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Nepalpedia Series No. 2

Biological Diversity
and
Conservation

Editors
Pramod Kumar Jha, Ph.D.
Professor of Botany (Tribhuvan University)
Academician (Nepal Academy of Science and Technology)

Fanindra Prasad Neupane, Ph.D.

Academician (Nepal Academy of Science and Technology)

Madan Lall Shrestha, Ph.D.

Academician (Nepal Academy of Science and Technology)

Iswor Prasad Khanal, M.Sc.

Chief, Faculty of Science (Nepal Academy of Science and Technology)

Published by
Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Khumaltar, Lalitpur

Supported by
Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF-Nepal), Baluwatar, Kathmandu
 Nepalpedia Series No. 2
Biological Diversity and Conservation

Copyright © 2013: Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST)

All rights reserved:

No part of this book may be produced by any mechanical, photographic or
electronic process, or in the form of a phonographic recording, nor be stored in a
retrieval system, transmitted, or otherwise copied for public or private use without
written permission from the Secretary of the NAST.

Citation: Gewali, M.B. 2013. Bioprospecting. In: Environment and Natural

Resources. (eds.) P.K. Jha, F.P. Neupane, M.L. Shrestha and I.P.
Khanal. Publ. Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Khumaltar,
Lalitpur. pp. 162-166.

Cover Photograph: Protected areas in Nepal (center), surrounding photos:

buckwheat field, tiger, Rauvolfia serpentina, Rhinoceros,
orchid, Rhododendron anthopogon, Ephedra, Danphe, Rohu
fish, Ophiocordyceps sinensis(yarsagumba) (P.K. Jha)

