-posterior diameter in the later case.

(Fig. 32: 2, 3)
Materials and Horizon: Mks/pal/pu. 1229, 1230 from the greenish shale of Mukurmatia,
Baripada Beds.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1229, 1230 are the median file of pavement like jaw teeth, arched in
the coronal plane, representing upper teeth (Fig. 32: 2, 3). All the teeth are incomplete at the
lateral ends and thus the hexagonal morphology is not evident. Teeth are wider than long. These
are considered as the teeth of median file as the lateral file teeth are narrower and smaller. These
teeth are considered as those of Myliobatis, rather than Aetobatus, because the thickness of the
crown is equal to or slightly greater than the thickness of the root. However, Aetobatus teeth
have much more thick root than the crown (Cappetta, 1987). As the specimens are incomplete,
the exact numbers of root elements of the specimen are not known; in the current state the root
file have more than 13 elements in Mks/pal/pu. 1229 (Fig. 32: 2) and 15 elements in the current
fragment of teeth, Mks/pal/pu. 1230 (Fig. 32: 3).
Remarks: - The present teeth are closely identical to the Myliobatis sp. of Stevens et al (2011, p.
293, fig. 3.1) recorded from the Palaeocene of Imo Formation of Nigeria in which they compare
their specimen with Myliobatis bothriodon (White, 1926, pl. 10, fig. 12). However, the
incomplete nature of preservation of the specimen makes it difficult to assign them to a particular
species.
[118]
Fig. 32: 1: Myliobatis sp. indet. 1 (Mks/pal/pu. 1228); 2, 3: Myliobatis sp. indet. 2 (Mks/pal/pu.
1229, 1230); 4-5: Myliobatis sp. indet. 3 (Mks/pal/pu. 1231, 1232); 1a, 2a & 3a are in lingual
view; 1b, 2b, 3b, 4b & 5b are in occlusal view; 1c, 2c, 3C, 4a & 5a are in basal view.

(Fig. 32: 4-5)
Materials and Horizon: - Isolated teeth, Mks/pal/pu. 1231 & 1232 from the greenish shale of
Description: - The teeth are poorly preserved, incomplete; height of the crown is nearly equal to
the height of the root (Fig. 32: 4, 5). In basal view all the teeth show roots with prominent ridge
[119]
and groove, the loblets are generally extending slightly beyond the lingual edge of the crown.
The crowns are smooth.
Remarks: - The present specimens are comparable with the Myliobatis sp. 1 of Case and
Cappetta (1990; Pl. 9, fig. 216) which present a deep transverse lingual groove between the root
and crown. As the dental plates are poorly preserved, it is difficult at the moment to describe and
compare the morphology of the teeth with other already described species.
Many species of the genus Myliobatis have been described from the Tertiary deposits of
India, however, the scarcity and fragmentary nature of the materials collected makes it difficult
to assign the specimen up to particular species . Myliobatis sp. have been described from the
Middle Eocene of Kutch (Mishra, 1980), Miocene of Baripada Beds, Orissa (Sahni et al., 1981),
Eocene of Subathu Formation, Bilaspur area (Singh, 1985), Eocene of Subathu Formation,
Himachal Pradesh (Kumar and Loyal, 1987), Eocene Vastan lignite Mine of Cambay Shale,
Gujarat (Rana et al., 2004), Lower Eocene Panandro lignite field, Gujarat (Bajpai et al., 2002),
early Eocene Kapurdi Formation of Rajasthan (Rana et al. 2006), etc.
Genus: Aetobatus Blainville 1816

Aetobatus Muller and Henle, 1841
Generic characters: - According to Cappetta (1987) the genus has diagnostic properties as
mentioned below: -
“The genus lacks caudal stinging spine, has only one median dental file on each jaw. The lower
teeth are much arched towards the front, even angular in their median region and narrowly
imblicated in a herring-bone pattern. In occlusal view the crown is labio-lingually more
developed in the central region than in the lateral regions. The lingual and labial faces of the
crown are vertical and not much ornamented; the lingual bulge is well marked. The root bends
markedly lingually and is dorso-ventrally flattened, and its height decrease towards the lateral
edges of the tooth; its lingual face has well marked alternating grooves and laminae, whereas on
the labial face these structures are not so evident; the basal face is rather narrow. The upper teeth
are fairly rectilinear, except near the lateral edges where they curved towards the back and
decrease in width; the root is very high, higher than the crown in the median region and greatly
displaced lingually.”
[120]
The width of the crown of Aetobatus teeth is nearly two to three times the length of the
crown unlike that of Myliobatis in which the crown is at least four to six times as broad as long.
The crowns lack the hexagonal shape associated with other Myliobatids. Because the species has
a single file, all teeth are elongated. Foramina are scattered on the occlusal face of the root. It
differs from Myliobatis teeth in having uniserial teeth, very broad and no small lateral ones. The
upper dental lamina is straight however the lower lamina is projected beyond the upper.
Geographical distribution: - They are most commonly found globally in warm and tropical
regions, including the Gulf of Mexico, Hawaii, Atlantic Africa, the Indian Ocean, Oceania, and
the Pacific west coast of the Americas.
Genus: Aetobatus Muller and Henle, 1841.

Type species: Raja aquila Linnaeus, 1758.
Aetobatus narinari Euphrasen
(Fig. 33: 1-4)
Aetobaties arcuatus baripadensis Ghosh, 1959, p. 678, pl. 88, figs. 12, 17, 18.
Aetobatus narinari Euphrasen in Mondal et al., 2009, p. 148, pl. 3, fig. 5, 6.
Material: - Mks/pal/pu. 1233, 1234, 1235, 1236 and several unnumbered specimens from the
bluish shale bed of the Mukurmatia and limestone bed of locality Itamundia, Baripada Beds,
Orissa.
Diagnosis: - Aetobatus narinari is distinguished from other Aetobatus sp. in having labio-
lingually compressed teeth, in both the lingual and labial view; the tooth meets the arcuate root
acutely and the ridges of the root are relatively fine.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1233, 1234, 1235, 1236 are large size incomplete teeth, labio-
lingually compressed, crown sharp, in lingual view the height of the crown is lesser or nearly
equal to the height of the root ( Fig. 33: 1a, 2a, 3a, 4a) but in the labial view the roots are higher
than the crown in all the specimen. The boundary between the roots and crowns are well marked
by a shallow groove both in lingual and labial view. The teeth meet the arcuate root acutely; the
ridges of the root are relatively fine. As all the specimens are incomplete the total number of
ridges is unknown. The root- crown boundary is straight (Fig. 33: 2) to slightly curved (Fig. 33:
[121]
3) and curved (Fig. 33: 1, 4). In lingual view, a thin minor ridge runs throughout the root-crown
boundary adjacent to the shallow groove in Mks/pal/pu. 1233, 1234 & 1235 (Fig. 33: 1, 2, 3).
Remarks: - This species has been described by Mondal et al. (2009) from gritty sandstone bed
of Mahulia. As similar to their species the tooth of the present species also meets the arcuate root
acutely both in labial and lingual view. Aetobatus arcuatus baripadensis which Ghosh (1959)
described from the Baripada bed is different in having bifurcated ridges near the root and two
side of the crown meeting at a broad obtuse angle. Aetobatus narinari is different from Aetobatus
sp. (Sahni and Mishra, 1975) described from the gypseous shales of Khari series (Lower
Miocene) at Matanomadh of Kutch in which the slightly curved tooth’s root is divided
longitudinally into ridges and grooves. His specimen also differs from the present specimen
being small in size and less arched.
Aetobatis sp.
(Fig. 33: 5, 6, 7)
Materials and Horizon: - Isolated teeth, Mks/pal/pu. 1237, 1238 & 1239 from the greenish
shale of Mukurmatia, Baripada Beds.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1240, 1241 & 1242 are incomplete teeth, the root is quite distinctive
with the strong lingual displacement of the laminae and the sloped labial and lingual root faces
(Fig. 33: 5, 6). The crown lacks the hexagonal shape which is usually associated with
Myliobatids (Fig. 33: 7); the lateral margins are smoothly curved and directed rearward (Fig. 33:
7b). The occlusal surface is smooth. The root is nearly as high as the crown and it is divided into
longitudinal ridges and grooves.
Remarks: - As the teeth are poorly preserved, distinctive comparison of the specimen with other
species is difficult. Earlier tooth of A. arcuatus baripadensis has been described from the
Miocene of Mayurbhanj, Orissa in eastern India (Ghosh, 1959; Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981;
Mondal et al., 2009). Aetobatis teeth have also been described from the western coast of India
(Sahni and Mishra, 1975) from the Lower Miocene Khari Series of Matanumadh, Kutch. At
present in India, the Family Myliobatidae (Eagle Rays) is represented by only two genera,
Aetobatus and Myliobatis and only two species A. flagellum and A. ocellatus of Aetobatus
(Duck-Billed Ray) are presently found in Indian region (Sahni and Mishra, 1975).
[122]
Fig. 33: 1- 4: Aetobatus narinari (Mks/pal/pu. 1233, 1234, 1235, 1236); 1a, 2a, 3a & 4a in the
lingual view and 1b, 2b, 3b & 4b in the labial view; 5-7: Aetobatus sp. (Mks/pal/pu. 1237, 1238,
1239); 8, 9: Rhinoptera cf. studeri (Mks/pal/pu. 1240, 1241); 10: Rhinoptera raeburni
[123]
(Mks/pal/pu. 1242); 5a, 6a, 7a, 8a, 9a & 10a are in basal view and 5b, 6b, 7b, 9b & 10b are in
lingual view; 8b in occlusal view.
Order: Myliobatiformes Compagno, 1973

Family: Rhinopteridae Jordan and Evermann, 1896
Genus: Rhinoptera Cuvier, 1829
Descriptive characters: - The teeth of Rhinoptera are hexagonal in shape, broader than long.
The teeth can be found in two designs correspond to the upper and lower jaw teeth with little
difference. The Upper teeth are represented by smaller, isolated teeth and these are by far the
most commonly found. The crowns are clearly hexagonal in shape and may be slightly to
strongly elongate depending on the tooth position. The height of each lateral end is relatively
similar. The variable width-to-depth ratios manifested by the teeth of this family often allow for
easy identification. The middle region of the labial crown face projects labially, in tenon-fashion,
and fits into a depression on the lingual face of its anterior counterpart. These interlocking faces
have weak apico-basal grooves or ridges which clearly distinguish these teeth from the
myliobatids.
Geographical distribution: - They are represented in all the oceans, and prefer the sandy or
muddy bottoms of shallow waters where they forage for various mollusks and large crustaceans.
They are habituated at semi-pelagic inshore and offshore, sandy beach, enclosed bays and
lagoons, and offshore banks from intertidal to atleast 26 m of depth.
Rhinoptera aff. R. sherburni Arambourg 1952

(Fig. 33: 8, 9)
Material and Horizon: - Two isolated teeth under the specimen no. Mks/pal/pu. 1240 & 1241
from the limestone bed of Itamundia.
[124]
Descriptions: - Mks/pal/pu. 1240 & 1241 are medium size teeth, hexagonal in shape; teeth
posses prominent but thin lingual shelve; labial face is more upright, the lingual root overhang
the crown by a distinct margin, the crown is thick (Fig. 33: 8, 9). The root structure shows
evidence of some damage.
Remarks: - The present teeth are closely identical to Rhinoptera aff. C. sherburni Arambourg
(1952, Plate XXXII, figs. 15-24). As the specimens are incomplete, it is difficult to work out the
ratio between the width and length of the crown which in case of Rhinoptera sherburni the
crown width is nearly thrice the length. These specimens are distinguished from the teeth of R.
raeburni (Ghosh, 1959) which is having a slanting anterior and posterior face, a thick crown
which is sloping forward. Rhinoptera sp. of Mehrotra (1979) differs from the present specimen
in having much wider crown in which the width is nearly six times its length. Rhinoptera
sherborni has been reported from the early Eocene of Virginia (Kent, 1999); the middle Eocene
of England (Kemp et al., 1990), Nigeria (White, 1926), Morocco (Arambourg, 1952) and
Uzbekistan (as Rhinoptera cf. R. sherborni, Case et al., 1996) and the late Eocene of Egypt
(Murray et al., 2011). Fossil record of Rhinoptera extends back upto the Late Palaeocene
(Cappetta, 1987, 2006).
Rhinoptera raeburni White, 1934.

(Fig. 33: 10)
Material and horizon: - Mks/pal/pu. 1242 and four fragmented unnumbered specimens from
the greenish shale horizon of Baripada Beds from the locality Itamundia and Mukurmatia.
Diagnosis: - According to White (1934) specific characters of Rhinoptera raeburni is given
below: -
“A species of Rhinoptera with teeth arranged in at least nine antero-posterior series. Tritoral
surface roughened by numerous very fine vermiculating ridges, and crowns very thick when
unworn. All known teeth broader than long, those of supposed median series being from four to
four and a quarter times as broad as long, first laterals three times, second laterals two and a half
times, third laterals rather less than twice. Outer row or rows indicated but as yet unknown.”
[125]
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 1242 ( Fig. 33: 10) is a medium size tooth; hexagonal, anterior and
posterior faces slant; crown very thick and sloping forward, the anterior and posterior faces are
seldom vertical; the root coarsely ridged and grooved; in having flat enamel surface which is
sloping distally in the occlusion view and prominent longitudinal groove in between the root and
crown.
Remark: - The presence of Rhinoptera raeburni from Baripada Beds had already been described
by Ghose (1956; 1959) and Mondal et al. (2009). Rhinoptera raeburni had been described from
the early Eocene of Nigeria and Angola (White, 1934; Dartevelle and Casier, 1959). At present,
the family Rhinopteridae consists of the single genus, Rhinoptera, which includes at least seven
species (Compagno, 1999, 2005; Nelson, 2006). It can be distinguished from other batoids by the
concave anterior contour of their chondrocranium and their bilobed subrostral fin (Cappetta,
1987; Nelson, 2006). These, semi-pelagic and gregarious, rays can be found today in tropical to
warm temperate waters of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans (Nelson, 2006) feeding mostly
on bivalve molluscs and crustaceans (Smith and Merriner, 1985; McEachran and Fechhelm,
1998). Rhinoptera raeburni has been reported from the early Eocene of Nigeria and Angola
(White, 1934; Dartevelle and Casier, 1959).
Suborder: Rhinobatoidei Fowler, 1941

Family: Rhinobatidae Muller and Henle, 1838
Genus: Rhinobatos Linck, 1790
Generic Characters: - According to Cappetta (1987), the teeth of this genus have rather
massive and high crown; the oral face has a distinct transverse ridge, often sharp, concave
labially or lingually according to the species. The maximum width of the crown is situated at the
level of the lateral angles, which are generally very marked although often obtuse and blunt. The
visor’s edge can be rectilinear, convex, multilobed or even angular. The lingual edge is
characterized by a central uvula always present and well developed, with an often enlarged
extremity, and by lateral uvulae which can be very strong almost as well developed as the
central one or hardly evident. The enameloid is generally smooth; in some species there may be
some irregular folds, more or less anastomosed on the lower half of the lingual face or on the
anterior edge of the labial face. The root is massive, displaced lingually and not larger than the
[126]
crown or it can surpass it literally depending on the species. The lobes become narrower
lingually on both side of the groove, which is very marked and deep, though it may close on
certain teeth. The basal face of each lobe is in general quite convex; the margino-lingual face
bear a pair of foramina and their lingual edge is generally clearly notched at the level of these
foramina. The central foramen is broad, in general.
Geographical distribution and Habitats: The genus is found inshore and offshore at the depth
from intertidal to the offshore continental shelves in all tropical and warm seas. It has been
reported from the Lower Cretaceous-Recent deposits of Europe, North and West Africa, North
and South America, near East Asia.
Rhinobatos sp. indet. 1.

(Fig. 34: 1)
Material and Horizon: - One isolated tooth, Mks/pal/pu. 2195, from the bluish grey shale bed
of Itamundia, Baripada Beds, Orissa.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 2195 (Fig. 34: 1) is a globular shape tooth, occlusion surface smooth
with strong transverse crests which rise slightly at the median region; teeth’s enameloid smooth;
anterior face is convex, the crown is arched; three prominent uvulae (enamel prolongations)
overhang the root in lingual view of which the lateral uvulae are shorter than the median uvula;
equal in length and slightly pointed towards the median uvula. Roots are massive, sub-triangular
and root lobes becoming narrower lingually on both sides of the deep nutritive groove; the roots
extend beyond the lingual face of the crown, the basal face of the root lobes are nearly flat
making a triangular outline.
Remarks: - The present Rhinobatos tooth of Baripada Beds is closely similar to the Rhinobatus
sp.1 from the Early Eocene Kapurdi Formation of Rajasthan (Rana et al., 2006, fig 3.4 a-d; Pl 2,
fig, 1-4) and the Rhinobatus sp. from the Early Eocene Khuliana Formation of Rajasthan (Kumar
et al., 2007, fig 2; 27-32). However, the present specimen posses less prominent uvulae and
smoother crown face as compared to that of Rhinobatus sp. from Kapurdi Formation and Khuiala
Formation of Rajasthan. It differs from Rhinobatus casieri from the Campanion to
Maastrichthian of New Jersey (Cappetta and Case, 1975, pl. 6, figs. 22-25, text fig. 7) in which
[127]
the teeth posses a much longer and pointed uvula. Rhinobatus sp. from the green shaly limestone
of lower Subathu Formation (Kumar and Loyal, 1987) possess wider crown which is sub-
elliptical and slightly convex with more prominent transverse ridge and uvulae. Rhinobatus sp.
from Carlile shale (Turonian) of South Dakota (Cappetta, 1973) differs from the present
specimen in having deeper notch in between the contacts of uvulae and presence of wide and
flattened terminal end of the median uvula.
Fig. 34: 1: Rhinobatos sp.indet. 1 (Mks/pal/pu. 2195); 2, 3: Rhinobatus sp. indet. 2 (Mks/pal/pu.
2196, 2197); 4, 5: Rhinobatos sp. indet. 3 (Mks/pal/pu. 2198, 2199); 1, 2, 3a, 4a & 5 lingual
view, 3b & 4b labial view; 6: Rhynchobatus sp. (Mks/pal/pu. 2000), 6a lingual view, 6b labial
view.
[128]
Rhinobatus sp. indet. 2
(Fig. 34: 2, 3)
Material and Horizon: - Two isolated incomplete teeth of Rhinobatos sp.2 under the specimen
no. Mks/pal/pu. 2196 and Mks/pal/pu. 2197 from the bluish grey shale bed of Mukurmatia,
Comment: - The teeth are similar to that referred as Rhinobatos sp. indet. 1. But they differ from
the previous ones and the Rhinobatus sp. from the Early Eocene Rajasthan (Rana et al., 2006;
Kumar et al., 2007) in having more globular shape, smoother crown surface, very weak
transverse ridge and a prominent depression on the lingual surface of the crown and median
uvula; the crown is convex, lateral uvulae are equal in length (Fig. 34: 2, 3). Roots are not
preserved well making it difficult to compare with the other specimens. Rhinobatus sahni, the
only single species of Rhinobatus which have been reported from Baripada Beds (Sahni and
Mehrotra, 1981) differs from the present specimens in having equilateral triangle anterior margin
of the crown, more projected lateral uvulae and flattened terminal edge at the median uvula; and
in lacking the prominent depression on the lingual surface of the crown and median uvula.
Rhinobatus sp. indet. 3

(Fig. 34: 4, 5)
Material and Horizon: - Two isolated incomplete teeth, Mks/pal/pu. 2198 & 2199, from the
bluish grey shale bed of Mukurmatia, Baripada Beds, Orissa.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 2198 & 2199 are small teeth; crown cusp smooth, crown is low,
convex and slightly arched, its inferior edges are well developed; much wider than long; the
transverse crest is sharp; the lower edges of the anterior margin of the crown are curved; the
median uvula is prominent and the lateral uvulae are much shorter than the median uvula (Fig.
34: 4, 5). The roots are not well preserved in the present specimens.
[129]
Remarks: - The present specimens are very closely similar to those of the Rhinobatus incertus
from the Carlile shale (Turonian) of South Dakota (Cappetta, 1973; plate 2, fig. 26, 27);
however, lack of sinuosity at the posterior outline of the crown in the present specimens make it
different from Rhinobatus incertus. It also differs from Rhinobatus sahni described from the
Miocene limestone bed of Baripada Beds Orissa (Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981) in which the
anterior margin of the crown makes an equilateral triangle with a coloration line and lateral
uvulae more projected than the median uvula which is flattened out at the terminal edge. In the
present day Indian Ocean, six species of Rhinobatus including R. annandeli, R. granulates, R.
linotus, R. obtusus, R. thouin and R. typus are known to occur (Mishra, 1969).
Superorder: Batomorphii Cappetta 1980