ISBN: 978-99946-892-6-2

Computer Layout: Rajesh Tandukar, 9841345999, 01-4992499

Printed: Sunrise Printing Press, Kathmandu, 9751002690

 CONTENTS

1. Introduction 1
Pramod Kumar Jha
2. Afforestation 9
Rajeswar Shrestha
3. Agriculture and Agrobiodiversity 14
Bhola Man Singh Basnet
4. Agroforestry 20
Kishna Raj Tiwari
5. Bamboo 23
Anjana Giri and Annapurnanand Das
6. Biodiversity Profiles Project 32
Sushim Ranjan Baral
7. Biological Classification 37
Sangeeta Rajbhandary
8. Biological Diversity (Biodiverity) 45
Pramod Kumar Jha and Krishna Chandra Paudel
9. Biodiversity: Amphibians and Reptiles 52
Karan Bahadur Shah
10. Biodiversity: Insects 63
Vasant Kumar Thapa
11. Biodiversity: Fish 69
Jiwan Shrestha
12. Biodiversity: Aves 82
Hem Sagar Baral
13. Biodiversity: Mammals 88
Karan Bahadur Shah
14. Biodiversity: Non-human Primates 93
Mukesh Kumar Chalise
15. Biodiversity: Algae 97
Vishwanath Prasad
16. Biodiversity: Fungi 104
Mahesh Kumar Adhikari
17. Biodiversity: Lichens 109
Lokendra Raj Sharma
18. Biodiversity: Bryophyta 113
Nirmala Pradhan
19. Biodiversity: Pteridophyta 118
Sanu Devi Joshi
20. Biodiversity: Gymnosperms 127
Anjana Devkota
21. Biodiversity: Angiosperms 135
Krishna Kumar Shrestha
22. Biodiversity: Microbes 140
Anjana Singh
23. Biodiversity Conservation: Changing Paradigm 146
Uday Raj Sharma
24. Biological Diversity: Religious and Cultural Uses 154
Bimala Devkota (Paudel) and Anjana Devkota
25. Bioprospecting 162
Mohan Bikram Gewali
26. Biotechnology 167
Jyoti Maharjan
27. Blackbuck Conservation 174
T.R. Adhikari, S.R. Bhatta and J.B. Karki
28. Botanical Gardens 178
Bijaya Pant
29. Chure 184
Dinesh Raj Bhuju
30. Climate 190
Lochan Prasad Devkota
31. Climate Change and Biodiversity 193
Pramod Kumar Jha
32. Conservation Biology 198
Khadga Basnet
33. Conservation: Kailash Sacred Landscape 203
K.P. Oli, R. Zomer, R.P. Chaudhary, Shi Pelli and R.S. Rawal
34. Conservation: Sacred Himalayan Landscape 208
Roshan Sherchan, Ghana Shyam Gurung and
Gokarna Jung Thapa
35. Convention on Biological Diversity 217
Mohan Siwakoti, K.C. Paudel and Pramod Kumar Jha
36. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 247
Ravi Sharma Aryal
37. Crocodiles 263
Karan Bahadur Shah
38. Deforestation 272
Rajeswar Shrestha
39. Ecological Restoration 277
Tej Narayan Mandal
40. Ecosystems 282
Tirtha Bahadur Shrestha
41. Ecosystem Services 290
Pramod Kumar Jha and Bhishma Prasad Subedi
42. Endangered Animals 297
Mukesh Kumar Chalise
43. Endangered Plants 304
Mohan Siwakoti
44. Endemic Flowering Plants 309
Keshab Raj Rajbhandari
45. Environmental Assessment: Biodiversity 314
Batu Uprety
46. Ethnobotany 320
Rajeev Deokota
47. Ethnozoology 325
Usha Lohani
48. Food Security 329
Khem Raj Dahal
49. Forest Certification 338
Ishwor Chandra Dutta
50. Forestry: Community 347
Ridish K. Pokharel
51. Forestry Plan 353
Swaymbhu Man Amatya
52. Genetic Resources: Cultivated Plants 359
Madhusudan Prasad Upadhyay and Salik Ram Gupta
53. Genetically Modified Organisms and Bio-safety 367
Mukunda Ranjit
54. Honeybees 373
Suroj Pokhrel
55. Intellectual Property Rights and Biodiversity 382
Ratnakar Adhikari
56. Invasive Alien Species: Animals 389
Prem Bahadur Budha
57. Invasive Alien Species: Plants 396
Mohan Siwakoti
58. Medicinal Plants: Sustainable Management 403
Nirmal Bhattarai and Madhav Karki
59. Molecular Marker Techniques 409
Sangita Shrestha
60. Mushroom 418
Keshari Laxmi Manandhar
61. Mycorrhiza 423
Geeta Shrestha Vaidya
62. Orchids 427
Ummed Pun
63. Pest Risk Analysis 432
Baidya Nath Mahto
64. Plant Parasite: Nematodes 437
Suraj Baidya
65. Pollinators and Pollination: Insect 445
Resham Bahadur Thapa
66. Protected Area Management 452
Buddi Sagar Poudel
67. Protected Areas: Conservation Areas 459
Bharat Babu Shrestha and Achyut Tiwari
68. Protected Areas: Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve 471
Barna Bahadur Thapa and Ramesh Adhikari
69. Protected Areas: Banke National Park 476
Tulasi R. Sharma, Jhamak B. Karki and Buddi S. Paudel
70. Protected Areas: Bardia National Park 480
Jhamak B. Karki
71. Protected Areas: Chitwan National Park 483
Chandra Prasad Pokhrel
72. Protected Areas: Khaptad National Park 488
Babu Ram Bhattarai and Narayan Rupakheti
73. Protected Areas: Langtang National Park 493
Ram Chandra Kandel
74. Protected Areas: Makalu-Barun National Park 498
Nilamber Mishra and Badri Vinod Dahal
75. Protected Areas: Rara National Park 504
Bhogendra Rayamajhi and Maheshwor Dhakal
76. Protected Areas: Sagarmatha National Park 508
Narayan P. Ghimire and Pramod Kumar Jha
77. Protected Areas: Shey Phoksundo National Park 513
Barna Bahadur Thapa and Ravi Bikrum Thapa
78. Protected Areas: Shivapuri and Nagarjun National Park 517
Fanindra Raj Kharel
79. Protected Areas: Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve 523
Rajendra Dhungana and Maheshwor Dhakal
80. Protected Areas: Parsa Wildlife Reserve 528
Babu Ram Yadav and Jhamak B. Karki
81. Protected Areas: Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve 534
Chandra Prasad Pokhrel
82. Quarantine 539
Nabin Chand Tara Devi Shrestha
83. Rhododendron 546
Keshab Raj Rajbhandari
84. Rice: Fine and Aromatic 552
Ram Pratap Sah
85. Tiger 556
Ganesh Kumar Pokhrel
86. Vegetation Sampling 563
Hari Datt Lekhak
87. Viruses and Viral Diseases 571
Doj Raj Khanal and Rebati Man Shrestha
88. Weeds: Useful Aspects 580
Jagat Devi Ranjit
89. Wildlife: Illegal Trade and Poaching 584
Mangal Man Shakya
90. Yak 590
Chet Raj Upreti
91. Yarsagumba: Bionomics 597
Fanindra Prasad Neupane
92. Yarsagumba: Fungal Biology and Medicinal Value 607
Bhushan Shrestha
93. Zoo 611
Reena Byanju