Order: Rajiformes Berg, 1940
Family: Rhynchobatidae Garman, 1913
Genus: Rhynchobatus Muller and Henle, 1837
Generic characteristic: - According to Cappetta (1987), in this genus, the teeth are of very
unequal size on the jaws. In the lower jaw, the symphysial region is strongly convex, quite wide
and bears large teeth (upto five mm wide); this region is flanked by two depressed areas having
much smaller teeth; the size of the teeth increase again over the convex sections of the lateral
regions of the jaws to decrease once more towards the posterior ends of the tooth pavements; in
upper jaw, the convex areas with larger teeth correspond to depressed areas with small teeth on
the lower jaw and vice-versa. The teeth are rather massive, with the crowns generally wider than
long except in the symphysial and parasymphysial files. The oral face can be divided into three
regions from the labial to the lingual edge; a labial one convex and with an abrupt profile giving
an angular contour; a central one of roughly triangular shape, slightly depressed and oblique,
separated from the labial region by a not very sharp transverse crest but very marked and convex
in its central region in oral view; these two zones have a very precise ornamentation of
enameloid granules. The third region, corresponding to the lingual face, is smooth and not very
developed; a quite long central uvula, with a broad base descends from its lingual contour.
[130]
Geographical distribution and habitats: - The species of this genus are commonly found in the
tropical East Atlantic and Indo-Pacific. This genus is common in the Eocene to Recent deposits
of Europe, North and West Africa, Japan, etc.
Rhynchobatus sp.
(Fig. 34: 6)
Material and horizon: - One isolated tooth, Mks/pal/pu. 2000, from the bluish shale bed of
Itamundia, Baripada bed, Orissa.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 2000 (Fig. 34: 6) is a small tooth; crown enamel is having a granular
texture, the lingual face is flat, concave on each side separated by a moderate medial uvula, the
terminal end of the median uvula is pointed, lateral uvulae absent; root massive and extends
beyond the lingual face of the crown; root lobes divides on both sides by a deep nutritive groove
and a small foramina.
Remarks: - The present tooth is the first report of Rhynchobatus sp. from Indian subcontinent.
Teeth of Rhynchobatus Muller and Henle (1837) can be distinguished from Rhinobatos Link
(1780) in that the crown enameloid has a granular texture and the elongated medial lingual uvula
is not flanked by lateral uvulae (Cicimurri and Knight, 2009). Rhynchobatus sp. of Baripada
Beds is comparable with the Rhynchobatus pristinus from Langhian of Loupian, Herault,
Southern France (Cappetta, 1987) and from Oligocene Chandler Bridge Formation of South
Carolina, U.S. (Cicimurri and Knight, 2009), however, the present tooth is having more granular
texture and concave lingual faces on the side of medial uvula. Rhyncobatus teeth have also been
reported from the Maestrichtian of Morocco (Arambourg, 1952), Miocene of Japan (Itogawa et
al., 1985).
Order: Rajiformes, Berg, 1940

Superorder: Pristoidea
Family: Pristidae, Bonaparte, 1838
Genus: Pristis Link, 1790.
[131]
Generic characters: - According to Cappetta (1987), in this genus the rostrum is elongated and
flattened dorsoventrally and bears laterally pointed rostral teeth, deeply embedded in alveoli. The
rostral teeth are longer than broad, pointed and incurved downward. The crown is globular &
rounded, has a transverse crest, strong uvula (almost as long as the rest of the crown) and no
lateral uvulae. The root is deeper than wide and the nutrient groove broad with large central
foramen. The functional distal part is narrower, probably due to wear, than the proximal part
imbedded in the alveolus, the anterior edge is more or less sharp, the posterior edge is concave to
straight.
Geological distribution and Habitat: - The genus Pristis is found in tropical and sub-tropical
areas in the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific. They inhabit coastal areas such as bays and estuaries, but
frequently penetrate far into rivers and major lakes such as Lake Nicaragua. They are also
commonly found in shallow, muddy waters and can be found in both freshwater and saltwater.
The sawfishes are a near shore family and have the ability to traverse between fresh and
saltwater and are also known from tropical and subtropical (including fresh) waters worldwide.
Pristis aquitinicus Delfortrie1872
(Fig. 35: 1-3)
Pristis aquitinicus, Ghosh B.K., 1959, p. 67, pl. 88, fig. 7, 8.

Materials and Horizon: - Three isolated rostral teeth bearing the specimen number Mks/pal/pu.
20201, 20202 & 20203 and four unnumbered specimens from the bluish grey shale bed
Mukurmatia and limestone deposit Itamundia Baripada Beds from the locality Itamundia.
Diagnosis: - The rostral teeth of Pristis aquitanicus are long and the surface is more or less
smooth with faint noncontinuous striation. The sulcus is relatively broad and the tooth gradually
slopes towards the tip with gradual increase in curvature. The anterior margins gently tapering
towards the tip, the posterior margins are more or less straight.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 20201, 20202 & 20203 are rostral teeth; teeth are long with more or
less smooth surface. The dorsal and ventral faces are compressed and bear weak striations (Fig.
35: 1, 2, 3). Both faces gently slope toward the anterior margin of the teeth. Both the anterior and
posterior edges are smooth and broadly convex at the base. The anterior margins of the teeth are
tapering gently towards the tip thereby increasing the curvature while the posterior margins of
[132]
the teeth are more or less straight (Fig. 35: 1, 2, 3). The acute apex pointed slightly towards the
posterior margin (Fig. 35: 1 & 2).
Remarks: - The fossil remains of the genus Pristis ranging in age from Lower Eocene to Recent.
In most of the cases the deposits have yielded complete rostra, rostral spine and rarely oral teeth.
Ghosh (1959) described rostral tooth of Pristis aquitinicus from the limestone bed of Baripada
Beds in which the anterior surface is tapering gently towards the tip thereby increasing the
curvature while the posterior surface is straight and has a broad sulcus. He also commented on
the difficulty of identifying the species by only studying the rostral tooth. The species is having
some similarity with P. bisulcatus and P. lathami, however the relatively broad sulcus and
gradual slope of the tooth towards the tip shows much closer similarity with the P. aquitanicus of
Delfortrie (1872) described from the Lower Miocene of South-western France. Cappetta (1970
A) also reported P. aquitanicus from the Middle Miocene of Southern France.
Fig. 35: 1-3: Pristris aquitanicus (Mks/pal/pu. 20201, 20202, 20203) in lateral view; 4-6:
Gymnura sp. (Mks/pal/pu. 20204, 20205, 20206); 4 & 5 are in labial view and 6 is in lingual
view.
[133]
Superorder: Batomorphii
Order: Myliobatiformes
Superfamily: Dasyatoidea
Family: Gymnuridae Fowler 1934
Genus: Gymnura Van Hasselt 1823
Generic characters: - The teeth of this genus are small, with short, rather high and broad
crowns, and smooth enameloid. Teeth lack distinct lateral cusplets and most importantly have a
mesio-distally compressed strong medial depression of the labial crown face, the crown shows an
elongated and sharp cusp, directed lingually. The transverse crest is very marked and joins the
lateral angles which are acute and directed labially, forming a true margino-labial protuberance;
due to this fact, the crown’s labial contour, which does not jut out over the root’s labial face, is
very concave in occlusal view except in G. micrura where it is straight (Cappetta, 1987). Root is
not very high, rather narrow and bilobate and nearly as wide as the crown; lobes are triangular in
contour, separated by a deep groove clearly wider in its anterior region with a primary foramen
in a central anterior position; small foramina are often present on the labial face of the root.
Geographical distribution and habitat: The Genus Gymnura are found in Indian and western
Pacific oceans, western North Atlantic, occur in tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate
regions (Cappetta, 1987). They are circum global batoids commonly found in continental and
insular shelf and prefer soft bottoms and feed on fishes, crustaceans, molluscs and plankton.
Gymnura sp. indet.

(Fig. 35: 4, 5, 6)
Materials and Horizon: - Three isolated teeth, Mks/pal/pu. 20245, 20246 & 20247, from the
bluish grey shale bed of Mukurmatia, Baripada Beds, Orissa.
[134]
Description: - Teeth are triangular; symmetrical with a long, upright, and narrow cusp. Crowns
are moderately high with a lingually directed cusp, lateral angles are well-developed and
rounded; the labial face of the cusp is more or less flattened (Fig. 5: 4, 5, 6), the acute lateral
angles join and directed labially forming a margin labial protuberance. The lateral angles are
well-developed and rounded; the labial face of the cusp is flat but quite depressed between the
lateral angles. In lingual view the cuspidate part of the crown is laterally compressed (Fig. 35: 6),
the latero-posterior faces are well-developed and the crown is narrower at its base than at the
lateral angles. The mesial part of the crest is long and virtually rectilinear, while the distal part is
shorter (Fig. 35: 6). The labial face becomes more prominent due to the widening of the
cuspidate part of the crown. The root is high, massive, and laterally-extended (Fig. 35: 6). The
basal face of the lobes flattens with the crown contour becoming triangular (Fig. 35: 4, 5, 6). The
groove is deep and clearly wider in the anterior region. The roots are clearly separated from the
crown all along its perimeter by a narrow depressed zone, analogous to the neck. The primary
foramen is in a central anterior position. In the more lateral files due to the transverse expansion
of the teeth, the anterior notch tends to become shallower and the labial face of the crown
becomes very flat (Fig. 15: 4, 5).
Remarks: - The presence of Gymnura sp. were not recorded from the Eastern coast of India in
earlier literature. This is for the first time that the family Gymnuridae has been documented not
only from Baripada Beds but also from the Eastern coast of India. Earlier, Gymnura sp. had been
described by Rana et al. (2005) from the late Palaeocene- Early Eocene Akli Formation of
Barmer district and by Kumar et al. (2007) from the Early Eocene Khuiala Formation of the
Jaisalmer basin. The Gymnura sp. from Baripada is differrent from the Gymnura sp. from Akli
Formation and the Gymnura sp. of the Thanetian, Morocco (Cappetta, 1984) in having median
protuberance in addition to the margin-labial protuberance on the labial contour of the crown.
Gymnura sp. has also been reported from the Neogene (Aquitanian to the Middle Pliocene) of
southern France (Cappetta et al., 1967; Cappetta, 1970), from the Early Eocene of England
(Ward, 1983) and from the Middle Eocene of Belgium (Winkler, 1874; Cappetta, 1982).
Order: Myliobatiformes Compagno 1973

Family: Dasyatidae Jordan 1888
Genus: Dasyatis Rafinesque, 1810
[135]
Descriptive characters: - The teeth of the genus Dasyatis are small in size, crowns are rhombic
or polygonal in shape and often with globular and irregular surface. Most of the species of this
genus present well marked transverse crest and sometimes covered by marked labio-lingual
enameloid ridge. The labial face of the crown are convex to flat, may bear a more or less deep
depression, elliptical or circular shape; it very often has a marked pitted ornamentation but may
also be smooth; the lingual face is more reduced than the labial and its lingual outline always
lacks lateral uvulae; however sometimes there is a short central uvula present (Cappetta, 1987).
In between the crown and root a lip-like structure is present. Roots bilobate, not very high, the
lobes are directed backwards, the lobes are widely separated, crown is higher than the root which
is separated by a wide and deep nutrient groove and lingually directed (a strong slope of the
labial lobe face). In mature male species, the crown may be rhombic, trapezoidal, or even conical
while in female species and young males the crowns are low, rounded or nearly flat.
Geographical distribution and Habitats: The dasyatids are commonly adapted in tropical to
sub-tropical temperature and they prefer coastal, near shore waters including estuaries and
freshwater river environments.
Dasyatis sylvestris White 1931

(Fig. 36: 1)
Materials and horizon: - Mks/pal/pu. 20248 and certain unnumbered specimen from yellowish
grey shale bed Baripada Beds, Orissa.
Diagnosis: - Dasytis sylvestris is different from other species of Dasyatis in having arched
coronal surface of the teeth; both the anterior and posterior margins of the crown slope backward
at an acute angle. Root bilobate, which is nearly as high as the crown.
Description and Remarks: - Mks/pal/pu. 20248 (Fig. 36: 1) are small, massive teeth consisting
of well developed crown which is trapezoidal in shape, indicative of being an upper jaw tooth.
The lingual zone is smooth nearly flat; lacks ornamentation; median lingual lobe absent;
presence of sharp marginal angle (Fig. 36: 1a). The coronal surface is arched anterio-posteriorly.
The roots are more or less vertical; the width of the crown is as much as twice its length. The
lingual face of the crown is however extended upto the root making a lip like structure, root is
[136]
bifurcated into lobes by a wide root canal, root is as high as the crown (Fig. 36: Fig. 1b). The
anterior and posterior margins of the crown slopes backward at an acute angle.
Remarks: - Dasyatis sylvestris has been described from the Lower Miocene limestone of
Baripada Beds by Sahni and Mehrotra (1981). D. sylvestris is distinguished by possessing an
arched smooth coronal surface with a transverse ridge in both the margins sloping backward at
an acute angle, smooth coronal surface and single vertical root in marginal tooth. Besides this,
marginal angles are more acute and the root lobes are vertical in D. sylvestris. Dasyatis
rafinesquei described from the Eocene of Subathu Formation, northwest Himalaya (Kumar and
Loyal, 1987) and Subathu Formation of Garwal Himalaya near Nilakanth (Kumar, 1989) differs
from the present species in having subelliptical to subovate lingual visor.
Dasyatis mahuleinsis Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981

(Fig. 36: 2-4)
Material and Horizon: - Mks/pal/pu. 20249, 20250 & 20251 seven unnumbered specimens
from the yellowish gray shale bed of Mukurmatia, and bluish grey shale of Itamundia, Baripada
Beds, Orissa.
Diagnosis: - The teeth of Dasyatis mahuleinsis is distinct from the other Dasyatis species in
having numerous pits in the labial face of the crown and absence of prominent ridges.
Description: - Teeth are small in size, the crown is hexagonal, heights of crowns nearly double
the height of the roots (Fig. 36: 2, 3). Lingual face of the crown is flat without transverse ridge;
edges of the crown are sharp forming a hexagonal shape. The crown face is ornamented by the
presence of numerous pits of various size (Fig. 36: 2a, 3a, 3c, 4). The lingual face smooth, flat,
elliptical to sub-elliptical in shape, lingual marginal face of the crown is short, the lingual visors
are subcircular (Fig. 36: 3a) and median lingual ridges are absent; median lingual visor distinct
and hanging over the root. The roots are bilobate and obliquely oriented to the crown, lingually
displaced root; branches are nearly sub-circular (Fig. 36: 2b, 3b) and separated by prominent
nutritive canal. Foramen along the canal is not clearly visible.
Remarks: - Teeth of Dasyatis mahuleinsis have been described from the limestone bed of
Mahulia, Baripada Beds, Orissa (Mehrotra, 1979; Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981). Dasyatis
mahuleinsis is comparable with Dasytis sylvestris in having hexagonal shape, crown without
[137]
prominent ridge. However, it differs from Dasyatis sylvestris in having crown ornamented with
pits forming a sieve like structure and the root obliquely oriented towards the crown. The present
specimens are closely similar to Dasyatis sp. from the Early Eocene of Kapurdi Formation,
Rajasthan (Rana et al., 2006); however it differs from the later in having a more elliptical shape
and shallower lip.
Dasyatis menoni Sahni & Mehrotra, 1981

(Fig. 36: 5)
Material and horizon: - Isolated teeth, Mks/pal/pu. 20252, from the yellowish gray shale bed of
Diagnosis: - The tooth of Dasyatis menoni consist of transverse ridge which does not run upto
the lateral edges of the crown. Crown ornamented with longitudinal wrinkles. The transverse
ridge divides the crown into two unequal convex surface, marked concavity is present on the
surface in front; root bifid, obliquely oriented to the crown, root lobes are separated by wide root
canal.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 20252 (Fig. 36: 5) is a small tooth; crown is well developed,
hexagonal, nearly four times as high as the root. Prominent transverse ridge divides the crown
into two unequal convex parts; labial face of the crown is slightly depressed surrounded by the
labial zone which is ornamented with wrinkle; the lingual zone is ornamented with longitudinal
wrinkles, in between the adjacent wrinkle pit-like structure is developed (Fig. 36: 5a). The
crowns’ lingual visor is narrower than the labial visor. Lingual face of the crown forms a lip like
structure and it overhangs the root in which 3/4th part of it is covered by the lingual face in
lingual view. Lingual face and lingual marginal face of the crown are smooth and median lingual
ridge is absent. The lower part of labial visor is flattened. The root is bilobate, little obliquely
oriented to the crown; each root lobe is nearly triangular, stout, massive and separated by a wide
root canal (Fig. 36: 5b).
Remarks: - Sahni and Mehrotra (1981) compared the teeth of Dasyatis menoni with the teeth of
D. bleekeri (Mishra and Menon, 1955) flourishing in the Indian Ocean. It differs from D.
bleekeri in having transverse ridge which is not running upto the lateral edge of the crown and
the ridge also divide the crown into two equal convex surfaces in the latter, which is not found in
[138]
D. menoni. Dasyatis menoni is also distinguished from D. marginatus in not having the strong
transverse ridge with marked concavity on the surface in front of it (Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981).
Dasyatis sp. 1
(Fig. 36: 6, 7, 8)
Material and Horizon: Mks/pal/pu. 20253, 20254, 20255 unnumbered specimens from the
yellowish gray shale bed of Mukurmatia, and bluish grey shale of Itamundia, Baripada Beds,
Orissa.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 20253, 20254 & 20255 are small teeth, longer than wide; crown
more or less spherical, a wide, transverse and slightly bulged crest is present. A small sub
circular depression is present in the labial face of the crown (Fig. 36: 7a). The labial visor is
subcircular (Fig. 36: 7, 8) to angular showing a median protuberance (Fig. 36: 6, 7). The
marginal angles are well marked. The crown is ornamented by median lingual ridge which is
dividing the crown into two unequal halves (Fig. 36: 7a), the lingual zone is ornamented with
longitudinal wrinkles. The lateral angles of the crown are acute in all the specimens; marginal-
lingual surfaces are slightly concave. The lingual visor outline is convex to slightly concave in its
middle part. The crown’s lingual visor is clearly over the median sulcus of the root thereby
concealing the root lobes (Fig. 36: 6a, 7a, 8a). In all the specimens, the roots are lingually
arched; median nutritive grooves are wide and deep. Each lobe is triangular in outline. A
foramen in the middle of the sulcus is present in all the specimens. Labial faces of the root are
deeply depressed (Fig. 36: 6b, 7b, 8b, 9b).
[139]
[140]
Fig. 36: 1: Dasyatis sylvestris (Mks/pal/pu. 20248); 2-4: Dasyatis mahuleinsis (Mks/pal/pu.
20249, 20250 & 20251); 5: Dasyatis menoni (Mks/pal/pu. 20252); 6-8: Dasyatis sp.
1(Mks/pal/pu. 20253, 20254, 20255); 9: Dasyatis sp. 2 (Mks/pal/pu. 20256); 10, 11: Raja tewarii
(Mks/pal/pu. 20257, 20258); 1a, 2a, 3a, 4a, 5a, 6a, 7a, 8a, 9a, 10, 11 are in lingual view and 2a,
3b, 4b, 5b, 6b, 7b, 8b, 9b are in labial view.
Discussion: - The present teeth are comparable to those of D. cavernosa Probst (1877) and D.
probsti Cappetta (1970) in the presence of the crown’ s middle-lingual depression (Cappetta,
1970: pp. 88-91, Pl. 22, Figs. 1-13 and Pl. 21, Figs. 15-23). However the characteristic features
like larger size, wider transverse crest, more marked marginal angles, more developed lower
edge of the labial visor, convex crown lingual visor with a middle depression, and more
developed root lobes makes it different from their specimen. These specimens are also
comparable to D. g. centroura (Balbino and Antunnes, 2006) in having depressed labial faces of
the root, wide crown, lingually arched root but differs from the latter which are having well
marked marginal angles, more concave lingual face of the crown. The specimens are also
different from D. menoni (Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981) which is having a hexagonal shape crown,
convex lingual visor, flattened lower part of labial visor.
Dasyatis sp. 2
(Fig. 36: 9)
Material and Horizon: - Mks/pal/pu. 20256 from the yellowish gray shale bed of Mukurmatia
Description: - Tooth small, longer than wide; crown is low, thin enameled, non cuspidate, the
lateral edges of the tooth are sharp (Fig. 6: 9). The labial visor of the crown is convex; labial face
of the crown bears minute wrinkles, the lingual face is smooth, flat; lingual visor is elliptical to
subelliptical in shape. The crown is ornamented by median lingual ridge which divides the
crown into two unequal halves. The median lingual ridge is absent and bears a lingual lip.
Median lingual visor is distinct and hangs over the root. The roots are massive, bilobate with a
wide root canal. A central foramen present on the labial side; labial face of the root is depressed,
root lingually displaced, root lobes are more deviated from each other.
[141]
Remarks: - The present specimens are closely similar to Dasyatis sp. from the Early Eocene of
Kapurdi Formation, Rajasthan (Rana et al., 2006; pl. 2, fig. 11). However, the teeth of the present
species are more elliptical in shape and the lip is also shallower. It also differs from Dasyatis sp.
1 described here which is having lingual zone ornamented with longitudinal wrinkles; beside this
the present specimen is also having root lobes more deviated from each other.
Order: Rajiformes Compagno 1973