List of Authors 619

Acronyms and Abbreviations 626
Subject Index 638
Species Index 656
About the Editors
Viruses and Viral Diseases

Viruses are very small, infectious and obligate intracellular molecular

parasites. Someone regards viruses as exceptionally complex aggregations of
nonliving chemicals or as exceptionally simple living microbes. The virus genome
contains a single type of nucleic acid either deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or
ribonucleic acid (RNA) and a protein coat, sometimes enclosed by an envelope
composed of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. Viruses multiply by using the
host cell’s synthesizing machinery to cause the synthesis of viral building blocks,
which then self-assemble into new virus particles that are released into the
environment. Viruses are not susceptible to the action of antibiotics.
A brief overview of important animal diseases prevalent in Nepal, is
presented in the following sections based on classification adopted by Office
International des Epizooties (O.I.E), World Organization for Animal Health
besides listing some of the diseases posing higher threats of entering Nepal as new
emerging diseases. Prior to 2005, OIE categorized important animal diseases into
3 lists with the following definitions (Annonymous 2008, www.oie.int/eng/info).

• List A diseases: Communicable diseases which have the potential for very
serious and rapid spread, irrespective of national borders, which are of serious
socio-economic or public health consequence and which are of major
importance in the international trade of livestock and livestock products.
Reports are submitted to the OIE as often as necessary to comply with articles
1.2.0.2 and 1.2.0.3 of the OIE International Zoo-Sanitary Code.
• List B diseases: Communicable diseases which are considered to be of socio-
economic and/or public health importance within countries and which are
significant in the international trade of livestock and livestock products.
Reports are normally submitted once a year, although more frequent
reporting may in some cases be necessary to comply with articles 1.2.0.2 and
1.2.0.3 of the OIE International Zoo-Sanitary Code.
• List C diseases: Communicable diseases with important socio-economic and/or
sanitary influence at the local level.

The OIE is in the process of updating the technical disease cards of the 30
most common OIE listed diseases. More recently, diseases notifiable to the OIE
based on species affected have been categorized as listed below with examples, of
which only diseases of viral etiology with economic and zoonotic importance are
briefly described in the succeeding pages (OIE 2008).
• Multiple species diseases (e.g., Aujeszky’s disease, Bluetongue, Foot and
Mouth disease, Japanese encephalitis, Rinderpest, Rabies, Vesicular
stomatitis and West Nile fever)

571
• Cattle diseases (e.g., Bovine spongiform encephalopathy, bovine viral
diarrhoea, enzootic bovine leukosis and infectious bovine rhinotracheitis)
• Sheep and goat diseases (e.g., Caprine arthritis/encephalitis, Maedi-visna,
Nairobi sheep disease, Peste des petits ruminants, Scrapie and Sheep pox and
goat pox)
• Equine diseases (e.g., African horse sickness, contagious equine metritis,
western equine encephalomyelitis, equine infectious anemia, equine
influenza, equine rhinopneumonitis, equine viral arteritis and Venezuelan
equine encephalomyelitis)
• Swine diseases (e.g., African swine fever, classical swine fever, Nipah virus
encephalitis, Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome, swine vesicular
disease and transmissible gastroenteritis)
• Avian diseases (e.g., Avian infectious bronchitis, duck virus hepatitis, highly
pathogenic avian influenza and low pathogenic avian influenza in poultry,
infectious bursal disease, Marek’s disease, Newcastle disease and Turkey
rhinotracheitis)
• Lagomorph diseases
• Fish diseases
• Bee diseases
• Mollusc diseases
• Crustacean diseases
• Other diseases

Economically Important Viral Diseases in Animals of Nepal

Each viral disease is briefly described in terms of its importance, animal
species affected and etiology with fewer scientific details.

Ruminants (Cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goat)

(i) Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) or goat plague (OIE List A disease): PPR
is an acute, highly contagious disease of small ruminants, particularly goats.
Clinical signs include fever, oral erosions and /or gastroenteritis and
bronchopneumonia. Goats are more susceptible than sheep, and cattle and pigs
can be infected, but show no clinical signs and do not transmit the disease to other
animals. The morbidity and mortality rates can be up to 100% in severe outbreaks
(Sharma and Adlakha 2005). PPR was recorded in Year 1995 for the first time in
Nepal.
Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) is a paramyxovirus of the genus
Morbillivirus. Morbillivirus causes some of the most devastating viral diseases of
humans and animals worldwide. Besides PPRV, Measles virus, canine distemper
and rinderpest viruses are classified as Morbillivirus and these viruses show a
high degree of antigenic relatedness.

572
 (ii) Rinderpest (Cattle plague) (OIE List A disease): Rinderpest is an acute,
contagious and the most dreaded disease of ruminants, mainly of cattle and
buffaloes and of the swine. It is characterized by fever, oral erosions, diarrhea due
to erosion and necrosis of the mucous membrane of the digestive tracts, lymphoid
necrosis and high mortality (Spickler and Roth 2006). Nepal has been free from
this disease since year 2001/2002.
Rinderpest virus (RPV) is a single stranded RNA virus in the family
Paramyxoviridae, genus Morbillivirus.
(iii) Foot and mouth disease (FMD) (OIE List A disease): Foot and mouth
disease (FMD) is highly contagious disease of cloven hoofed domestic and wild
animals, including cattle, buffaloes, pigs, sheep and goats. FMD is characterized
by fever, formation of vesicles (blisters), which progress to erosions in the mouth,
nares, muzzle, feet, or teats (Spickler and Roth 2006). Typical signs include
depression, anorexia, excessive salivation, serous nasal discharge, decreased milk
production, lameness, and reluctance to move. Abortion may occur in pregnant
animals due to high fever. Death in young animals is due to severe myocardial
necrosis. Animals generally recover in about 2 weeks with very low mortality in
adult animals. FMD can rapidly spread through a region if control and eradication
practices are not put into place as soon as the disease is identified. Weight loss,
poor growth, permanent hoof damage, and chronic mastitis are just some of the
sequelae of infection. Although morbidity is high, mortality is low but mortality
may be high in young unvaccinated exotic/cross bred calves and lambs. Since FMD
is endemic in Nepal, our dairy and meat products are facing international trade
embargo.
The FMD virus (FMDV) is in the family Picornaviridae, genus Aphthovirus.
There are 7 immunologically distinct serotypes, namely, O, A, C, Asia 1, SAT 1,
SAT 2 and SAT 3 and over 60 subtypes. Nepal has reported the presence of four
serotypes viz. O, A, C and Asia 1. New subtypes occasionally develop
spontaneously. The FMDV is inactivated at a pH below 6.5 or above 11. The
FMDV is spread aerosols and on fomites such as manure-contaminated tires,
boots, and clothing. The virus can survive in milk and milk products when regular
pasteurization temperatures are used. Virus stability increases at lower
temperatures. It can survive in frozen bone marrow or lymph nodes. In organic
material such as serum, the virus can survive drying. It can remain active for days
to weeks in materials rich in organic matter under moist and cool temperatures. It
is inactivated on dry surfaces and by UV radiation (sunlight).
(iv) Bluetongue (OIE List A disease): Bluetongue is an insect borne, non-
contagious viral disease of ruminants; among domestic animals, clinical disease is
seen most often in sheep (Spickler and Roth 2006). The clinical signs may include
fever, excessive salivation, depression, dyspnea, and panting. The tongue is