Suborder: Rajoidea
Family: Rajidae Blainville, 1816
Genus: Raja Linnaeus, 1758
Descriptive Characters: - The teeth of Raja sp. are numerous with the dentition designed for
crushing, clutching-crushing or clutching; the teeth of the female specimens are usually rounded
while the cuspidate teeth are usually associated with mature males. The crown is less ornamental
in comparision with Dasyatis in which the crown is ornamented with ridges and tubercles. The
teeth are highly variable, but both crown faces are normally smooth and separated by a
transverse edge which may extend along most of the labial face. The visor is strong and the uvula
distinct (Cappetta, 1987; 20-21). The root is vertical and bilobate which is birfurcated by a root
canal; the lateral faces often include an apico-basal depression, the lobes tend to be splayed to
some extent, and the groove includes a central pore(s) and is more open labially. The tubercle is
generally conical with an acutely or obtusely pointed apex.
Geographical distribution and Habitats: - They are mostly used to a shallow coastal to abyssal
warm temperature condition at boreal latitude. Sometimes circumglobal benthic batoids which
are habituated in cooler waters are also found. In present day, the species are found in Atlantic
and Pacific oceans, warm water of northern part of Indian Ocean, Phillipines, East Indies,
Queensland, the west coast of Central America and South America.
Raja tewarii Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981

(Fig. 36: 10, 11)
[142]
Material and Horizon: - Mks/pal/pu. 20257 & 20258 from the yellowish grey shale bed of
Diagnosis: - According to Sahni and Mehrotra (1981), this species is very much similar to Raja
fallax and Raja fallae. But in Raja tewarii the transverse ridge across the masticatory face of the
tooth is absent like that present in R. fallax. The crown of the teeth is rhomboid in occlusal view
and the enamel is recurved towards the anterior margin. In lingual view, this enamel makes a
wing like appearance. Root branches are very small and penetrate deep below the crown.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 20257, 20258 are small teeth, rhombohedral in shape, height of the
crown is nearly the same as the height of the root is very low not extending much in lingual
view. The crown lacks tubercles, wrinkles and not ornamented. The crown enamel is recurved
and slightly raised towards the anterior margin and the enamel makes a wing like structure. The
median transverse ridge is present; labial face of the crown is smooth; labial visor is making an
obtuse angle at the middle; both the labial and lingual face of the crown are concave (Fig. 36: 10,
11); median lingual ridge is absent in all the specimens; lingual visor is convex. The root is
small, low, bilobate, two lobes which have been corroded are separated by a median root canal;
lower part of the labial visor is flat, labial face of the root is slightly depressed.
Remark: - The present teeth are identical to those of Raja tiwarii of Sahni and Mehrotra (1981)
which have been described for the first time from the limestone beds of Baripada. They
compared their specimen with the closely similar teeth of Raja fallax and Raja fallae described
by Bigelow and Schroder (1948) from the western North Antlantic.It differs from the latter in the
absence of transverse ridge across the masticatory face of the tooth. The presence of recurved
enamel making a wing like appearance and small root penetrating deep below the crown makes it
easier to assign the present specimens as teeth of Raja tiwarii.
3.7 Systematic Description of Teleost

The identification of the teleost teeth involves the study of the entire morphology of the teeth
and noting the various characters of the teeth. In Fig. (37), a general morphology of the tooth of a
teleost is given. The teeth of teleost consist of well developed crown and root. The height of the
crown (h) mainly constitutes the height of the root (h’) of the tooth is rarely preserved. The
crown of the teeth is usually cylindrical to subcylindrical in shape and sometimes it gets flattened
in the case of Cybium.
[143]
Fig. 37: General morphology and terminology of a teleost tooth (Terminology from, Mehrotra,
1979).
The apex of the crown is generally blunt and flattened. In flattened tooth the lateral edges are
smooth or serrated. The edges may be sharp or rounded. A conical enamelled cap may be present
towards the apex of the crown. The summit of the conical cap may be pointed or flattened. A
furrow like structure may be developed between the conical cap and the remaining part of the
crown. The width of the crown (d) is the maximum diameter of the cylinder. The crown is
usually covered with a thick coat of dentine at the apex and thinner coating throughout the
surface. The basal section of the crown is rounded or sometimes elliptical. The centre of the base
usually presents an opening for the pulp cavity. Thus, the following criteria are considered for
proper identification of the teeth.
A. Crown
1. Shape: Whether cylindrical, sub-cylindrical or flattened.
2. Apex: Whether pointed, blunt or flattened.
3. Conical cap: Whether present or absent.
4. Lateral edges: whether sharp or rounded.
5. Surface: whether smooth or ornamented.
[144]
6. Basal section: Whether rounded, elliptical or irregular.
7. Opening of pulp cavity: Whether present or absent.
8. Ratio of Height and Width.
B. Root
1. Shape: Whether cylindrical, sub-cylindrical or irregular.
2. Surface: Whether smooth or ornamented.
3. Ratio of Height and Width.
Class: osteichthyes
Subclass: Actinopterygii
Superorder: Teleostei
Order: Acanthoptygi
Suborder: Percoidei
Family: Sparidae
Genus: Sparus Linne, 1758
(Syn. Chrysophrys, 1829)
Generic characteristic: - The teeth are of three types consisting of canine, intermediate and
molar teeth. The canine teeth are big and strong with cylindrical to cylindricoconical shaft on its
upper part surmounted by a flattened apex. The intermediate are conical in their upper part but
cylindrical in the lower part. They are wider and shorter than the canine teeth. The molars consist
of hemispherical cap surrounding a short collar. In both the canine and the intermediate teeth the
upper and lower halves are separated by a furrow but in the molars the furrow is absent.
Geographical distribution and Habitats: - They are most commonly found in the tropical seas
and warmer parts of temperate zones. They are common species of East Indian and Chinese coast
and sometimes enter large rivers also.
Sparus cinctus Agassiz, 1839

(Fig. 38: 1-10)
[145]
Material and Horizon: Ten specimens under the specimen Mks/pal/pu. 20300- 20309 from the
bluish grey shale bed of Mukurmatia, Baripada and several unnumbered.
Diagnosis: -The teeth of Sparus cinctus are strong, large and cylindro-conical shape. They can
be divided into two parts including the basal part which is thick, high and circular and the apical
part which is narrow having a rounded apex. The apical and the basal part of the crown are
separated by a pronounced furrow. In the basal section, a circular central cavity is present
Description: - The teeth are strong, medium size and cylindro-conical shape (Fig. 38: 1, 2). The
apical and the basal part of the crown are separated by a pronounced furrow (Fig. 38: 5, 7, 8, 9).
In the basal sections, a circular central cavity is present. In Mks/pal/pu. 20260 & 20306, 20307
(Fig. 38: 8, 10) the apex is slightly inclined to the inner margin and the outer margin is convex.
Mks/pal/pu. 20303, 20304 & 20305 (Fig. 38: 4, 5 & 6) the hemispherical crown is low with a
short and circular basal part, the apical part is high and the furrow is indistinct, the basal section
is circular and the central cavity is absent. It may represent the lateral molar teeth and (Fig. 38:
7, 8, 9 & 10) resembles the canine teeth of Sparus cinctus.
Remark: - The teeth are similar to those of Sparus cinctus of Jonet (1975). Sparus cinctus has
been described from the limestone bed of Baripada by Mehrotra (1981).
Sparus auratus
(Fig. 38: 11-13)
Material and Horizon: Mks/pal/pu. 20310, 20311, 20312 and six unnumbered specimen from
the bluish grey shale bed of Mukurmatia, Baripada.
Diangnosis: - Tooth small, crown is subcylindrical; the basal parts of the shaft are marked by a
pronounced furrow all around the shaft. Apical portion may be pointed to blunt.
Description: The crown of the teeth of Mks/pal/pu. 20310 20311, 20312 (Fig. 38:11-13) are
subcylindrical, surmounted by conical cap with a flattened apex. The apical portion of the crown
is distinctly separate from the basal portion by a constriction. The surface of the crown is
smooth, basal portion corroded, and an opening is present at the base (Fig. 38:12) which
narrowed towards the upward portion of the crown in the form of a canal. The thick pseudo-
dentine wall surrounded the pulp cavity. The teeth may represent intermediate teeth.
Remarks: -Mehrotra (1981) described Sparus auratus from the limestone bed of Baripada.
[146]
Fig. 38: 1-10: Sparus cinctus (Mks/pal/pu. 20300- 20309); 11-13: Sparus auratus (Mks/pal/pu.
20260-20262); 14-15: Sparus agarwali (Mks/pal/pu. 20263- 20264); 16: Sparus sp. indet
(Mks/pal/pu. 20265); All the specimens are in lateral view except fig. 6 which is in occlusal
view.
[147]
Sparus agarwali Mehrotra, 1981
(Fig. 38: 14, 15)
Material and Horizon: Two specimens under the specimen number Mks/pal/pu. 20263- 20264
and four unnumbered specimens from the bluish grey shale bed of Mukurmatia, Baripada.
Diangnosis: - The present specimen is very similar to that of S. auratus but differs in having
conical apical part of the shaft which inclines towards inner margin. The basal part of the shaft is
much wider than the upper part.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 20263- 20264 (Plate 17: fig. 14, 15) teeth are small, subcylindrical in
the basal part and strongly conical in the upper apical portion. Height of the basal part is more
than the height of the apical part, conical cap inclined towards its inner margin of the shaft. The
basal section is circular; a central cavity is present which is surounded by a thick wall.
Remarks: - Mehrotra (1981) has reported Sparus agarwali from the limestone bed of Baripada,
Orissa. He discussed that the tooth of Sparus agarwali is similar to S. auratus but it differs in
having its apical part of the shaft conical and inclined towards the inner margin. The basal part of
the shaft is much wider than the upper part which differs from S. auratus. The apical and the
basal part of the shaft are marked by a pronounced furrow all around the shaft but it is absent in
S. auratus.
Sparus sp. indet.

(Fig. 38: 16)
Material and Horizon: - One isolated tooth under the specimen no. Mks/pal/pu. 20265 from the
bluish grey shale of Mukurmatia.
Comments: - Tooth strong, conical, apex is slightly curved towards the inner margin, and is
blunt (Fig. 38: 16). The basal section is circular, basal pad is large and a central cavity is present.
[148]
The specimen is closely similar to Sparus sp. of Kumar et al. (2007). The specimen is also
similar to Sparus sp. of Arambourg (1952) from the Lower Eocene of Morocco.
Genus: Pagellus Cuvier and Valeinciennes, 1830
Generic Characters: - The teeth are having cylindrical shaft which are tronchonical to conical
in the apical part. The apical part is inclined towards its inner margin and forms an obtuse angle
with the basal part of the shaft. The teeth are distinguished into three types e.g. canines,
intermediate and the molar. The canine and the intermediate teeth are with highly cylindrical
shaft and the molar is short. The molar teeth are surmounted with the ellipsoidal cap while the
canine and the intermediate are with conical to subconical cap.
Geographical distribution and Habitats: - They are well adapted to littoral environment and
most commonly found in Medeterranean Sea and in the Indian Ocean.
Pagellus sp.
(Fig. 39: 1, 2, 3, 4)
Material and Horizon: - Four specimens under the specimen number Mks/pal/pu. 20266-20267
from the limestone bed of Itamundia, Baripada.
Comments: - Mks/pal/pu. 20266-20267 are small teeth consisting of cylindrical shaft which are
narrow towards the apical part and terminate as cone (Fig. 39: 1, 2, 3, 4). In all the specimens,
the apex is cylindrical towards the inner margin of the shaft and its apical part makes an obtuse
angle with the basal part. The inner margin of the crown is gently concave and the outer margin
of the crown is convex (Fig. 39: 1, 2, 3, 4). The base of the teeth present opening of the pulpal
cavity surrounded by large pad. The present specimen is similar to Pagellus sp. of Mehrotra
(1981) which has been described from the limestone bed of Baripada, Orissa.
Genus: Pagrus Cuvier, 1817
Generic Characters: - The teeth at the symphasis of the jaw are stout and conical. They are
more conical towards interior of the oral cavity. The apical part of the canines are surmounted by
[149]
a conical cap and separated with the basal part with a furrow. Internally the teeth are globular but
dispersed irregularly. The intermediate teeth are similar to canines but more stout and with a
deep constriction in the middle. The root is strong and almost as wide as that of the crown.
Geographical distribution and Habitats: - The genus is founf mostly in tropical climatic
condition to warmer parts of the temperate zone. They are frequently found in the Mediterranean
Sea, Atlantic Ocean, on the coast of America, Africa, Australia and New Zealand.
Pagrus robustus, Jonet, 1975