573
occasionally cyanotic and protrudes from the mouth. This disease is characterized
by erosions and ulcerations on the mucous membranes, lameness from muscle
necrosis and inflammation of the coronary band.
The bluetongue virus (BTV) belongs to the family Reoviridae, genus
Orbivirus. Twenty four serotypes have been identified worldwide. BTV, like the
other members of the family is a complex non-enveloped virus with seven
structural proteins and a RNA genome consisting of 10 double-stranded RNA
segments of different sizes. Bluetongue virus is transmitted by biting midges in
the genus Culicoides. Of late, bluetongue viruses have been isolated from Nepal
during sero-surveillance study but no clinical cases have yet been recorded
(Spickler and Roth 2006).
(v) Rabies (Hydrophobia) (OIE List B disease): Rabies is a bite transmitted,
fatal central nervous system disease that can affect all mammals (Spickler and
Roth 2006). This disease is an important human zoonosis. Rabies is usually spread
by the contamination of a wound or mucous membrane with infectious saliva.
Most often, the disease is transmitted by the bite from a rabid animal; however,
the virus can also enter the body through abraded skin. The most reliable clinical
symptoms are unexplained paralysis or behavioral signs such as anorexia,
apprehension, nervousness, irritability, or hyperexcitability. Rabid carnivores
often roam extensively or swallow foreign objects. Abnormal bellowing is common
in cattle. Wild animals often lose their fear of humans and nocturnal animals may
be seen in the daylight.
The rabies virus belongs to the family Rhabdoviridae, genus Lyssavirus. The
rabies virus can infect all warm-blooded animals, including humans. The major
reservoir hosts are dogs, wolves, jackals, raccoons, skunks, mongooses, meerkats
and bats.
(vi) Bovine ephemeral fever (BEF): Ephemeral fever is an acute insect
transmitted disease of cattle. Sheep and other domestic animals do not suffer. The
infection overflows during arthropod season (Sharma and Adlakha 2005). The
affected animals show clinical symptoms characterized by a sudden onset of high
fever, muscular shivering, and lameness, stiffness of joints and enlargement of
peripheral lymph nodes. The fever lasts 2-3 days and in most of the cases recovery
takes place in 3-5 days. This disease is locally known as SAUNE in Nepali.
The bovine ephemeral fever virus belongs to the family Rhabdoviridae. The
viral genome is single stranded RNA and infective viruses have been isolated from
mosquitoes and midges. The virus is inactivated within 10 minutes at 56°C.
(vii) Buffalo pox: Buffalo pox is a mild viral disease affecting only buffaloes
with lesions on teats, udder, and thighs and in few cases on lips and nostrils. The
virus can infect man through contact with infected buffaloes. The buffalo pox virus
belongs to the family Poxviridae, genus Orthopoxvirus and resembles vaccinia