(Fig. 39: 5, 6)
Material and Horizon: -- Two specimens under the specimen number Mks/pal/pu. 20268 &
20269 and certain unnumbered specimens from the greyish shale bed of Mukurmatia and
Limestone bed of Itamundia, Baripada Beds, Orissa.
Diagnosis: - Mks/pal/pu. 20268 & 20269 (Fig. 39: 5, 6) teeth are small, robust and massive,
consisting of a cylindrical shaft with circular basal section. The canines are with subconical
profile, intermediate teeth are slightly convex while the molars are oblique. The apical part of the
canines are surmounted by a conical cap. The intermediates and molar cap is conical and
hemispherical, respectively.
Description: - The teeth are robust, massive; shaft cylindrical (Fig. 39: 5, 6). The height of the
basal part of the teeth nearly equal to the diameter of its basal section; prominent furrow is
present in Mks/pal/pu. 20268 (Fig. 39: figs. 5) and the apical part is subconical with convex apex
in (Fig. 39: 6). Basal section of the crown is circular; a central pulp cavity is present which is
surrounded by thick radial wall consisting of osteodentine.
Remark: -The present specimens are similar to the teeth of Pagrus robustus described from the
limestone bed of Baripada, Orissa by Mehrotra (1981) in which his teeth were found to be
identical to the anterior molar teeth of Pagrus robustus described by Jonet (1975).
[150]
Pagrus sp.
(Fig. 39: 7-9)
Material and Horizon: -- Three isolated teeth of Pagrus sp. under the specimen number
Mks/pal/pu. 20270-20272 from the greyish grey shale bed of Mukurmatia, Baripada, Orissa.
Comments: - The crown of the teeth is cylindrical, apex flattened; cylindrical shaft in the basal
part, conical in the apical part with a flattened apex and a constriction is present between the
basal part and conical part (Fig. 39: 10); central pulp canal is present which is surrounded by a
thick osteodentine. In Mks/pal/pu. 20272 (Fig. 39: 9), the diameter of the apical portion is more
than the diameter of the basal portion. Mks/pal/pu. 20270, 20272 (Fig. 39: 7 & 9) may be
anterior molar teeth and Mks/pal/pu. 20271 (Fig. 39: 8) may be an intermediate teeth. These
teeth are identical to Pagrus sp. described by Mehrotra (1981) from the Miocene limestone bed
of Baripada, Orissa.
[151]
Fig. 39: 1-4: Pagellus sp. (mks/ pal/pu. 20266-20267); 5, 6: Pagrus robustus. (Mks/pal/pu.
20268-20269); 7-9: Pagrus sp. (Mks/pal/pu. 20270-20272); 10, 11: Diplodus sp. (Mks/pal/pu.
20274-20275); 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11 are lateral views, 6 in latero-occlusal view and 9 in
latero-basal view.
Genus: Diplodus, Rafinesque, 1810
[152]
Generic Characters: - Teeth are generally having a wide shaft which are chisel shaped or
spatulate. The crown, in most of the case, presents a quadrangular appearance which is wider
than the root; root is often partly preserved. The incisor at the symphasis consists of two distinct
parts, one with a vertical base and other a transversely flattened apical part. The concavity in the
middle joins the two parts. Posteriorly, the teeth are globular, short and irregularly dispersed. The
root of the teeth is strong and marked by a constriction.
Geographical distribution:-The genus is presently found widely distributed in Meditternean,
Atlantic and the shores of the Indian subcontinent.
Diplodus sp.
(Fig. 39: 10-11)
Material and Horizon: - Two specimens under the specimen number Mks/pal/pu. 20274-20275
from the limestone bed of Itamundia, Baripada.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 20274 & 20275 (Fig. 39: 10, 11) are small teeth, broad, subtriangular
to sub-quadrangular in shape. The crown is easily divisible into two parts- the basal part, which
is very wide and the narrower apical part which is having a transversely flattened apex. The root
is strong, partially preserved. The height of the root is nearly double the height of the crown. The
stout root is separated from the crown by a prominent constriction (Fig. 39: 10, 11). The surface
of the root and crown are without any ornamentation. A thick dentine covered the apex and the
margin of the crown.
Remarks: - Mehrotra (1981) reported Diplodus laticonus and Diplodus jomnitanus from the
Miocene limestone bed of Baripada, Orissa. His species were comparatively identical to the
Sargus laticonus described by Chapman (1918) from the Miocene of New Zealand and Diplodus
jomnitanus described by Leriche (1957) from the Neogene of Britain and France. The present
specimens are closely similar to those of Diplodus sp. (Mehrotra, 1981; plate II, fig. 5).
Class: Osteichtyes Huxly, 1880
Subclass: Actinopterygii Klein, 1885
Order: Acanthopterygii Johnson and Patterson, 1993
Family: Denticidae
Genus: Dentex Cuvier, 1817
[153]
Nomenclature: - The present study followed Jonet’s (1975) classification in which the genus
Dentex has been put under the Family Denticidae. However certain worker had classified the
species under the Family Sparidae and Family Percidae.
Generic Characters: - Teeth are strong and of varying height, cylindroconical shape with
pointed apex, which is pointed towards the inner margin. The crown possess longitudinal
striations, basal section is circular with a central cavity surrounded by the radial furrows. In
saggital section, the central cavity is conical continuously from the base to the apex.
Geographical distribution: - The genus is found distributed in the Mediterranean, south coast
of Africa, and on the coast of China and Japan.
Dentex sp.
(Fig. 40: 1-10)
Type species: - Sparus dentex Linnaeus, 1758
Materials and Horizon: - Fifteen specimens under the specimen numbers Mks/pal/pu. 20277-
20291 and several unnumbered specimens from bluish clay horizon of Mukurmatia, Baripada
Beds, Orissa.
Description: - Teeth are of varying size, cylindro-conical shape, apexes are pointed (Fig. 40:1-
10). The crown curved towards its inner margin, and the surface of the crown bears prominent to
week longitudinal striations (Fig. 40: 1-10). The striation is very weak and crown is more upright
in Mks/pal/pu. 20278 (Fig. 40: fig. 2). Mks/pal/pu. 20289 (Fig. 40: 8) the crown is smooth, the
apex is less pointed as compared to the other specimen and striation mark is feeble or not
present. The root portion of the teeth is not preserved. The basal faces of the crowns are circular
with central pulp cavity. The central cavity is walled by pseudo-dentine. The apical parts of the
crowns are more conical than the basal parts.
[154]
Fig. 40: 1-10: Dentex sp. (Mks/pal/pu. 20277-20291); 11-12: Dentex compressa (Mks/pal/pu.
20292, 20293); the photographs are in lateral view.
Remarks: - Mehrotra (1981) described Dentex sp. from the limestone bed, Baripada Beds. His
specimens are closely resembled to those of Jonet (1955, Pl. I & II). Mondal et al. (2009) also
described Dentex sp. from the locality Mahulia of Baripada Beds. Dentex sp. has also been
described by Tiwari et al. (1998) from Mizoram. The present specimen resemble to Dentex sp.
described by Mehrotra (1981).
[155]
Dentex compressa
(Fig. 40: 11, 12)
Materials and Horizon: - Two isolated teeth under the specimen number Mks/pal/pu. 20292-
20293 from bluish clay horizon of Mukurmatia, Baripada Beds, Orissa.
Diagnosis: - The apical half of the teeth of this species is largely compressed laterally. Apex of
the crown is inclined towards the inner margin, surface bears fine striations.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 20292-20293 (Plate 19: figs. 11, 12) are medium size teeth, basal
part is stout and the upper part is laterally compressed, apical portion which is most likely
pointed is not preserved well and it is inclined towards inner margin. Very fine longitudinal
striations are present on the apical part of the crown, outer margin gently convex. The basal part
is more circular and bears a central cavity.
Remarks: - Mehrotra (1981) described Dentex compressa from the limestone bed of Baripada
Beds. His specimen closely resembles with the Dentex fossilis of Jonet (1975), but the apical half
of the tooth is largely compressed laterally and the basal half is cylindrical which makes it
distinguished from those of Jonet (1975; Pl. I & II). The present specimens are identical to those
of Dentex compressa of Mehrotra (1981) in having laterally compressed crown and more
cylindrical basal parts.
Order: Ostariophysi
Suborder: Scrombroidei
Family: Scrombridae
Genus: Cybium Cuvier, 1829
Generic Characters: - Teeth are conical, laterally compressed, lateral edges curving sharply
towards the apex of the teeth; margin of the teeth are sharply cutting, may be with or without
serration, surface of the crown present longitudinal striations. Teeth are without pulp cavity.
Geographical distribution: Cybium is mainly found in the coastal regions of tropical Atlantic
and Indian Ocean. It flourished during the early Tertiary (Eocene to Miocene) in western
[156]
Arabian sea, Mediterranean sea, and Atlantic ocean and probably migrated to Bay of Bengal and
Pacific Ocean during the later part of Tertiary period (Mehrotra, 1981; p. 77).
Cybium biconvexa
(Fig. 41: 1)
Material and Horizon: - One isolated specimen under the specimen no. Mks/pal/pu. 20294
from the bluish grey shale bed of Mukurmatia, Baripada.
Diagnosis: - Teeth conical and laterally compressed. Mehrotra (1979) discussed that the teeth of
this species distinguished from C. angustidens described from Eocene of Africa which has
parallel lateral edges curving sharply towards apex of tooth. The basal section of the teeth is
biconvex in shape, thus making it different from the closely similar species C. serraheiroi and C.
bottei which are having hexagonal and plano-convex basal section, respectively.
Description: Tooth is large, symmetrically conical and compressed laterally (Fig. 41: 1). The
margins of the teeth are sharp; serrations are absent, and taper towards the apex. The crown
presents feebly longitudinal striation. Tooth is characterized by the absence of pulp cavity. The
shape of the basal section is biconvex. The specimen reported from the west coast of India
differs in having serration on the surface of the crown.
Remarks: - Sahni and Mishra (1973) reported Cybium sp. for the first time in the Indian
subcontinent from the lower Miocene aranaceous shale of Lakhpat in Kutch. Cybium sp. had also
been reported from early Miocene Quilon bed of Kerala (Mehrotra, 1982). Four species of
Cybium e.i. C. commersonii, C. guttalus, C. kuhli and C. interruptus were reported from the Bay
of Bengal and Arabian Sea (Chandi, 1979). Fossil teeth of Cybium have been reported from the
Miocene bed of Portugal, Italy (Jonet, 1967) and Eocene of Nigeria (White, 1926). Cybium
biconvexa is distinguished from C. angustiden having a parallel lateral edge curving sharply
towards apex of the tooth. Mehrotra (1981) described Cybium biconvexa from the Miocene
fossiliferous limestone bed below the Ossiferous conglomerate of Piram Island. He suggested
that during the early Tertiary period (Eocene to Miocene) Cybium flourished only in western
Arabia Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean and it probably migrated to Bay of Bengal
and Pacific Ocean in later part of the Tertiary. Mishra (1985) described Cybium sp. for the first
[157]
time from the Baripada Beds. Contradicting to Mehrotra (1981), he suggested that Cybium
flourished along both the east and west coast of India during the early Miocene period as well
(Mishra, 1985, p. 91).
Order: Acanthopterygii
Suborder: Spheinoidei
Family: Sphyrnidae
Genus: Sphyraena Bloch and Schneider, 1801
Generic Characters: - The anterior teeth of the species are laterally compressed with sharp
margins, while the margins of the lateral teeth are rounded. In anterior teeth, posterior margin
forms a hook-like structure towards the apex while in lateral teeth the margins are straight.
Striation may be present on the surface of the crown.
Geographical distribution and Habitat: - The genus Sphyraena is most commonly found in
the tropical and subtropical seas. These coastal to open sea genus have been reported from the
Eocene to Miocene deposit of Europe, Eocene of Africa, Eocene to Miocene of India,
Pleistocene deposit of North America.
Sphyraena sp.
(Fig. 41: 2-4)
Material and Horizon: - Three specimens under the specimen no. Mks/pal/pu. 20295-20297
from the bluish grey shale bed of Mukurmatia, Baripada.
Description: - Mks/pal/pu. 20295-20297 (Fig. 41: 2-4) are labio-lingually compressed teeth
with acute apex; the surfaces of the margin are smooth. The internal faces of the teeth are more
convex than the external face. The crown of the specimen Mks/pal/pu. 20297 (Fig. 41: 4) is
corroded and the tooth shows a more triangular outline.
Remarks: Hora (1939) doubtfully identified two isolated tooth of sphyraena incerta sedi from
Miocene of Balasore. Mehrotra (1981) described Sphyraena sp. from the limestone bed of
Baripada. His specimens are more long and conical, suggesting to a laniary tooth of the
premaxilla. Sahni et al. (1975) and Rana et al. (2004) also reported Sphyraena sp. from the
Lower Miocene Khari series of Matanumadh and lower Eocene, Vastan lignite mine of Cambay
[158]
basin, Gujarat. Their specimens differ from the Sphyraena sp. described from the early Eocene
Khuiala Formation of the Jaisalmer Basin, Western Rajasthan (Kumar et al., 2007) in having
serrated edges. The Baripada specimens are very much similar to those of Kumar et al. (2007).
Family: Trichiuridae
Genus: Trichiurus, Linne, 1758
Generic Characteristics: - Teeth are large, laterally compressed. Inner margin of the crown
with a distal barb and the other margin are smooth. Teeth are without pulp cavity.
Geographical distribution: - The genus is widely distributed in the tropical oceans and they are
also commonly found near the vicinity of land. In India Trichurids are commonly found in Bay
of Bengal. They are also found in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Sometime, they are found in
temperate zones also.
Trichurus sp.
(Fig. 41: 5)
Material and Horizon: - A single specimen under the specimen no. Mks/pal/pu. 20298
collected from the bluished grey shale of Mukurmatia, Baripada Beds, Orissa.
Comment: - Tooth medium size, labiolingually compressed, the crown tip bears a slight barb on
its distal edge, the distal edges are convex and sharp, the mesial edge is concave and smooth
(Fig. 41: 5). Monsch (2004), in a recent review of scombroids from the Cenozoic of England,
suggested that the genus Trichiurus do not exhibit any diagnostic dental characters that permit
identification at the species level. Trichiurids are pelagic piscivores found inshore and offshore
in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans (Stevens et al., 2011). The fossil occurrence and
distribution of Trichiurids are found worldwide from Eocene to Pleistocene period (Carrol,
1988). Mehrotra (1981) described Trichiurus sp. from the limestone bed of Baripada.
[159]
Unidentified teleost tooth, Type 1
(Fig. 41: 6)
Material and Horizon: - An isolated tooth, Mks/pal/pu. 20299, from the bluish grey shale bed
Comments: - Tooth is small, conical in shape, Crown is smooth apex is pointed anteriorly, the
apical portion is narrower than the broad basal portion (Fig. 41: 6). The apical and the basal
portion is separated by a constriction running at the upper middle of the crown. A central pulp
cavity is present at the basal section.
[160]
Fig. 41: 1: Cybium biconvexa (Mks/pal/pu. 20294); 2-4: Sphyreana sp. (Mks/pal/pu. 20295-
20297); 5: Trichiurus sp. (Mks/pal/pu. 20298); 6: Unidentified teleost tooth, Type-1
(Mks/pal/pu. 20299); 7: Unidentified teleost tooth, Type-2 (Mks/pal/pu. 20300); 8 :Unidentified
teleost tooth, Type-2 (Mks/pa/pu. 20303); 8-9; Characidae Alestinae trib. indet. (Mks/pal/pu.
20301, 20302). All the photographs are of lateral views.

(Fig. 41: 7)
Material and Horizon: - A single isolated tooth, Mks/pal/pu. 20300, from the bluish grey shale
bed of Itamundia, Baripada Beds, Orissa.
Comments: - Mks/pal/pu. 20300 (Fig. 4: 7) is medium size tooth, of cylindro-conical shape,

with pointed apex, the crown is curved towards its inner margin and crown surface is smooth.
The basal part is broader than the apical part and the crown tapers from the base upto the
constriction at the upper part, it is from here the broader base of apical portion is starts and gets
tapered at the pointed apex. The basal section of the crown present central pulp cavity.

(Fig. 41: 8)
Material and Horizon: - An isolated tooth, Mks/pal/pu. 20300, from the bluish grey shale bed
Comment: - The crown of this conical tooth has a thin depressed line in its upper middle height
(Fig. 41: 8). An opening for the pulpal cavity is present in basal view which is surrounded by a
large pad.
Family: Characidae
Subfamily: Alestinae
Tribe indet.
(Fig. 41: 9, 10)
[161]
Material and Horizon: - Two Isolated teeth under the specimen number Mks/pal/pu. 20301-
20302 from the bluish grey shale bed of Itamundia, Baripada Beds, Orissa.
Description: - Teeth are medium size, tricuspidated, subcylindrical in shape, labiolingually

compressed, the three cusps aligned and the middle one is more elongated. The specimen number
Mks/pal/pu. 20301(Fig. 41: 9) is globulous shape, crown is smooth with rectangular outline in
the lateral view; the middle cusps is bluntly pointed upward. In basal section, a central pulp
cavity is present. The specimen no. Mks/pal/pu. 20302 (Fig. 41: 10) is more elongated, like an
arrow, tricuspidate, cusps are more pointed head in which the middle one is more prominent. The
basal part is narrow thereby enlarging its size toward the middle of the crown. In the basal
section, the teeth present a central pulp cavity.
Remarks: - This is the first time report of Characidae teeth from east coast of India (Baripada
Beds). According to Gery (1977), the family Alistidae is divided into two subfamilies: Alestinae,
with multicuspidate teeth aligned on two rows and Hydrocyninae with caniniform teeth aligned
along one row. On the upper jaw, the inner teeth of Alisinae are multicupidate and the outer ones
tricuspidate (Otero and Gayet, 2001). Patterson (1993) and Nelson (1994) link these two
subfamilies as the Alestinae, which groups under the family Characidae. Presently, Petterson’s
nomenclature is adopted. Among the ten Recent subfamilies belonging to the Family Characidae,
Alestinae are the only African representative (Otero and Gayet, 2001).
[162]
CHAPTER-IV: SEDIMENTOLOGICAL PROXY: CLAY MINERALOGY
4.1 Introduction
In the current research works, the study of clay minerals for the interpretation of palaeoclimate is
widely followed. Clay minerals are a powerful source for the interpretation of marine depositional
processes and their study also help in understanding weathering conditions (Maldenado and
Stanley, 1981; Reddy and Rao, 2001). The study of clay minerals in marine sediments can help in
the interpretation of oceanic current variations as well (Petschik et al., 1996; Gingele at al., 1996;
Gingele at al., 2001; Liu at al., 2003). The vertical distribution pattern of clay minerals can be
widely used in identifying the contemporaneous climatic changes prevailing in the continental
source area (Chamley, 1989; Colin at al., 1999; Foucault et al., 2000; Liu at al., 2003). The
distribution of clay minerals in recent oceanic sediments reflect weathering process on the adjacent
continental areas and climatic based distribution of the soils (Selwood and Price, 1993). Since the
clay mineral contents of a particular deposit is controlled by various factors including the type of
parent material, weathering regimes, deposition environment and rate of digenetic alteration, they
are directly or indirectly applicable for palaeoclimatic interpretation (Ruffel et al., 2002). When the
tectonic, bathymetric and diagenetic controls on the clay mineralogy are sufficiently understood, it
is possible to proceed with a palaeoclimatic analysis of the source area (Ruffel et al., 2002). The
formation of clays, hydrous aluminum phylosilicate with variable amounts of iron, magnesium,
alkali metal, alkaline earths and other cations, is climatically sensitive. These minerals occupy an
important group as they are among the most common products of chemical weathering. Clays are
also the main constituents of the fine-grained sedimentary rocks including mudstones, claystones
and shales.
Many scientists have studied both theoretically and practically the different modes of clay
formation at different conditions and from different source of origin. However, the origin of clay
through weathering from a parent rock undergoing certain sedimentary processes is applicable to
Baripada Beds as the weathering of country rocks is the main source of the near shore clay deposits.
Therefore, certain factors which control clay formation may encompass climate including
temperature and rainfall, topography, vegetation of the area, time etc. However, provenance holds
the major control on variation of clay mineral assemblages in surface sediments (Chen, 1978; He,
[163]
1989; Tan et al., 1992; Liu et al., 2003). The study of clay minerals that are climate sensitive in their
formation suggests that assessing their abundance will provide information about palaeogeographic
and stratigraphic information concerning past climate (Ruffel et al., 2002). The alternate dry and
wet climate, seasonal change, the rate of rainfall, direction of movement of water at the weathering
zone are considerably important factors in forming different decay products of oxides and hydrous
oxides which are responsible for the formation of clay at the later stage after mixing with the
silicates (Chamley, 1989)
The composition of the parent rocks is also responsible for the formation of the particular clay
deposit, such as the rocks containing no alkalies can yield kaolinite or lateritic weathering products
unless and until intrusion of the alkali minerals takes place into the depositional system. Thus,
certain rocks such as shale, slate, schist, gneiss, carbonate rocks give rise to certain weathering
products depending on their alkalies and alkaline earth in addition to alumina, silica, etc. (Ralph,
1963).
The time factor is also very important as moderately severe weathering of the parent rock can
yield a variety of decay products. As the weathering and the formation of the clay minerals are slow
processes, the formation of the product can vary due to alteration, leaching etc. during the transition.
If the parent rock is consisting of both the alkalies and alkaline earth minerals the chances of
formation of certain alteration products during different stages of weathering is maximum. Hence,
the same parent rock can yield different weathering products at different time frame (Ralph, 1963).
Beside these, the nature of solution present in the weathering environment also plays a very
important role in the composition of the clay minerals. Birkeland (1984) suggested that the silica
content, type and concentration of the cations, pH and extent of leaching are important for
determining the clay mineral composition. Chemical weathering condition leads to the formation of
Illite and Chlorites, moderate leaching leads to formation of Smectite and intense leaching yields
Kaolinite. In the area where after burial clay transformation is expected to be minimal the clay
mineralogy may be used as a valuable tool for understanding the environmental conditions coeval
with deposition (Dinis et al., 2007). Kaolinite is used as an example of a suitable clay mineral in the
approximation of palaeoclimate (Mckinley at al., 2002; Ruffell et al., 2002) (also See, Fig. 42).
[164]
Fig. 42: The depositional controls on Kaolinite abundance on the Earth’s surface (Mckinley at al.,
2002; Ruffell et al., 2002).
By emphasizing more on the palaeoclimatic implications, the present chapter dealts with the
study of clay mineral assemblages of the Baripada Beds and their significance.
4.2 Analytical techniques
Clays are extremely fine particles (normally considered to be less than 2 micron in size on
standard particle size classifications) having a highly variable chemical and structural characteristic.
Hence, it is necessary to carry out special analytical techniques for their investigation. Clay
minerals can be studied in a variety of ways starting from the preparation of samples up to the use
of sophisticated instruments. Among the standard means, it can be studied by using X-ray
[165]
diffraction, electron diffraction, infrared spectroscopy, differential thermal, thermogravimetric,
scanning electron microscope, energy dispersive spectroscopy, Mossbauer spectroscopy, ultraviolet
and visible light spectroscopy techniques, etc.
The shales of the Baripada beds are studied and analyzed by using X-ray diffraction technique
and Scanning Electron Microscope.
4.2.1 XRD Method
Analysis of the XRD data of the clay samples is the most powerful and widely accepted
technique for the study of clay minerals. The structures of certain clay minerals are similar, and
thus, they also show similar XRD pattern. However, the basal (001) spacing for each minerals are
different, they provide the necessary difference in the peak of the individual minerals from which
we identify each clay mineral present at the peak of the graph.
The principle of the XRD method lies in the fact that each crystalline substance has a specific
atomic structure and accordingly diffracted X-rays from it give a distinct pattern for each mineral
crystal structure. Any difference in the crystal structure will give different result. This technique is
governed by an equation known as Bragg’s equation which is given below: -
n λ = 2 d λ sin θ
Or, d = n λ / sin θ
Where, n = whole number; λ = Wavelength of X-ray; d = interplanar space; θ = Angle of incidence

of the refracted rays.
Clay Minerals Untreated Ethylene glycol Heated to 5500C

Generally broad (001) reflection at (001) may be more intense
approximately 8.80 2θ (10 A0) with No change
Illite integral series of basal reflections
including 17.70 2θ (5 A0) and 26.750
2θ ( 3.3 A0)
(001) reflection variable from 6.80 (001) increase to (001) collapse to between
to 5.890 2θ (13-15 A0); higher order approximately 5.2 2θ (17 9.83 and 8.840 2θ (between
Montmorillonite basal reflections irrational. A0) with integral series of 9 and 10 A0) with
basal reflections corresponding integral
including 10.4 0 2θ (8.5 series of higher order basal
A0) and 15.50 2θ (5.7 A0). reflections.
[166]
(001) reflection at the (001) reflection intensified;
approximately 6.350 2θ ( 14+ A0 ) higher order basal
Chlorite with an integral series of basal No change reflection disappear
reflections including 12.620 2θ (7
A0 ), 18.920 2θ (4.7 A0) and 25.450
2θ (3.5 A0 )
(001) reflection at 12.38 0 2θ (7.15 Structure collapse to an X-

Kaolinite A0) and (002) reflection at 24.94 0 No change ray amorphous mineral
2θ (3.57A0); higher-order metakaolin ( Peaks
reflections generally too weak for disappear)
recognition in samples composed of
several clay minerals; disorderd
(poorly crystallized) Kaolinite
shows broader and less intense basal
reflections.
Table no. 11: Data for the identification of clay minerals in an oriented mount using X-ray
diffraction (After, Carroll, 1970; Lindholme, 1987)
The relative percentage of clay minerals was calculated by using the relation (after, Sreedar et al.
2001): -
Relative percentage = I 001 clay minerals/ ∑I 001 all clay minerals X 100
Where, I 001 is the intensity of the 001 peak.
4.2.2 Method for sample preparation
Only 10 g of each of the samples were disintegrated in distilled water and the same is treated
with H2O2 from time to time to remove the organic matter. The suspensions were kept until the pH
is checked. The decarbonated suspensions were washed successively with distilled water to remove
excess ions and to help the deflocculation of clays. The particles less than 2 um were separated
following the Stoke’s law (Holtzapffel, 1985) and were concentrated using a centrifuge. The
resulting pastes were spread onto glass slides. Two slides for each sample were made and air dried
to get ready for the XRD analysis. The analyses of the samples were conducted using Xpart Pro,
[167]
Pan Analytical housed at the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun. The analysis of all
the samples were done under the voltage of 40 kV and an intensity of 25 m A. The samples were
scanned between 2 and 60o 2θ. One of the slides is measured directly as air-dried sample. Then the
slide was measured again after ethylene-glycol salvation for 12 hr, as glycolated sample. Then the
other slide was heated at 5500C for 2 hr and was measured as heated sample. The preparation and
measurement of the clay mineral analysis were performed at the sedimentological laboratory and
XRD laboratory of Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun.
4.3 XRD DATA
The study of the diffractograph after the XRD- analysis shows that even though we tried to
extract only the clay matters from the samples, some minor amount of non-clay matters are also
found in the slide. Thus, both the clay and non-clay minerals present in the sample are given
below:-
4. 3. 1 Clay minerals
a. Kaolinite: - Clay minerals of Kaolinite group consists minerals with unchanged dioctahedral unit
with 1:1 layer structure (Hall, 1987). In general the determination of Kaolinite group of minerals by
X-ray diffraction is simple, but the identification of a particular member of the group is more
difficult (Ralph, 1968). Kaolinite group of minerals are distinguished by their basal reflection at
about 7.15 (100) and 3.57 Ao (002) which are usually adequate for their identification. However,
chloritic clay mineral may be confused with Kaolinite as the 14 Ao reflection of chlorite is not
pronounced and it also show its reflection at 7.1 Ao (002) and 3.57 Ao (004). Thus, the slight
difference in the C-axis dimension of the two minerals can cause doublet at 3.5 Ao to 3.57 Ao which
required further techniques to identify these two separately. There is no effect of ethylene glycol
solvation in the reflections. It is, therefore, necessary to distinguished the reflections between the
two by carrying out some other procedures. Chlorite decomposes when treated with warm HCl but
Kaolinite remains unaffected. However, this procedure was not carried out in the present study.
Instead of this, the sample was heated at 5500 C for 2 hr. Chlorite is thermally stable above at 5500 C
and its reflection intensified, however, kaolinite tends to lose its crystalline character at this
[168]
temperature and there its reflection in the diffractograph is collapsed to an X-ray amorphous
mineral Metakaolinite.
Fig. 43: - X-ray diffraction pattern of sample no. 9 having a significant quantity of Smectite.
b. Illite: - Illite is the most dominant clay mineral in the argillaceous rocks (Grim et al., 1951). It
has a dioctahedral or trioctahedral 2: 1 layer structure. The Illite minerals can easily be identified on
the basis of X-ray diffraction by their (100) spacing, with the first order at about 10 Ao (9.95-10.1
Ao) and with integral series of basal reflections at about 5 Ao (4.98-5.01 Ao), 3.3 Ao, 1.98-1.99 Ao.
The peaks of Illite minerals are not affected by glycolation. On heating the sample upto 5500 C its
peaks are more intensified. The peaks of Illite minerals are not affected by glycolation. On heating
the sample upto 5500 C its peaks are more intensified. Value of less than 10 Ao may be due to a K+
deficiency or the substitution of Fe 2+
or Mg 2+ for (Al 3+
) (Guven et al., 1980). Illite is essentially
detrital (Baily et al., 1962), most stable and it is also a important indicator of palaeoclimate and
diagenesis (Dunoyer de Segonzac, 1970).
c. Montmorillonite: - Montmorillonite mineral has reflection (001) variable from 6.80 to 5.89 (°2
θ) with spacing from 13-15 Ao. It expands upto 17 Ao upon ethylene glycolation and its peak is also
used as a measure of the relative abundance of the mineral. When heated upto 550 0 C, the peak is
[169]
again collapsed between 9 Ao and 10 Ao with corresponding integral series of higher order
reflection. It differs from chlorite which gives reflection at 14 Ao .
4.3.2 Non- Clay minerals
a. Quartz: - The mineral quartz is the most commonly found mineral in all the samples which were
analyzed. It is identified by its distinctive reflection at 4.26 Ao, 3.34 Ao in most of the samples. Even
though the peak of quartz at 3.34 Ao (101) is found many times more intense than the (100) peak at
4.26 Ao, the coincidence of the former with the strong reflection of illite at (300) at 3.3 A o would
not allow to be used as a scale to measure the relative abundance of quartz present in the samples
(Brown, 1972). Therefore, the peak of quartz at 4.26 Ao is used to observe the relative abundance in
the sample.
b. Calcite: - Calcite which is the most commonly found carbonate in the clays is identified by
characteristic reflection at 2.49 Ao.
c. Mica: - Among the micas, muscovite is found in most of the samples. It is distinguished by its
characteristic reflection at 2.38 Ao. The clay mica which is biotitic in nature is represented by its
reflection at 3.23 Ao.
d. Halite: - Halites are commonly found in all the samples, although they are found in minor
amount only. It is identified by its reflection at 1.99 Ao.
e. Feldspar: - Feldspar, which is found commonly in most of the clay minerals, are also found with
meager relative intensity. It is identified by the reflection at 3.24 Ao.
4.4 Result
The XRD analysis of the samples collected from the Baripada Beds suggest that the dominant
clay minerals found in these Late Miocene deposits include those of the smectite group, Kaolinite
and Illite. The identification of clay minerals were made according to the comprehensive
comparison of the X-Ray diffractogrammes obtained from the air dried, glycolated and heated
samples, respectively. Kaolinite is identified by its (001) reflection at 7.15 A0 peak and (002) at
3.57 A0. These peaks are not changed in glycolated samples but disappeared on heating at 550oc.
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Smectite is identified by 15 A0 peak which is shifted to 17 A0 on glycolation. Illite is identified by
its 10 A0 peak at (001) (See, Fig. 43)
Clay mineral assemblages with relative percentage

Sample no. Depth
(m) Layer
Illite Kaolinite Montmorillonite
1. 12.81-13.22 4 21.51% 26.24% 52.25%
2. 12.40-12.81 4 21.1% 25.4% 53.5%
3. 10.56-10.97 2 25% 22.3% 52.7%
4. 10.15-10.56 2 22.5% 21% 56.5%
5. 9.74-10.15 2 27.28% 21.7% 51.02%
6. 9.33-9.77 2 22% 21.8% 56.2%
7. 8.92-9.33 2 25.9% 21% 53.1%
8. 8.51-8.92 2 16.85% 32.64% 50.51%
9. 8.10-8.51 2 9.97% 34.3% 55.8%
10. 7.69-8.10 2 18.89% 31.59% 49.52%
11. 7.28-7.69 2 6.7% 25% 68.3%
12. 6.87-7.28 2 6.76% 32.39% 60.85%
13. 6.46-6.87 2 6.65% 28.37% 64.98%
14. 6.05-6.46 2 7.28% 25.17% 67.55%
15. 5.64-6.05 2 22.74% 21.3% 55.96%
16. 5.23-5.64 2 29.32% 15.76% 54.92%
17. 4.82-5.25 2 26.5% 11.5% 62%
18. 4.41-4.82 2 21.26% 16.95% 61.79%
19. 4-4.41 2 22.35% 10.5% 67.15%
Table no. 12: - Distribution of semi-quantitative percentage of clay minerals from different
stratigraphic units with their depths from the litho-section of Mukurmatia, Baripada Beds.
All the nineteen samples which were analyzed consist of Smectite, Kaolinite and Illite.
However, Chlorite is not found in any of the sample. Montmorillonite is the most abundant of the
three clay minerals comprising of 49.52-68.3% of the total clay mineral content which is followed
by Illite with the abundance ranging from 6.65-29.32% which may be due to dominant dry climate.
This is followed by Kaolinite constituting as much as 10.5-34.3%. Its variation towards the litho-
section can be interpreted to be the result of climate changes/depositional condition at shallow water
or erosional rate and composition of the initial provenance of the rock. Kaolinite in the study area is
the product of weathering of aluminosilicate minerals. Thus, rocks rich in feldspar e.g. granitic
rocks, commonly served as the source of Kaolinite. In order to form, ions like Na, K, Ca. Mg, and
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Fe must be first leached away by the weathering or alteration process which is favored by acidic
conditions (Soleimani, 2009). The semiquantitative percentage of the clay mineral composition of
Baripada Beds is given in the table no. 12.
Fig. 44: - Variation in the distribution of semi-quantitative percentages of clay mineral at

different depth of Mukurmatia litho- section, Baripada Beds.
The present study reveals that clay mineral distribution in Baripada Beds are variable from
[172]
bottom (Fig. 44) to the top of the litholog. The graphical representation of Illite (Fig. 45), Kaolinite
(Fig. 46) and Montmorillonite (Fig. 47) from the study area clearly depict a minor fluctuation in
relative percentage of these clay minerals which might be due to minor change in the intensity of
climatic factors.
Fig. 45: Graphical representation of relative percentages of illite in Baripada shale.
[173]
Fig. 46: Graphical representation of relative percentages of Kaolinite in Baripada shale.
Fig. 47: Graphical representation of relative percentages of Montmorillonite in Baripada shale.