574
virus in morphology. There is a close antigenic relationship between buffalo pox,
cow pox and vaccinia viruses. But, there is no serological relationship between
buffalo pox, sheep pox, goat pox and camel pox viruses (Sharma and Adlakha
2005).
(viii) Sheep and goat pox (OIE List A disease): Sheep and goat pox are
contagious viral skin diseases (Spickler and Roth 2006, OIE 2008). These diseases
may be mild in indigenous breeds from endemic areas, but are often fatal in newly
introduced animals. Sheep and goat pox infections can limit trade, export, and the
development of intensive livestock production.
Sheep and goat pox virus belongs to the family Poxviridae, genus Capripox.
Sheep and goat pox viruses cause disease only in these 2 species. Infections have
not been seen in wild ungulates.
A limited outbreak of sheep or goat pox can sometimes be controlled by
depopulating infected and exposed animals, cleaning and disinfecting farms and
equipment, and imposing quarantine on animal movement. Sodium hypochlorite
is an effective disinfectant. When the disease has spread more widely, vaccination
may also be required (Sharma and Adlakha 2005). Nepal reported this disease in
Year 2008 (Annonymous 2008).
(ix) Contagious pustular dermatitis (Orf or ecthyma) (OIE List C disease): Orf
or contagious pustular dermatitis or contagious ecthyma is highly infectious
disease of sheep and goats, characterized by development of pustular and scabby
lesions on muzzle and lips. The incidence among kids and lambs of 4-6 months is
very high (Sharma and Adlakha 2005). This disease may be transmitted to man,
where it results in local affections.
The orf virus has antigenic cross reaction with other members of Parapox
genus like pseudocowpox. The virus resists desiccation and survives for years in
dried scabs. The mortality in sheep and goats is usually not more than 1% but
morbidity can reach 100%.

Equine (Horses, mules and donkeys)

(i) Equine influenza (Virus type A): OIE List B disease
(ii) Vesicular stomatitis: OIE List A disease
(iii) Rabies: OIE List B disease
(iv) Equine infectious anemia OIE List B disease

None of the above OIE listed diseases in equines except rabies in Nepal have
been diagnosed clinically and laboratory confirmed.
Swine

(i) Classical swine fever (Hog cholera) (OIE List A disease): Classical swine
fever or hog cholera is a highly infectious, febrile disease of pigs which

575
occasionally can cause high mortality. Hog cholera has the potential to cause
devastating epidemics, particularly in countries that are free from the disease and
do not practice vaccination, so that their total pig population is susceptible (The
Merck Veterinary Manual 1998). Acute or chronic infections occur, both are
usually fatal.
Classical swine fever is caused by a small, enveloped RNA virus in the
Pestivirus genus of the family Flaviviridae. Only 1 serotype has been found. Hog
cholera affects domestic and wild pigs. The mortality rate in acute cases can reach
90%. Virulent strain can cause abortions or the death of piglets soon after birth.
Less virulent strains may result in stillbirths or mummification. On postmortem
examination, button ulcers may be found in the intestinal mucosa, epiglottis and
larynx. Nepal has reported outbreak of hog cholera in the previous year
(Annonymous 2008).
(ii) Aujeszky’s disease (Pseudorabies or mad itch) (OIE List B disease):
Aujeszky’s disease is an economically significant and primarily disease of pigs but
occurs in a wide range of animals including cattle, sheep, dogs, cats, minks,
ferrets, foxes and rats. This viral infection causes central nervous system signs
and high mortality in young animals and respiratory illness in older pigs (Spickler
and Roth 2006).
Aujeszky’s disease results from infection by pseudorabies virus, an
Alphaherpes in the family of Herpesviridae. This virus can become latent in the
trigeminal ganglia in pigs. It may survive for 2-7 weeks in infected premises and
up to 5 weeks in meat.
(iii) Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) (OIE List B
disease): Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) is characterized
by the reproductive failure of sows and respiratory problems in piglets and
growing pigs. Earlier the disease was called Mystery swine disease or blue ear
disease (www.oie.int/hs2).
The causative agent is classified as an Arterivirus in the family Arteriviridae.
Clinical cases of PRRS have been reported recently in some parts of Nepal
awaiting laboratory confirmation.