[174]
CHAPTER- V: DISCUSSION
5.1 Biostratigraphy
In spite of a lot of work done on fossiliferous marine deposits of Baripada Beds, the precise
geological age of these beds has remained contentious for a long period of time, due to the
presence of long ranging taxa and lack of prominent index fossils. Various workers have assigned
ages ranging from Eocene to Pleistocene primarily to these deposits based on biostratigraphically
long ranging foraminfers, molluscs and selachians which are only 10-14 meters thick and exposed
along the banks of the Burabalang River. However, the offshore data from Mahanadi basin
indicates the presence of 1903 m thick Miocene sequence (Fuloria et al., 1992). The age of
Baripada Beds was provisionally assigned to be Lower Miocene by Eames (1936) and majority of
the previous workers were in favor of a Lower Miocene to Middle Miocene age for these beds.
A critical evaluation of different opinions regarding the age bracket of Baripada Beds based
on the faunal assemblages is reviewed here in the light of the present findings. The
elasmobranchii species collected from the Baripada Beds are cosmopolitan in nature and range in
age from Eocene to Pleistocene. According to Hora (1939), the presence of Siluroid and
Scomber fishes in the collection indicate an age of not earlier than Eocene. Modak (1952)
suggested the age of Baripada Beds to be of Lower Miocene age on the basis of similarity of
fossil assemblages with the Pegu Beds in Burma and observed a marine transgression during this
time. Ghose (1956) assigned the age of these beds to be ranging between Eocene to Miocene on
the basis of the smaller foraminifera assemblages of these beds. Sharma (1956) assigned the age
of these beds to range between Eocene to Miocene. However, on the basis of absence of index
species of foraminifer of Miocene age along with the presence of Rotalia beccari, (Tipper, 1906)
indicated the probability of these beds to be younger than the Miocene and probably even to be
Pliocene-Pleistocene. Chaudhary (1958), on the basis of mammalian teeth of Potamochoerus and
Gazella with the association of some foraminifera, assigned the age of these beds to be Lower
Pleistocene.
[175]
Ghosh (1959) suggested an alternative age of these beds closer to Eocene age on the basis
of the presence of Rhinoptera raeburni, Rhinoptera sherborni and Hypolophus selvistris. Mohanty
(1966, 1980) on the basis of his collection of fossil lamellibranch, gastropod, crab and fish remains
along with fragmentary remains of bryozoans, balanids, echinoids, reptiles and mammals assigned
Neogene age to these beds. Bhalla and Dev (1975) suggested lower Miocene age to these beds.
Tewari and Awasthi (1960) favoured a Miocene age to Baripada Beds instead of Eocene as
suggested by Ghosh (1959). Chatterji and Adyalkar (1962) assigned an age of Plio-Pliestocene to
gravel deposit overlying the fossiliferous deposits of Lower Miocene age. Sahni et al. (1971)
opined an age not older than the Lower Miocene and not younger than Pleistocene after studying
the collected fish fauna. Bhalla and Dev (1972) suggested Lower Miocene age for these beds after
correlating with the specimen of Ostrea from the Gaj beds (Lower Miocene) of Pakistan and
Miocene beds of Burma.
Chatterjee (fide. Balasundaram, 1972) suggested Miocene age on the basis of the
predominance of Valvulineria and Amonia. Singh et al., (1976) referred the greenish grey shale
to middle Early Miocene to Late Miocene with conformably underlying limestone and greenish
white shale lying very likely at the base of the Early Miocene. Mishra's (1985) report indicates
an Early Miocene age to the fossil bearing beds. Bhalla and Dev (1988), based on their findings
of Orbulina suturalis Bronnimann from the limestone bed, opined that the age of the Baripada
Beds can’t be older than the Middle Miocene.
Therefore, there are different views regarding the age of the Baripada Beds based on the
selachian assemblages, as selachians are well known to exhibit a wider range in age. Based on
the fossil assemblages, one group of the previous workers supported an age of Lower Miocene
and another group of workers suggested an age of Middle Miocene. Bhalla and Dev (1988)
critically evaluated different opinions regarding the age of the Baripada Beds. They came out
with the suggestion that on the basis of megafaunal assemblages which are represented by Ostrea
gajensis, Ostrea papycea, Ostrea promensis etc. an age of Lower Miocene. The microfossil
assemblages dominated by foraminifers including Bolivina cunieformis, Ammonia
tanosawaensis, Ammonia indica, Elphidium koehoeense, Globigerina quadrilobata and Orbulina
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suturalis indicate a Middle Miocene age. Baripada Beds contain a very low percentage of
planktonic foraminifera which are a reliable parameter for determination of age and for making
intercontinental correlations (Bhalla and Dev, 1988). Further, it may be noted that the findings of
foraminifers, Orbulina suturalis Bronnimann and Globigerina quadrilobata hold significance in
the sense that the age of Baripada Bed can’t be older than the Middle Miocene (Bhalla and Dev,
1988; Bhalla and Dev, 1975).
Fig. 48: Distribution of fossil selachian, batoids, coprolites and mammalian teeth in a composite
stratigraphic section of Baripada Beds.
Most of the selachians collected from the Baripada beds are cosmopolitan in nature giving
a long age range from Eocene to Pleistocene (Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981). Beside this, their
distributions in the composite stratigraphic section also indicate that most of the selachians are
also found almost it the entire section (Fig. 48). The known age ranges of some the fossil species
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reported from Baripada Beds are given in Fig. 49. The presence of selachian species including
that of Carcharhinus, Negaprion, Rhizoprionodon give an age between Early Eocene to recent.
Sphyrna gives an age of Oligocene to Recent. Shark species belonging to the genus Sphyrna are
commonly found in Miocene deposits of the world (Cappetta, 1970; Cope, 1869; Purdy et al.,
2001; Adnet et al., 2007). The earliest appearance of Sphyrna is Early Miocene (Cappetta, 1993)
but its stratigraphic range should probably be extended to the early Oligocene from the Parisia
Basin, France (Dutheil, 1991; Genault, 1993), supported by recent finding from the Oligocene of
Balochistan, Pakistan (Adnet et al., 2007). S. zygaena are not known to occur until the Miocene
(Leriche, 1927; Cappetta, 1970). Hemipristris serra occurred from Early Oligocene to Pliocene-
Pleistocene and is largely reported from the marine deposits of Oligocene and Neogene
(Cappetta, 1987; Kruckow and Thies, 1990; Kemp, 1991; Muller, 1999; Purdy et al., 2001;
Adnet et al., 2007). Carcharodon megalodon ranged in age from the Miocene to Early Pliocene
(Lower to Middle Miocene of Kendeace Formation, Roger et al., 2008). The genus Carcharias
are mostly found from Oligocene to Miocene (Leriche, 1910; Cappetta, 1987; Nolf, 1988;
Reinicke et al., 2001; Marsili, 2007). Alopias is well documented from the European Oligocene
and Miocene (Leriche, 1910; Cappetta, 1970).
[178]
Fig. 49: Stratigraphic ranges of some important fossil taxa reported from Baripada Beds, Orissa.
(Source, Modak, 1952; Bhalla and Dev, 1988; Eames, 1936; Gosh, 1956; Mondal, 2010; Bhalla
and Dev, 1975a; Tewari and Awasti, 1960; Sahni et al., 1971; Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981; Singh
et al., 1976; Pilgrim, 1926). Dark green zone represent most probable age of the Baripada Beds.
The Batoids documented from Baripada Beds represent the fossil species belonging to
eight Families including Myliobatidae, Rhinopteridae, Dasyatidae, Rajidae, Rhinobatidae,
Rhyncobatidae, Pristoidae and Gymnuridae. Their distribution in the stratigraphic section is also
given in Fig. 48. They are not biostratigraphically significant as most of them are long ranging
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taxas.
The finding of an isolated tooth of Tetraconodon intermedius from the bluish grey sandy
shale bed overlying the limestone deposits of Baripada Beds is biostratigraphically significant.
Tetraconodon intermedius has been found with a diverse fossil remains which include
Galaecerdo cuvier, Negaprion brevirotis, Carcharadon carcharias, Carcharodon mecalodon,
Charcharias mylobatis sp., Charcharinus egertoni, Odontaspis tricuspidatus, Negaprion
brevirostris, Myliobatis sp., Aetobatus sp., Dentex sp. and mollusks (bivalves and gastropods),
etc which are known to occur in shallow marine environments.
Fig. 50: - Evolution of Tetraconodontinae. Dots indicate the approximate position of type
material of the taxa. Solid line indicates that evolution is assumed. Dashed lines indicate
uncertainty about the temporal range of a taxon or the position of a speciation. Shading between
different lineages indicates about the moment of the speciation event (Modified after, Made,
1999; dates from Johnson et al., 1983, Ranga Rao et al., 1988 and Barry et al., 2002).
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A close analysis of phylogenetic study and its evolutionary lineage of Tetraconodon
intermedius can give a new light on the age of this fossiliferous marine deposit as the fossil
records of the species is found only in the age equivalent to Upper Chinji and Lower Dhok
Pathan Formation (Made, 1999; Thaung-Htike et al., 2005) till now. The Genus Tetraconodon
was probably derived from the oldest known Asian tetraconodontine, Conohyus sindiensis, from
the lower middle Miocene (Kamlial or Lower Chinji) of the Siwalik Group of Indo-Pakistan and
Nepal; this species also occurs in the Middle Miocene deposits of Thailand (Thaung-Htike et al.,
2005). Teeth of Tetraconodon differ from Conohyus in having greater relative enlargement of the
premolars (Pilgrim, 1926; Made, 1999). Made (1999) suggested that the genus is likely to be
split off from Sivachoerus lineage before the Late Miocene which is the age of the oldest fossil
assigned to Tetraconodon (Fig. 50). Both the Sivachoerus and Tetraconodon having greatly
enlarged premolar of gigantic size are undoubtedly derived from Conohyus (Colbert, 1935).
The evolutionary lineage of the genus Tetraconodon (Fig. 50) indicating anagenetic
transformation from Early Late Miocene Tetraconodon minor to Late Miocene Tetraconodon
intermedius and finally the Latest Miocene Tetraconodon magnus, has been used here for
biochronology. It is suggested that Tetracoconodon intermedius, evolved from Tetraconodon
minor which is regarded as the most primitive and smallest Tetraconodon of Early Late Miocene
age, belonging to upper Nagri to Dhok Pathan equivalent, Late Miocene (Pilgrim, 1926; Colbert,
1935a; Made, 1999; Thaung-Htike et al., 2005). The youngest Tetraconodon species i.e T.
magnus, evolved from Tetracoconodon intermedius, of Late Miocene (Made, 1999). Thus, a
careful analysis of the evolutionary trend of Tetraconodon intermedius (Fig. 50) suggests that the
Baripada Beds above the limestone bed might have been deposited during the Nagri to Dhok
Pathan transition, which has been found to be time transgressive lasting for ~ 2 Ma from 10 to 8
Ma years.
5.2 PALAEOECOLOGY
“A quantitative approach to the composition of the whole fauna is essential to any ecological
reasoning, is inclined to be biased” (Antunes and Jonet, 1970; Antunes, 1972). “Even if all teeth
contained in certain volume of sediment could be recovered and correctly identified, it is not
possible to convert these data in terms of relative numbers of individuals since there are so many
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uncontrollable factors” (Antunes, 1977, p. 225). However, depending on the fossil faunal
collection, interpretation of their adaptability to certain climatic factors and their feeding habits,
one can roughly estimate the probable palaeocological and paleobathymetric conditions during
the deposition of Baripada Beds.
The marine shale and limestone deposits of Baripada Beds represent cosmopolitan
assemblages of marine vertebrates and invertebrates. The vertebrates of these fossiliferous beds
are rather diverse and might have inhabited in a wide range of tropic niches (Fig. 51: A.). These
niches include benthic predators (i.e., Myliobatidae, Dasyatis, etc), epipelagic predators of larger
vertebrates (i.e., Alopias, Carcharocles), and pelagic/epibenthic carnivores (i.e., Carcharhinus,
Hemipristis). The relative abundance of fossil fishes including sharks, batoids and teleost (Fig.
51: B) is an indication of interrelationship between different fish communities during the
Miocene time. Amongst the various families of sharks, after the investigation of different
localities, the Carchirhinidae and the Isuridae family dominated the eastern coast of India during
the Miocene period. The batoids represented by the Family Myliobatidae, Dasyatidae,
Rhinopteridae and Rajidae are quite abundant where as rarer taxa include Rhinobatidae,
Rhynchobatidae, Pristoidae, Gymnuridae etc. Amongst the teleosts, the family Sparidae is
abundantly found at different localities of Baripada Beds. Beside these fossil fishes, fragmented
fossil bones of lower vertebrates including turtle, teeth of crocodiles are also found. From the
above findings, we can reconstruct a palaeoecological scenario and its interdependence among
certain fauna during the geological past. Even though the diversification of the selachian faunas
started during the Eocene-Oligocene times reaching its maximum peak during Miocene, they
were mostly restricted to the Atlantic, Mediterranean, Central Asia and some parts of the eastern
Tethys (Mondal et al., 2009: Adnet et al., 2007). The availibity of several large and medium
sized predators like Carcharocles, Isurus, Alopias, Galaeocerdo, Carcharinus, etc. from the
Baripada sediments also clearly suggest an environment in which certain prey species of teleost
fishes were very abundant, strongly supported by the present collection of various teleost fish
teeth from the same locality.
[182]
Fig. 51: A: Relative abundance of vertebrate species of Baripada Beds. B: Relative abundance of
fossil fishes (sharks, batoids & teleost) species of Baripada Beds.
The shark species belonging to the Genus Isurus are adapted to warm temperate and tropical
seas and usually prey on bony fishes, other sharks and cephalopods (Compagno, 1984; Roger et
al., 2008). They are offshore littoral and epipelagic species having a worldwide distribution. The
genus Carcharhinus is commonly found in the coastal-pelagic, inshore, warm-temperate and
tropical waters of continental and insular shelves and their adjacent oceanic waters (Roger et al.,
2008). They feed on a wide variety of coral reefs, bottom and pelagic bony fishes, other sharks
and invertebrates including arthropods, cephalopods, bryozoans and echinoderms (Compagno,
1984).
The genus Odontaspis (Sand Shark) is usually found in tropical to temperate waters less than
9.2 m deep (James, 1984; Lineaver and Backus, 1973). They are commonly found near the sea
coast. They are quite common in the Indo-Pacific and Atlantic Ocean.
Carcharocle megalodon, arguably one of the most formidable carnivores ever to have existed
(National Geographic, 2008; Wroe, et al., 2008), occur in nearshore and coastal shelf region in
subtropical to moderately high temperature latitudes (Roger et al., 2008). There is evidence that
C. megalodon was an aggressive hunter and preyed on a variety of marine animals including
cetaceans, pennipeds and large vertebrates. The Carcharadon is a formidable predator, feeding
mainly on numerous families of bony fishes as well as a large variety of sharks basking, sea
turtles, marine mammals and even sea birds resting on the surface. They were very commonly
[183]
found during the Miocene period in the Indian Ocean (Mishra, 1969). This actively swimming
species which are mostly found in the warm, tropical belt of almost every part of the world are
not present in the present day Indian Ocean. They also lived on certain invertebrates but most of
its food comes from fishes and marine mammals taken from the surface or in the water column.
White sharks are one of the top predators in the ocean.
Almost all mackerel sharks are predaceous, extremely active eaters, feeding mostly on fishes
belonging to numerous families (both bony fishes as well as sharks and rays), but also
consuming large amounts of invertebrates as well as marine mammals, marine turtles, and even
oceanic birds. In contrast, two species, the megamouth and basking sharks, feed almost
exclusively on zooplankton and current evolutionary theories indicate that filter feeding evolved
independently in both species, which also differ in their mode of filter feeding. Lamniform
sharks are preyed upon by other shark species, including their own species.
The genus Rhizoprionodon is represented circum-globally in tropical, subtropical and, in the
case of Rhizoprionodon terraenovae, warm temperate waters feeding primarily on bony fish, but
also eat a variety of invertebrates. They are inshore sharks found in continental and insular shelf
waters upto a depth of 500 m. Sphyrna zygaena currently occupies coastal-pelagic and semi-
oceanic habitats on continental and insular shelves at least 20 m in depth (Compagno, 1984;
Cicimurri et al., 2009).
Hemipristris is particularly abundant in the Miocene deposits of Europe and North America,
as well as in the coeval deposits of Java, India, Australia, Western Africa and Japan and persists
until the Pliocene in Angola and Zanzibar (Marsili et al., 2007; Cappetta, 1987). This is a neritic
shark (Hooijer, 1954). This species is widespread during the Miocene and is now localized in the
Indian Ocean, where it is found in the neretic deposits (Capetta, 1987). Sphyrnae are well known
as near offshore genus (Cappetta, 1987).
Fossil species including that of Negaprion, Pristris are most common dweller of littoral,
mostly shallow, brackish water estuaries, lagoons. They are not presently found in the fish fauna
of Indian region (Mishra, 1969). Negaprion inhabits the littoral water conditions throughout its
range (James, 1984) and commonly occur on the sea shore of Atlantic Ocean and warm waters of
Pacific and Indian Ocean (Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981). Negaprion brevirostris are found in the
marsh channel during summer (Hoese and Moory, 1977) and they are restricted to tropical
waters, however they sometime enter the subtropical belts in the western Atlantic (Bigelow and
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Schroeder, 1948). The presence of Negaprion from the study area provides some indication of
maximum depths of the depositional environment since sharks belonging to this genus usually
occur at depths shallower than 90 m (Compagno, 1984).
Galeocerdo is a widely distributed genus, the species of which feed on sea turtles, rays,
other sharks, bony fishes, sea birds, dolphins, squids, various crustaceans and carrions. They can
adapt to Arctic, temperate and tropical seas and in coastal waters throughout the world with the
exception of the Mediterranean Sea. It is also found that the genus are also most commonly
adapted to the near shore environment of water not less than 9 m deep with an environment of
temperate to tropical conditions, very often in the Arctic seas, (James, 1984; Sahni and Mehrotra,
1981; Lineaver and Backus, 1973). Bigelow and Schroeder (1948) described Galaeocerdo
cuvieri to be well adapted to conditions of the river mouth.
The occurrence of taxa like Alopias, Carcharadon, Galeocerdo and Carcharhinus indicate
open-ocean, normal salinity conditions (Sanders et al., 1982; Weems and Sanders, 1986; Katuna
et al., 1997) as they can’t live in shallow environment. Although sometimes they come closer to
the beaches, much like Odontaspis (Antunes, 1977, p.226).
The batoids are well known as bottom dwellers, but usually do not live at great depths. The
batoids of the Baripada Beds are represented by the Family Myliobatidae, Rhynopteridae,
Rhinobatidae, Rhyncobatidae, Pristidae, Gymnuridae, Dasyatidae, and Rajidae. Myliobatids live
close to the coast in depths of 1 to 30 m and in exceptional cases they are found as deep as 300
m. The three existing species of Myliobatis sp. in India namely M. nichoffi, M. milvus and M.
maculates are also found near the mouth of river Ganga and Chilika lake and also along the eastern
and western coasts (Satsangi and Bora, 1980). It is most commonly seen cruising along sandy
beaches in very shallow waters. They are semi-pelagic in inshore water, around rocky reefs, kelp
beds, estuaries and enclosed bays and lagoons, sometime they are also found in epipelagic zones.
Myliobatis occurs commonly in the shallow bays, estuaries, over sandy flats and mud bottoms,
mainly feeding on large crustaceans and molluscan shells. They most commonly occur in shallow
bays, estuaries, over sandy flats and mud bottoms as a benthic form in the littoral conditions of
both the east and west coast of India feeding chiefly on the large crustaceans and molluscan shell
and accordingly their dentitions are also adapted (James, 1984; Sahni and Mehrotra, 1980;
Satsangi and Bora., 1980; Bigelow and Schroeder, 1948). They are found at considerable depths
upto 110 m (Bigelow and Schroeder, 1948).
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Aetobatus narinari is a coastal and semi pelagic species living over the continental shelf
from the surface to 60 m depth. Sometimes it enters lagoons and estuaries and often associated
with coral-reef ecosystems (Michael, 1993; Homma et al., 1994; Last and Stevens, 1994).
Aetobatus narinari is found as solitary or as several hundred individuals (McEachran and de
Carvalho, 2002) in central Atlantic and East Pacific ocean. Although primarily observed near the
coast and around islands and reefs, the species is likely to be capable of crossing ocean basins
(Compagno and Last, 1999). Diet consists of a wide variety of benthic species including
polychaetes, bivalve and gastropod, cephalopods, crustaceans and teleost fishes (Homma and
Ishihara, 1994; Last and Stevens, 1994, Compagno and Last, 1999; McEachran and de Carvalho,
2002) with fish important prey items for adults (Michael, 1993).
Rhinoptera is represented in all oceans and prefers sandy or muddy bottoms of shallow
waters where it forages for various mollusks and large crustaceans. It is a littoral genus found in
the mean annual isotherm of 20oC in the Indian Ocean. Dasyatis is also a littoral genus
represented in India by a number of species. The genus Pristis is mostly found in tropical and
subtropical shallow water coastal seas which are occasionally found in freshwater also.
Rhinobatus are benthic batoids inhabiting warm waters of the continental shelf, deeper water of
the upper slope, sandy beaches and muddy bay from the region of intertidal to the depth of 366
m. The genus Rhynchobatus are medium-sized (3 m) coastal (shallow waters to 64 m) bottom
dwelling batoids normally inhabiting tropical waters of the Eastern Atlantic, Indian Ocean and
Western Pacific. They feed most commonly on crustaceans, mollusks, squids and small fishes.
The genus Gymnura are circum global batoids found in warm temperate and sub-tropical waters
of the continental and insular shelf, inshore water of sandy beach, enclosed bays and lagoons,
offshore bank down to a depth of 110 m.
The teleost fish fauna of Baripada Beds are represented by the family Sparidae, Denticidae,
Scrombidae, Sphyraenidae, Trichuridae, Characidae, etc. The genus Sparus are well adapted to
tropical seas and warmer parts of temperate zones which are commonly found in the East Indian
and Chinese coast and sometimes enter large rivers also. The genus Pagellus are well adapted to
littoral environments and most commonly found in Mediterranean Sea and in the Indian Ocean.
The genus Pagrus is found in tropical climatic conditions to the warmer parts of the temperate
zone of Mediterranean Sea, Atlantic Ocean, on the coast of America, Africa, Australia and New
Zealand. The species of the genus Diplodus are most commonly found in coastal shore region
[186]
and they are widely distributed in Mediterranean, Atlantic and the shores of the Indian
subcontinent. The genus Dentex is well adapted to tropical to subtropical region and is found
distributed in the Mediterranean, south coast of Africa, and on the coast of China and Japan. The
genus Sphyraena are most commonly found in the tropical and subtropical seas favourably
adapted in coastal to open regions. The genus Trichiurus is widely distributed in the tropical
oceans and is also commonly found near the vicinity of land. In India, Trichurids are commonly
found in Bay of Bengal. It is found that most of the Teleost genera described from the Miocene
deposits of East coast of India are also found enhabiting in the Indian Ocean (Mehrotra, 1979,
Unpublished thesis).
The presence of crocodilian remains including teeth and coprolites and a close examination
of the taphonomic processes based on coprolites suggests depositional environment close to the
coast in a shallow marine condition, where the energy levels were low. The finding of two
mammalian teeth from the shale beds above the limestone unit also suggested terrestrial
proximity to these marine deposits. The faunal and palaeoecological study of the of
Tetraconodontinae bearing beds of the Late Miocene of the Irrawaddy Formation (Myanmar)
suggested that it is associated with a proboscidean belonging to the genus Tetralophodon, the
equid Hipparion, a species of Chalicotheriinae, indeterminate species of Rhinocerotid other
fossils include. Merycopotamus medioximus, Khoratpithecus sp. and Propotamochoerus cf.
Hysudricus. cf. Hippopotamodon sivalense (Suinae), Schizochoerus sp., a medium-sized
tragulid, bovids including an antelope, a giraffid (Jaeger et al., 2011).
After the analysis of certain fossil assemblages of Baripada Beds and their ecological
significance, it is now safely concluded that this fossiliferous marine deposit represents a shallow
marine, near shore coastal environment which was well connected to open seas. The presence of
well preserved crocodilian coprolite (Milankumar and Patnaik, 2010) suggested a depositional
environment where the energy levels were not so high. The relative abundance of different fish
fauna including those of selachians, batoids, teleost (also see, Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981) and
other invertebrate fossils including gastropods, bivalve, pelecypods etc. (also see Modak, 1952;
Sharma, 1956; Mohanty, 1966 & 1980) vertebrates including suids Rhinoceras, crocodile, turtle
clearly shows the presence of a higher level ecosystem in which each individual was directly or
indirectly dependent on each level of food chain system during the Miocene period. The
foraminiferal assemblages associated with the fish fauna suggested their deposition in the
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shallower part of the inner neretic environment (Singh et al., 1976; Bhalla and Dev, 1975).
5.3 Taphonomy
Taphonomic study of fossils is a useful branch in palaeontology and it can unravel not only
palaeoecology of the study area but also its sedimentary environment. It basically indicates the
process of conversion of organic remains from the biosphere into the lithosphere or the process of
fossilization from dead to diagenesis (Martin, 1999). Similarly depositional environments can
preserve fossils of greatly different sizes and shapes, this variation of preservation in similar
environments could greatly skew interpretations of palaeoecology (Blob and Fiorillo, 1996), if
differences are due more to taphonomy than actual ecology.
Fig. 52: A: Unidentified fish vertebra from yellowish of Muk; B: Unidentified plant leave from
Partappur.
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Paleoecological data of the fossil assemblage from the study area indicates that the fossils
collected from Baripada Beds are not solely of marine source. The presence of an isolated tooth
of the suid, Tetraconodon intermedius and a fragment of Rhinocetid tooth in the bluish grey
sandy shale bed overlying the limestone deposits of Itamundia show presence of terrestrial
elements in the marine deposits. Isolated fossil tooth of crocodile and fragmented bones of
unidentified turtle from the same bed also suggest the mode of fossilization is thanatocoensis.
Finding of an unidentified leaf impression (Fig. 52: B) from the shale/siltstone of Partappur gives
an additional evidence clearly suggesting an environment which was very near to the coast. The
study of lithofacies of this mammalian fossil bearing bed indicates deposition of this bluish grey
sandy shale in the regressive phase of the broad Miocene marine transgression evidenced by the
coarsening upward sequence.
It is also observed that most of the fish teeth collected from Baripada Beds including that of
sharks, batoids (skates and rays) are isolated, complete to slightly incomplete, the isolated
vertebrae of fish are well cemented with shale bed. Sharks and Batoids are found in all the beds
throughout the section (also see, Fig. 48). However, the findings of oysters bed in the lower part
of limestone beds clearly indicate that the organisms used to live and die there suggesting a
biocenosis mode of fossilization. Collection of coral from the bluish shale bed below the
limestone unit is significant as it indicates clear water condition with lesser salinity.
The study of coprolite matters for unraveling the taphonomic condition of the area is
significant and more reliable as the preservation of faecal matter depends not only on the
palaeoecology but also on the energy of the currents. Beside these, fossilization of faecal matter
is a rare phenomena which demands specific favourable criterion. For this analysis, the size of
each specimen was measured with a vernier caliper. The size and shape variability of the
collected specimens are also given in chapter – III in detail. For the purpose of taphonomic study
of the coprolite matters, the shape of fossil elements were organized, the degree of weathering
and abrasion were studied under the SEM.
From our analysis it is found that the coprolites were found firmly cemented to the
sediments. It appears that the faecal masses were deposited very gently, as the underlying and
overlying sediments show very little evidence of disturbance (Milankumar and Patnaik, 2009).
Flattening of some of the specimens due to the action of water with its weight may appear to be
related to some movement of water (Skoczylas, 1979; Erikson, 1982). Also there is hardly any
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evidence of weathering and transportation seen on the coprolites, indicating an in situ
fossilization. This reflects a shallow water environment of deposition of coprolite-bearing
horizon.
Majority of the coprolites were found as scattered aggregates rather than as one continuous
layer in the bluish shale bed along with some bone fragments of turtles, diverse fossil remains of
shark teeth such as Galaeocerdo cuvier, Negaprion brevirostris, Carcharadon carcharias,
Carcharadon mecalodon, Charcharias mylobatis sp., Charcharinus egertoni, Aetobatis narinari,
Dentex sp., Odontaspis tricuspidatus, Negaprion brevirostris, etc. and mollusks (bivalves and
gastropods). It is found that most of the specimens present have smooth surface (also see, Fig.
14: 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12) signifying the mucous coating of the excrement (Thornborn, 1991). This
coating prevents disintegration, dehydration and swelling up making the specimen well cemented
to the sediments. It also indicates that the deposition took place only in a low energy
environment which is also supported by the presence of higher percentage of clay minerals of
Smectite/Monmorillonite group. The presence of spherical cavities inside some of the coprolites
that might have been produced by the decomposition of gases (Fig. 15: 8) also suggests that
these coprolites were excreted inside the water and hence the possibility of their being of
terrestrial source is negated. A low energy depositional setting with a fine sedimentary matrix
and moist climate (e.g. quite streams, swamps, lagoons, floodplains, swamps, lagoons,
ephemeral pools and mudflats bordering lakes and estuaries) are considered most favorable for
the preservation of coprolites (Hunt et al., 1994., Vijaya et al., 2009). The well-preserved surface
features of the coprolites suggest that the faeces were rapidly buried after they were excreted.
Some of the coprolite specimens are found having sinuous shape (Fig. 14: 4, 5, 7) unbranching
traces that might have been produced by invertebrates such as gastropods. Clear invertebrates’
burrows are found at the surface of some specimens which are filled with clay sediments (Fig.
14: 9, 10, 11). Surface marks and adhesion occur in some specimens. Burrows made by
invertebrates such as gastropods have been found on the surface of some specimens, filled with
clay sediments (Fig. 14: 10; Fig. 15: 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 11). Most of the coprolites are complete
however fragmented bones of vertebrates (turtle, crocodilian) are also found associated with
them in this fossiliferous horizon. The well preserved specimens were found glued by original
matrix which was enhanced in tightness by the clay sediment. The coprolites are found firmly
cemented to the sediments which are most commonly found only in the freshly voided dropping.
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The faecal masses are found deposited very gently indicating a stable condition of the beds with
very little disturbance in both the underlying and overlying sediments. This depositional feature
suggests an in situ deposition of the coprolite after it was excreted by the parent animal. There
was no sign of transportation related features. Therefore, a close examination of the taphonomic
processes, lack of the vegetal impressions and other surface features of these coprolites in
conjunction with associated fossil materials suggests deposition in a shallow marine environment
where the energy levels were low with clear water.
5.4 Palaeobiogeography
Throughout the Earth’s history, the global palaeogeographic set up has never remained static as
it has been changing from time to time in response to the tectonic activities. However, the
chronological sequence and contacts between different continental landmasses are complex and
actively debated (Garfunkel, 1998, 2004; Golonka, 2004; Adnet et al, 2007). It is regarded that the
final closure of the eastern strait located in the Middle East, and the separation of the proto-
Mediterranean (Western Tethys) and the new Indo-Pacific Ocean (Eastern Tethys) has been dated
to late–early Miocene (Popov et al., 1993; Rögl, 1998, 1999; Adams et al., 1999). A residual
seaway between the two new ocean basins may have persisted until the Middle Miocene (Adnet et
al., 2007 and references therein).
The history of the Indian subcontinent during the Neogene times is marked by widespread
marine transgression which is also represented by Oligocene-Miocene marls along the coastal
regions and vertebrate fauna of Kutch, Piram Island in the western coast and Orissa in the
western coast (Sahni, 1979). The Baripada Beds which were deposited during the Miocene
marine transgression are unique in their wealth of diverse fossil assemblages. It is interesting to
note that the terrestrial mammalian fossils represented by tooth remains of Rhinoceritidae indet.
and Tetraconodon intermedius are also found in these fossiliferous deposits. In the Indian
subcontinent, fossils of Tetraconodon have been reported from the Siwalik Group of India and
Pakistan and the Miocene deposits of Myanmar (Pilgrim 1910; Pilgrim, 1926; Pilgrim, 1927;
Colbert, 1935) (Fig. 53). Tetraconodontine teeth from the West coast of India (Khari Nadi
Formation of Kutch) are represented by Conohyus cf. sindiensis (Lydekker, 1884) or
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Tetraconodon malensis (Pilgrim, 1926; Bhandhai et al., 2009) and Early Miocene suid
Libychochoerus fatehgadensis (Bhandhai et al., 2009; Prasad, 1967). The Miocene deposits of
Myanmar are represented by T. minor, T. intermedius and T. malensis (Thaung-Htike et al.,
2005). It is found that there occur a number of similarities amongst the vertebrates including
suids, anthracotheriids and proboscideans of Africa, Pakistan, Burma and India (Sahni and
Mishra, 1975; Thaung-Htike et al., 2005; Bhandhari et al., 2009). The fossil records of
Tetraconodontinae have also been well established from the Middle and Upper Aragonian and
Val Jesian of Europe (Made, 1989 1990), in the Upper Miocene-Lowermost Pleistocene of
Africa (Cooke, 1978 a, b; White & Harris, 1978; Harris & White 1979). Tetraconodontinae are
also found in Lower and Middle Miocene deposits of Europe, Anatolia and the Indian
Subcontinent. The oldest record of Tetraconodontine in Africa is upper Miocene (Made, 1999).
[192]
Fig. 53: Geographical distribution of the Tetraconodontine localities in the Indian subcontinent.
1. Hasnot; 2. Jammu; 3.Haritalyangar; 4. Saketi: 5. Manchar Formation, 6. Pasuda, Khari Nadi
Formation; 7. Perim Island; 8. Male; 9. Chaungsong area; 10. Yenangyoung, Chaingzauk; 11.
Lower Irrawadi Formation; 12. Ban Na Sai, Ban San Klang; 13. Baripada Beds, Orissa
(Modified after, Thaung-Htike et al., 2005; Made, 1994 and Bhandhari et al., 2009)
It is believed that the selachian species including Isurus sp. and Carcharadon carcharias
would have preferably lived in the condition similar to the present day condition in the near shore
environment. The species of the genus Isurus are also reported from the Eocene of Belgium
(Leriche, 1905), in Syria ( Signeux, 1959, as Isurus oxyrhynchus), in Nigeria ( White, 1926) in the
Eocene and Miocene ages of North Carolina (Case, 1980, as Isurus oxyrhynchus), and in the Late
Eocene of Georgia (Case, 1981, Isurus oxyrhynchus). The presence of the huge shark Carcharocle
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megalodon both in Miocene of eastern and western coast of India including Mizoram and Burma
suggest that this species was preying across the Indian Ocean, moving to and fro from both the
Pacific and Atlantic Ocean. The fossils of this species have been found in North and South
America, the Caribbean, Europe, Africa, Japan and Australia (Portell et al., 2008). The similarity
among the Miocene faunas of India, Burma, Srilanka, Portugal, New Zealand, North America and
South Africa is due to the fact that during the early Tertiary period, the Tethys had covered an
immense area stretching from the east coast to North and South America in the west and New
Zealand in the east (Sahni and Mehrotra, 1980).
Fossil teeth of Rhizoprionodon sp. are commonly found in the Caribbean and Eastern South
Atlantic, Western Atlantic, Indian Ocean and Western South Pacific (Springer, 1964; Ogilby,
1912). The genus Carcharhinus which is commonly found all along the Indian coast line had a
wide distribution from the seas of India to Japan. Carcharhinus priscus is found in the Miocene of
Ecuador, Tertiary of Caribbean province (Longbottom, 1979; Gillette, 1984) as well as in the
Pliocene of Angola (Antunes, 1978), Miocene of Pirabas Formation of Brazil (Reis, 2005). The
shark species of the genus Carcharhinus are commonly found in the Eocene to Oligocene of
Baluchistan Pakistan (Adnet, 2007). Hemipristis serra is abundant in the Miocene of France
(Cappetta, 1970) and it is one of the most ubiquitous shark in the Neogene fauna of Western and
southern Europe, North Africa, Western Atlantic coast and Eastern Pacific (Longbottom, 1976;
Gillette, 1984) on the Atlantic coast of the South Africa, Eastern and western Cali fornia
coast of the U.S.A. in Cuba, Venezuela, Argentina, Burma, Java (Leriche, 1927, 1938,
1942, 1954, 1957), Mexico (Kruckow, 1957). Many of the Baripada species including pelagic
sharks like Carcharias sp. and Physogaleus sp. and extant representatives within these genera have
circum-global distribution. The first evidence of modern coastal and tropical selachian associations
(with predominance of carcharhinids) in eastern Tethyan Sea was until now only recorded in the
Mio-Pliocene (Adnet et al., 2007).
[194]
Fig. 54: A: 6,000-km-plus journey of the India landmass (Indian Plate) before its collision with Asia
(Eurasian Plate) about 40 to 50 million years ago (Map not in Scale;
http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/himalaya.html); B: Palaeogeographic map of Indian-
Subcontinent during the deposition of Middle and Late Miocene sediment (Modified after, Sahni
and Mitra, 1980; Adnet et al. 2007); C: Global Palaeogeographic disposition during the Miocene
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period (red outline) as compared with the present-day geography in blue shade (After, Herold et al.
2009).
These distributions of similar Miocene fossil faunas in Burma, Srilanka, Portugal, New
Zealand, North America, Europe, South Africa, India shows that there might be a remnant of
water body which connected the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. This may also indicate a
possibility of selachian migration through the Tethyan seaway as a means of transport between
the larger waterways. The Indo-Pacific region remains are important to the evolution of marine
vertebrates during the Paleogene–Neogene transition and the modern selachian associations that
inhabit the extant tropical seas seem to have appeared earlier than previously supposed. This is
evidenced by the presence of modern Carcharhinid species and groups (such as the “Bullgroup”
or the hammerhead sharks) that appear to be well established in the eastern Indian Ocean since
the early Oligocene (Adnet et al., 2007).
Mondal et al., (2009) studied the global faunal similarity across the major fossil selachian
yielding localities by calculating the similarity co-efficient by using Jaccard Method (cf. Campbell
and Valentine, 1977). Their result showed that the genus level global correlation coefficient chart
(Table no. 13) provide a higher Jaccardian value, implying more or less circum-global distribution
of dominant genera and the species level global correlation coefficient suggesting a poor
coefficient values which perhaps indicates persistence of endemism at this taxonomic category
(Bardhan et al., 2007).
India Burma Sumatra N. California Carolina Chile Peru Brazil Cuba S. Portugal
Zealand Africa
India ----- 0.58 0.43 0.33 0.54 0.75 0.46 0.61 0.53 0.64 0.42 0.83
Burma ----- 0.63 0.57 0.36 0.46 0.75 0.45 0.28 0.28 0.5 0.31
Sumatra ----- 0.43 0.4 0.67 0.44 0.5 0.31 0.42 0.57 0.45
N. Zealand ----- 0.5 0.44 0.37 0.44 0.25 0.36 0.5 0.17
California ----- 0.55 0.5 0.36 0.46 0.46 0.62 0.38
Carolina ----- 0.6 0.28 0.31 0.82 0.56 0.58
Chile ----- 0.33 0.54 0.31 0.5 0.6
Peru ----- 0.47 0.54 0.55 0.46
Brazil ----- 0.47 0.45 0.23
Cuba ----- 0.45 0.4
S. Africa ----- 0.36
Portugal -----
Table no. 13: Jaccard similarlity coefficient of the Miocene shark genera between area pairs in
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different important fossil bearing areas of the world (Source, Mondal et al., 2009).
The species level faunal correlation (Table no. 14) suggested that there existed indistinct
faunal provinces with respect to shark assemblages in the Miocene oceans. The correlation
coefficient within the Atlantic ranges from 0.13 to 0.75 in which the Jaccard correlation
coefficient between Brazil and Cuba is higher (0.75) and the Cuba and other North American
Atlantic Coasts (including, Florida, North and South Carolina) ranges from 0.16 to 0.38. Along
the Pacific areas, Peru and Chile shows maximum faunal homogeneity (0.42). Between
California-Chile and California-Peru, the values are 0.23 and 0.33. The poor faunal similarity
between California and North Carolina (0.13) and California and South Carolina (0.21) having
similar latitude (spanning 23o N to 42o N) suggested that Panama Isthmus might have acted as an
ecological and geographical barrier. Poor faunal similarity is also found between Brazil and
Chile and Brazil and Peru with the Jaccard value of 0.14 and 0.13 respectively. However, Adnet
et al., (2007) suggested that the poor faunal similarities may not always be attributed to ecology
induced endemism; it may also be due to difference in stratigraphy.
India Burma Indonesia N. California N. S. Chile Peru Brazil Cuba S. Portugal

Zealand Carolina Carolina Africa
India ----- 0.19 0.21 0.09 0.15 0.17 0.15 0.13 0.17 0.11 0.16 0.12 0.16
Burma ----- 0.18 0.05 0.14 0.1 0.07 0.01 0.14 0.15 0.11 0.2 0.21
Indonesia ----- 0.05 0.14 0.16 0.08 0.16 0.15 0.17 0.13 0.36 0.17
N. Zealand ----- 0.2 0.11 0.2 0.28 0.2 0.1 0.21 0.13 0.0
California ----- 0.13 0.21 0.23 0.33 0.03 0.18 0.17 0.18
N. Carolina ----- 0.42 0.26 0.35 0.16 0.38 0.13 0.22
S. Carolina ----- 0.38 0.36 0.13 0.25 0.15 0.16
Chile ----- 0.42 0.14 0.38 0.11 0.14
Peru ----- 0.13 0.44 0.09 0.3
Brazil ----- 0.75 0.27 0.1
Cuba ----- 0.33 0.17

S. Africa ----- 0.18
Portugal -----
Table no. 14: Jaccard similarlity co-efficient of the Miocene shark species between area pairs in
different important fossil bearing areas of the world (Source, Mondal et al., 2009).
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Baripada West Mizoram Srilanka Burma Sumatra
Coast
Baripada ----- 0.82 0.5 0.22 0.36 0.33

West Coast ----- 0.36 0.18 0.55 0.5
Mizoram ----- 0.5 0.43 0.22
Srilanka ----- 0.33 0.13
Indonesia ----- 0.44
Sumatra -----
Table no. 15: Jaccard similarity co-efficient of the Miocene shark genera between area pairs in
different important fossil bearing areas of Indian subcontinent (Source, Mondal et al., 2009).
In the table no. 15, the similarity coefficient of Miocene shark assemblages upto the genus
level shows that the eastern coast of India (Baripada Beds) and the western coast of India (Kutch,
Piram Island, Gogha coast) is maximum (0.81). The genus-level faunal assemblage of Baripada
shows a similarity coefficient value of 0.5, 0.22, 0.36 and 0.33 with those of Mizoram, Srilanka,
Burma and Sumatra respectively. The coastal Tertiary of Peninsular India both along the
Western and Eastern coasts are characterized by similar assemblages of sharks, rays, teleosts,
turtles, crocodiles and cetacean (Sahni and Mitra, 1980). The faunal similarity coefficient of the
selachian species of the eastern and western coast of India is relatively high with the Jaccard
value of 0.33 (also see Table no. 16).
Baripada West Coast Mizoram Srilanka Burma Indonesia
Baripada ----- 0.33 0.13 0.06 0.21 0.15

West Coast ----- 0.11 0.07 0.28 0.13
Mizoram ----- 0.4 0.15 0.09
Srilanka ----- 0.17 0.11
Indonesia ----- 0.19
Indonesia -----
Table no. 16: Jaccard similarity co-efficient of the Miocene shark species between area pairs in
different important fossil bearing areas of the Indian subcontinent (Source, Mondal et al., 2009).
The Neogene faunal assemblages is also attributed by the tectonic activities that have taken
place during the Palaeocene-Neogene transition period characterized by deformation link to the
[198]
convergence of the South Eurasian and African Arabian plate (Adnet et al. 2007). The convergence
between the African and Eurasian plates and Indian and Eurasian plate (Fig. 54: A) led to the
Tethys becoming a geo- and biogeographical palaeoentity and the development of two distinct
physiographical realms namely the Mediterranean and Paratethys seas during the Miocene and
Pliocene (23.03–1.81 Ma) (Rogl, 1998; Meulenkamp and Sissingh, 2003; Jimenez-Moreno et al.,
2008). The Miocene marine fauna of the west coast of India have more affinity to those of Arabian
Sea, Red sea, Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic. They constitute a Medito-Tethyan
palaeogeographic province and the east coast faunal assemblages disperse from the Bay of Bengal
across the Pacific Ocean, representing an Indo-Pacific element. The Indo-Pacifc region remains are
important to the evolution of marine vertebrates including the Neogene bony fishes communities
of the Proto-Mediterranean and Atlantic and East Pacific modern tropical fishes and other Marine
Groups during the Palaeogene–Neogene transition (Adnet et al., 2007). The present facts are
clearly correlatable with the assumption that there may be a close relationship between the marine
and continental faunal diversification reaching its peak during the Miocene time with continuous
elevation of the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau, resulting from the collision between Indian and
Asian plates, followed by onset intensificali on of monsoon type of climatic condition.
5.5.0 Palaeoclimate
The earth’s climatic history has never been static. Rather it has been dynamically changing
throughout the geological time. Different components of the climatic structure change and react
to forcing factors at different rates. These factors that caused changes in climate may be either
due to internal mechanism or external forces which includes galactic variation, orbital variation,
eccentricity, obliquity, precession, solar variation, tectonics, changes in atmospheric CO2, etc.
Throughout the early part of the Miocene, the Earth continued to experience high
temperatures that were reached during end phase of the Oligocene. The Miocene period was a
time of major changes in the ocean–atmosphere system of the earth. This period witnessed the
last global climate optimum, often referred to as the Miocene Climate Optimum (Zachos et al.,
1994; Böhme, 2003) and the Middle Miocene Climate Transition (Shevenell et al., 2004; Lewis
et al., 2007) indicating the climatic deterioration that characterises the late Neogene world
(Harzhauser et al., 2011a,b) (also see, Fig. 55). Evidence of global Middle Miocene warmth
[199]
includes the development of widespread lateritic palaeosols as far north as Oregon (USA) and
south as South Australia (Schwarz, 1997). The Middle Miocene Climatic Optimum occurred
between 17 and 15 Ma (Bohme, 2003; Zachos et al., 2001) and is considered one of the most
remarkable episodes in the Cenozoic climatic history of the earth. It is regarded as the warmest
interval since the beginning of Neogene which was ~60 C warmer than today in the middle
latitude (Harold et al., 2009).
Fig. 55: Global deep-sea oxygen and carbon isotope records and some tectonic and biotic events
taken place during the Tertiary period (Source, Zachos et al., 2001).
In Central Europe, the study of a large number of thermophilous elements existing during the
Early and early Middle Miocene suggests presence of a warm, quite humid and subtropical
[200]
climate (Jimenez-Moreno et al., 2008). The development of such a large association of thermic
elements, require very humid conditions throughout the year (Wang, 1961). Analysis of
palaeobotanical data from the Early Miocene of Central Europe indicates existence of very warm
condition adapted floras during the Miocene Climatic Optimum (Zachos et al., 2001; Shevenell
et al., 2004). The estimated climatic parameters indicate mean annual temperatures of around
18–200C and mean annual precipitations between 1200 and 1300 mm (Jimenez-Moreno et al.,
2008; Jimenez-Moreno et al. 2005).
In Asia, the Miocene period marks the peak time for Himalayan exhumation combined with
of the enhancement of Asian monsoon. Palaeoclimate models suggest that Asian monsoon is
directly linked to the uplift of the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau (Kutzbach et al., 1989;
Amstrong and Allen, 2012). Various proxies including oceanic microfossils, land flora, stable
isotopes and sedimentary records suggested that the monsoon system initiated or increased in
intensity at 10–8 Ma as a consequence of this uplift (Quade et al., 1989; Kroon et al., 1991;
Filipelli, 1997; Dettman et al., 2001). The results of numerical climate-model experiment, using
idealized stepwise increase of mountain plateau elevation, supports the argument that the stages
in evolution of Asian monsoon are linked to phases of Himalayan-Tibetan Plateau uplift and to
Northern Hemisphere glaciations (Zhisheng et al., 2001). Thus, it is widely accepted that the two
large scale geological events during the Miocene time namely, the uplifting of the Tibetan
Plateau and the desiccation of the Mediterranean Sea had a major influence on the global climate
of that period. The uplifting of Tibet intensified summer monsoon rains in southern Asia and
increased the aridity of vast inland areas of Central Asia and China, since the Plateau acted as a
barrier for the moisture-laden air from the Indian Ocean. Furthermore, the rise of Tibet also
contributed to the development of the dry winter monsoon which blows from inland continental
areas towards the ocean. Late Miocene also represent the time period when marine transgression
took place at a global scale (Rogl and Steininger, 1983) and deposits of Baripada Beds represent
such a transgression (also see, Fig. 56).
[201]
Fig. 56: Neogene marine Transgression and Regression (Source, Rogl and Steininger, 1983;
Pickford, 1988a; Böhme et al., 2008 and Pickford et al., 2009).
In Eurasia, this climate change is accompanied by an increase of seasonality and aridity (

Eronen et al., 2009; Bruch et al., 2010) and a replacement of Early to Middle Miocene broad-
leaved evergreen forests by deciduous forests during the late Middle and Late Miocene (Kovar-
Eder et al., 2008) (also see, Fig. 57 and Fig. 58). In terrestrial regime the Miocene Climatic
Optimum/Miocene Climatic transition is characterized by an increase in mean annual range of
temperature, mainly due to decreasing cold month temperatures (Böhme, 2003; Mosbrugger et
al., 2005; Bruch et al., 2010). Harzhauser et al. (2011) observed the seasonality patterns in
Miocene climate. Their analysis was based on the study of the giant oyster Crassostrea
gryphoides which has a wide palaeogeographic distribution from the eastern Atlantic to the
western Indo-Pacific. Its long geological persistence from the Oligocene to the Pliocene makes
C. gryphoides as a key organism for studies on mid-Cenozoic seasonality. The analysed shells of
the Crassostrea gryphoides document a distinct change in seasonality with regularly occurring
[202]
seasons of high precipitation from the Miocene Climate Optimum (MCO) into the Miocene
Climate Transition (MCT).
Main climates Precipitation Temperature

A: Equitorial W: Desert h: Hot arid; F: Frost
B: Arid S: Steppe k: Cold arid; T: Tundra
C: Warm temperate f: fully humid a: Hot Summer
D: Snow s: Summer dry b: Warm Summer
E: Polar w: Winter dry c: Cool Summer
m: Monsoonal d: Cold summer
Fig. 57: Koppen-Geiger climate classification. A: Present day; B: The Tortonian based on the
regional model result (Source, Tang et al., 2011).
[203]
In the Mediterranean Sea, Miocene represents a time of exceptional interest for deciphering the
impact of global climatic and palaeoceanographic changes (Antonarakou et al., 2007). During that
time the Mediterranean basin was also characterized by a succession of rapid and intense changes in
the climate and sea level and a significant organization of the sea levels (Antonarakou et al., 2007).
Australia, placed ~8° south of its current position during the Early to Middle Miocene, also
experienced a warm, humid and seasonal environment which was evidenced from the study of
sedimentological and palaeontological data (Herold et. al., 2011).
Fig. 58: A: Annual Temperature (0C) difference between Tortonian run and present day control;
B: Annual precipitation (mm day- 1) difference between Tortonian run and present day control.
The hatched areas have the significant anomalies with a Student’s t-test (p = 0. 05). The green
contour denotes the extent of the Tibetan Plateau (> 3000 m) in Tortonian (Source, Tang et al.,
2011).
In the Indian Ocean, the Asian summer (southwest) and winter (northeast) monsoons,
characterized by a seasonally reversing wind system, have a profound effect on the rainfall,
runoff and vegetation in South Asia, as well as on the biota (Wang et al., 2005). The intense,
wet, southwesterly winds of the summer monsoon cause extensive upwelling and high surface
productivity in the Indian Ocean, particularly in the Arabian Sea (e.g., Schott and McCreary,
2001). Conversely, during the prevalence of dry northwesterly winds of the winter monsoon,
surface productivity is relatively low (Schott and McCreary, 2001). The study of palynological
data from the Oligocene-Miocene subsurface sediments of West Bengal tropical–subtropical,
humid climate prevailing during that time, being more humid than the present day (Mandal and
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Vijaya, 2008). However, during the Middle Miocene time, the northwestern part of the Indian
subcontinent had a warm and humid climate and evergreen to deciduous tropical forests covering
its entire parts (Patnaik et al., 2012 and reference therein). Data from South China Sea, Arabian
Sea and Bay of Bengal shows that, monsoon driven erosion intensified in the Miocene reaching
its peak by ~15 Ma ago and remained high till 10.5 Ma. By the Late Miocene global cooling,
spread of arid conditions and possibly monsoon intensification brought change in the vegetation
marked by fragmentation of forests and spreading of grasslands (Quade et al., 1989; Retallack,
1991). Analogous Late Miocene (10-8 Ma) monsoon intensification is well documented in the
marine record (Kroon et al., 1991; Gupta and Srinivasan, 1992). The reconstructions of
Tortonian vegetation for the Indian subcontinent suggested vegetation composed of tropical
forests and savanna; which suggests an increase in precipitation relative to today (Bradshaw et
al., 2012; Pound et al., 2011) (also see, Fig. 58).
5.5.1 Palaeoclimatic scenario during the deposition of Baripada Beds

A. Palaeontological proxies
A comparative study of the fossil selachians, which are the most commonly preserved and
collected vertebrate fossils from the Neogene marine sediments worldwide (Dana et al., 2009),
with their extant counterparts can provide useful information on the palaeoclimatic and
palaeoecological scenario of the study area. Sharks are naturally found in the ocean, seas and
estuary most favorably in the tropical environments. Besides these facts, certain species of sharks
have adapted to specific environmental conditions.
Majority of the fossil selachian including Carcharias, Carcharodon carcharias,

Carcharhinus, Hemipristis serra, Negaprion brevirostris, Negaprion eurybathrodon,
Carcharhinus, Galeocerdo, Sphyrna zygaena, Physogaleus, Odontaspis, Rhizoprionodon,
Isurus, Galeorhinus, Scoliodon, etc. were well adapted to the tropical/subtropical to temperate
climate ( See, Table ). According to Bigelow and Schroeder (1948), Odontaspis favors tropical
condition and Odontaspis taurus even withdraw from the Atlantic Ocean where the temperature
is below 190-200C. In table no. 17, certain species of selachian and their palaeoclimatic affinities
are summarized.
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Genera Tropical/ Temperate Cold Littoral/ Pelagic Bathyal Benthonic
Subtropical nereritic
Carcharias (+) (+) (+) (+)
Carcharodon (+) (+) (+) (+)
carcharias
Carcharhinus (+) (+) (+)
Hemipristis serra (+) (+)
Negaprion (+) (+) (+)
brevirostris
Negaprion (+) (+) (+)
eurybathrodon
Carcharhinus (+) (+) (+) (+)
Galeocerdo (+) (+) (+) (+)
Sphyrna zygaena (+) (+) (+)
Physogaleus (+) (+) (+)
Odontaspis (+) (+) (+)
Rhizoprionodon (+) (+) (+)
Isurus (+) (+)
Galeorhinus (+) (+) (+)
Scoliodon (+) (+) (+)
Isistius (+) (+) (+) (+)
Alopias (+) (+)
Dasyatis (+) (+) (+) (+)
Aetobatus (+) (+) (+) (+)
Rhinoptera (+) (+) (+)
Pristis (+) (+) (+)
Rhinobatos (+) (+) (+)
Rhynchobatus (+) (+)
Gymnura (+) (+)
Myliobatis (+) (+) (+)
Crocodylia (+) (+)
Diplodus (+) (+) (+)
Sparus (+) (+) (+)
Pagrus (+) (+) (+)
Sphyraena (+) (+) (+) (+)
Trichiurus (+) (+) (+) (+)
Diodon (+) (+)
[206]
Table no. 17: Palaeoclimatic and palaeoecological data of certain fishes based on their recent
distribution (Source, Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981; Compagno, 1984 and 1999; Deckert, 1974;
Smith and Heemstra, 1986; Rana et al., 2004)
The genus Rhizoprionodon is well adapted to tropical to subtropical climatic condition. Sphyrna
zygaena is commonly found in tropical and warm temperate zones (Compagno, 1984; Southall and
Sims, 2005; Cicimurri et al., 2009). This shark is currently inhabiting the coastal waters of New York
during the summer months, but individuals migrate southward once water temperatures drop below
19oC (Allen, 1999; Cicimurri et al., 2009). Hemipristris is most commonly adapted to warm and not
very deep coastal waters (Capetta, 1987). Negaprion is adapted to the shore of Atlantic and warm
waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans (Antunes and Jonet, 1970; Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981).
Sphyrna zygaena inhabits tropical and temperate waters and frequents both in the near-shore and
pelagic environments. Galeocerdo is found in a wide-ranging environment of offshore and inshore
conditions in tropical and subtropical seas (Mishra, 1980). They are restricted to mean annual
isotherms of 200C (Sahni and Mehrotra, 1980), however the modern tiger sharks are restricted to
warm water with a minimum temperature of 210C (James, 1984; Lineaver and Backus, 1973).
Sphyrnae inhabits temperate and warm waters near as well as offshore (Cappetta, 1987: p 27). The
present day study of sharks clearly indicates the occurrence of various species of Galaeocerdo
adapted to temperate and arctic environments. However, many of the sharks are pelagic in habit and
restricted within the range of 200C isotherms (Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981).
Myliobatus is found inhabiting the present day tropical and subtropical seas (Satsangi et al.,
1980). Aetobatus narinar, is restricted to tropical and subtropical waters (Compagno, 1999).
Rhinoptera, which represents as a littoral genus, is found in the mean annual isotherm of 20oC in
the Indian Ocean. The genus Dasyatis is found distributed in the east coast of India on the Orissa
coast in the mean annual isotherm of 20oC (Sahni et al., 1981). The genus Pristris and Rhyncobatus
are most common in warm and tropical climate whereas the genus Rhinobatus and Gynura are most
common in warm to temperate waters. The teleost including Sparus, Pagellus, Pagrus, Dentex,
Cybium, Sphyraena, Trichiurus, etc. are most commonly found in the tropical and subtropical seas.
The study of coprolite specimen from the bluish shale overlying the limestone bed of
Mukurmatia suggested that the majority of the collected coprolites are of crocodilian origin. Nearly
all the living species of crocodilians are restricted to tropical and subtropical areas in which the
[207]
minimum surface temperature is not lower than 150C, though few crocodiles do live in warm
temperate zones (Michael, 1997). Therefore, it is inferred from the present finding that the
palaeotemperature of this site might have ranged from warm subtropical to tropical with a minimum
temperature of not less than 150C. This assumption is further supported by the diverse assemblages
of sharks, turtle, oysters and foraminifers that prefer a warm condition (Sahni and Mehrotra, 1981;
Bhalla and Dev, 1988). This is also supported by the mammalian, e.i. Tetraconodon intermedius
and rhinoceratid which prefert tropical climatic conditions.
B. Clay mineral proxies
The recent advancement in the field of clay mineralogical study as a proxy record of
palaeoclimatic reconstruction is based on the simple principle that the liberation of the sediments
and formation of clay suites depend upon climate, chararacteristics of source rocks and the relief
of the area (Chauhan et al., 1993; Birkland, 1974). Clay minerals such as Chlorite are a typical
product of physical weathering in arid cold climate, whereas Illites and Kaolinites are produced
under humid conditions (Weaver, 1989; Chauhan et al., 1993). The increase of the Chlorite/Illite
ratio will therefore result from arid climatic conditions and Kaolinite/Chlorite ratios will signify
a prevalence of humid phase (Chauhan et al., 2002). Distribution of Al-Fe rich Smectite is good
indicator of warm hydrolyzing climate (Chamley, 1989). The general dominance of Smectite
over Kaolinite reflects strong fluctuation in seasonal humidity (Sellwood and Price, 1993).
It is inferred from the clay mineralogical data (also see, chapter 4) that, the presence of
Kaolinite in Baripada shale can be an indicator of moist and tropical to temperate weathering
condition. Montmorillonite, which is the most abundant clay mineral of Baripada Beds, is the
result of weathering and transportation from non-marine/terrestrial conditions. An overall
dominant presence of Smectite in all the shale samples of Baripada Beds is a good indicator of
palaeoclimate as it indicates a broad precipitation range of 25-150 cm with the seasonality in the
source region (Jain and Tandon, 2003). A relatively less abundance of Illite and complete
absence of Chlorites may indicate high weathering intensity and warm climatic conditions. In
case of Baripada Beds, predominance of Smectite over Illite and Chlorite is due to the combined
effect of high weathering in the catchment area and post depositional weathering in association
with the function of ambient climate. Smectite group of minerals may indicate monsoonal
climate, which, with their alternative wet and dry seasons promote the formation of this
[208]
alternately expanding and contracting mineral (Chamley, 1989; Millot, 1970). The absence of
Chlorite reveals that there was no harsh climate during the deposition of the Baripada Beds as its
presence in sediment as a detrital clay is a good indicator of cool/or dry climate (Holmes, 2000).
If the geology and relief of the area has not altered significantly, the variation in the clay suite
produced from a source will be climatic dependent (Chauhan et al. 1993), i.e. formation of
Kaolinite takes place under a very humid climate, Illite and Smectite during moderate-humid
climate (Biscaye, 1965; Griffin, 1968; Weaver, 1989). The presence of significant amount of
Kaolinite in the clay assemblages normally interpreted as presence of warm and wet conditions
associated with high leaching rate. The large percentage of Smectite, Illite and Kaolinite in all
the samples indicates the prevalence of humid phase which might have been associated with the
intensification of early monsoon in the region. Variation in the percentage of these clay minerals
along the stratigraphic column (Fig. 44) may indicate cyclic fluctuation in the intensity of
monsoon associated with the tectonic upheaval of the Himalaya during this period. The presence
of higher percentage of Montmorillonite in this area also suggests that the sea water was less
active and relatively calm. High agitatiting action of waves could have easily dispersed fine
particle such as those of Montmorillonite. The relatively higher percentage of Smectite
(Montmorillonite) in marine sediments of Baripada Beds may also suggest differential settling
and influence of pH. It has also been determined that Kaolinite forms when the mean annual
precipitation (MAP) is above 50 cms (Singer, 1984; Birkeland, 1999; Sreedhar et al. 2008).
Smectite is suggested to form during the weathering in seasonally wet and dry climate (Chamley
and Masse, 1975).
[209]
Chapter-IV: CONCLUSION
6.0 Conclusions
The present research work provides new data on the age, palaeoecology,
palaeobiogeography and palaeoclimatic conditions of Baripada Beds. The major conclusions
drawn from the present study are given below: -
1. The present research work produced some important fossil remains for the first time from
Baripada Beds. The mammalian data include the record of a Late Miocene suid
Tetracondon intermedius and Rhinoceritidae sp. indet. Coprolites of crocodilian affinity
were also recovered for the first time (Milankumar and Patnaik, 2010). Among the
selachians recovered for the first time include: Carcharhinus perseus, Carcharhinus aff.
C. priscus, N. eurybathrodon, Rhizoprionodon sp. indet and Galeorhinus sp. indet. The
present documentation of batoid Rhinoptera aff. R. sherburni is also new from Baripada
Beds. The family Rhyncobatidae is being reported here for the first time from Indian
subcontinent, where as it is the first report of the families Gymnuridae and Characidae
from the East coast of India.
2. Previously, there were several views regarding the age of Baripada Beds ranging from
Eocene to Pleistocene. The finding of Tetraconodon intermedius has constrained the age
of the Baripada Beds between ~10-8 Ma (Sharma and Patnaik, in press).
3. Marine fishes of Baripada Beds constitute selachians (48%), batoids (31%) and teleosts
(20%). The selachians are mainly pelagic and batoids are bottom dwellers. Therefore,
based on the diverse fossil assemblage from these beds it has been suggested that these
were deposited in shallow marine environment having close proximity to the continental
environment, most probably representing the shallower part of the inner neretic.
4. Taphonomic study of the fossils indicates primarily a thanatocenosis mode of
preservation of majority of the specimens, except for Oyster beds which clearly indicate
an in situ formation (biocenosis). A taphonomic analysis of crocodilian coprolites suggest
that their deposition took place in a stable low energy shallow marine regime with very
little disturbance.
5. The similarity of the Miocene faunas of Baripada Beds with those of Burma, Srilanka,
Portugal, New Zealand, North America and South Africa is indicative of the vastness of
the Tethys Sea, an area stretching from South America to New Zealand. It could also be
because of the fact that there might be a remnant of water body that connected the
[210]
Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Ocean after the partition of the Tethyan Sea. There may be a
possibility of selachian migration through the Tethyan seaway as a means of transport
between the larger waterways.
6. A comparison of the habitat of present faunal elements and their extant counterpart
indicate the presence of a tropical to subtropical climatic condition. Most of fossil taxa
were well adapted to a normal temperature of nearly 200C isotherm.
7. Further, clay minerals were also useful in reconstructing the past climate. The results
from the XRD data of clay minerals suggested that the major clay minerals from
Baripada Beds consist of Smectite (49.52-68.3%), Kaolinite (6.65-29.32%) and Illite
(10.5-34.3%). The relatively greater abundance of smectite over Illite and Chlorite is due
to the combination of weathering in the catchment area and post depositional weathering
in association with the function of ambient climate. Smectite are broad indicator of warm
hydrolyzing climate with a precipitation ranging between 25-150 cm with the seasonality
in the source region. Kaolinite forms when the Mean Annual Precipitation (MAP) is
above 50 cm. Thus, the clay mineralogical proxy of the area in correlation with other
proxy records from different parts of the world indicates that the area might have
received an annual precipitation in the range of 50-150 cms.
8. The complete absence of Clay chlorite from the study area may probably be either due to
extreme humid condition under which Chlorite can’t survive or lack of arid and cold
climatic conditions. Thus the current climatic proxy of the study area is in conformity
with the other regional and global climatic data indicating presence of a warm, humid and
seasonally wet-dry climate in the Late Miocene, such as an intensification of Indian
monsoon system.
9. Various workers have suggested that an intense tectonic activity that caused the rise of
the Alpine-Himalayas, closure of the Tethys sea followed by a global climatic change
during the Miocene period might have triggered an increase in the global
biodiversity. The present diverse selachian fauna corroborate such an increase in global
biodiversity during the Miocene.
[211]
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RECONSTRUCTION OF PALAEOCLIMATE OF NEOGENE-

QUATERNARY SEQUENCES EXPOSED AROUND BARIPADA

PANJAB UNIVERSITY, CHANDIGARH

For the degree of

Kongrailatpam Milankumar Sharma

Department of Geology (C.A.S.), Panjab University

(K. Gourachandra Sharma and K. Shakhitombi Devi)

I am greatly indebted to Prof. Ashok Sahni, Department of Geology, Panjab University,

I am also highly thankful to my Department Geological Survey of India (Ministry of Mines,

Date: (Kongrailatpam Milankumar Sharma)

2.1.4 Geology of the study area (Baripada Beds) 27

3.3.0 CROCODILIAN REMAINS 46

Carcharhinus sp. indet 2 89

Genus: Sphyrna : 104

Rhinoptera aff. R. 124

Genus: Raja : 142

4 CHAPTER-IV: SEDIMENTOLOGICAL PROXY: CLAY (163-174)

1.3 Flora and fauna

• North tropical moist deciduous Sal forests.

1.4 Objectives and significance of the study

1. To reconstruct a high resolution palaeoclimatic history of Neogene and Quaternary sequence

4. To study the sedimentology and taphonomic processes in order to understand depositional

There are several techniques of analyzing sedimentary rocks for palaeoclimatic

1.5 Review of literature

Jena (1942) recorded an assemblage containing lamellibranchs, gastropods, fishes, crabs

Chatterjee (fide. Balasundaram, 1972) reported certain microfauna of foraminiferas from

2. Scanning electron microscope (S.E.M.)

1. Quantifications of assemblage zones;

2. Quantification of index fossils concept.

3. Reconstruction of sequence of events,

1.7 Preview of the chapters

2.1.0 Regional geology of Orissa

Fig. 3: Regional Geological Map of Orissa (After Mahallik, 1998).

Sl. Age Geological units Sectors and broad litho-association Area

Northwestern Orissa: - Metasedimentary of low or medium

Granulites belt: - Lithopackage comprising of Khondalites,

a. Supracrustal belt including Iron Ore Supergroup having

2.1.1 Precambrian rocks of Orissa

The North Orissa Craton comprises of Archean granitoids, gneisses, migmatites

Newer Dolerite dykes and sills c.1600-950 Ma

Mayurbhanj granite c.2100 Ma

Gabbro, Anorthosite and Ultramafics c.2100-2200 Ma

Jagannathpur lavas, Dhanjori-Similipal lavas, Malangtoli lavas Dhanjori Group

Quartzite and Conglomerates c.2300 Ma

Pelitic and arenaceous metasediments with mafic sills Singbhum Group

Singbhum Granite Phase A c.3300 Ma

Folding and metamorphism of older Metamorphic Group and

Older Metamorphic Tonalitic Gniess ( OMTG) c.3775 Ma

Table no. 2: Generalised chronostratigraphic succession of the rocks in Singhbhum- North

The important groups of the metasedimentary assemblages of Proterozoic basins consist of

Kumarmunda Formation Banded carbonaceous quartzite and phyllites.

Birmitrapur Formation Limestone, dolomite, quartzite and phyllite.

Liangar Formation Carbonaceous shale and phyllites.

Raghunathpalli Formation Conglomerates, quartzite and slate.

Iron Ore Group Schists and phyllite

Puranas (Cuddapah and Upper Limestone, purple shale, slate, etc.

Eastern Ghat Group Khondalite

Bailadila (BIF) Group Banded hematite quartzite, quartzite.

Bengpal Group Multiple schist, gneiss containing andalusite; basaltic flows.

Sukma Group Quartzite, Schists and gneiss containing sillimanite.

2.1.2 Gondwana Supergroup

The Middle Gondwana fossil assemblages comprises of Glossopteris indica, G. Conspicua,

Age Group Formation Lithology Area

Karharbari Conglomerate, sandstone, shale, coal. Talchir basin, Ib river