Transmissible gastroenteritis (TGE) (OIE List B disease): Transmissible

gastroenteritis (TGE) is an enteric disease of pigs caused by a Corona or TGE
virus (TGEV), a member of the Coronaviridae (www.oie.int/hs2). This is a highly
infectious disease which in the weaning and growing pig will show clinical signs of
vomiting and profuse diarrhoea. The virus destroys villous epithelial cells of the
jejunum and ileum, which results in severe villous atrophy, malabsorption,
osmotic diarrhea, and dehydration. Piglets dying of TGE are severely dehydrated,
and the skin is soiled with liquid feces (The Merck Veterinary Manual 1998). Like

576
PRRS, this disease has also been reported clinically in Nepal but yet to be
confirmed at the laboratory.

Canine (Dog) / Feline (Cat)

(i) Rabies virus: OIE List B disease

(ii) Canine distemper virus: OIE List B disease
(iii) Infectious hepatitis virus
(iv) Parvovirus
(v) Corona virus
(vi) Rotavirus
(vii) Canine influenza virus

All of the above listed important viral diseases of dogs and cats are presumed
to be prevalent in Nepal based on the clinical signs manifested by the animals
besides many other viral diseases.

Avian (Poultry and birds)

Among viral diseases of avian species, OIE List A diseases, namely highly
pathogenic avian influenza and Newcastle diseases are only described briefly.
(i) Avian influenza (OIE List A disease): Avian influenza (AI), caused by the
influenza virus Type “A”, can affect several species of food producing birds
(chickens, turkeys, quails, guinea fowl, etc), as well as pet birds and wild birds
with some strains resulting in high mortality rates. The virus has also been
isolated from mammalian species including humans, rats and mice, weasels and
ferrets, pigs, cats, tigers and dogs. There are many strains of AI viruses and
generally they can be classified into two categories: low pathogenic (LPAI) that
typically causes little or no clinical signs in birds and highly pathogenic (HPAI)
that can cause severe clinical signs and/or high mortality in birds (www.the
pigsite/com/pighealth). Nepal notified the first occurrence of HPAI H5N1 in
16/01/2009. So far, 62 countries/ territories reported the occurrence of HPAI virus
subtype H5N1.
(ii) Newcastle disease (ND) (OIE List A disease): Newcastle disease is also known
as Ranikhet disease in India (Sharma and Adlakha 2005). This disease is highly
contagious and can have high mortality rates. Chickens are highly susceptible and
economic losses can be significant (Spickler and Roth 2006). ND viruses are
classified in the serotype group avian paramyxovirus type 1 (APMV-1) in the
genus Rubulavirus, family Paramyxoviridae. There are 9 avian paramyxovirus
serotypes designated APMV-1 to APMV-9. Virus causes a world wide disease of
birds such as chickens, turkeys, guinea fowls, pheasants and pigeons.

(iii) Infectious bursal disease virus (OIE List B disease)

(iv) Infectious laryngeotracheitis virus (OIE List B disease)

577
(v) Infectious bronchitis virus (OIE List B disease)
(vi) Marek’s disease virus (OIE List B disease)
(vii) Chicken infectious anemia virus
(viii) Fowl pox (OIE List B disease)
(ix) Avian leucosis (OIE List C disease)
(x) Avian encephalomyelitis (OIE List C disease)

Almost all of the above listed avian diseases have been reported either
clinically or confirmed at the laboratory or both. These diseases have been causing
significant hurdles in the commercial poultry farms with poor biosecurity.

Emerging Viral Diseases having Higher Risks of Entering Nepal

• Nipah Virus • Hendra Virus

• West Nile Virus • Rift Valley Fever
• Ebola • African Horse sickness virus
• African Swine Fever • Equine Metritis Virus

Nipah virus: Nipah virus is an exotic zoonotic disease, caused by Paramyxovirus

in the genus Henipavirus, closely related to Hendra virus. Fruit bats or flying
foxes (Pteropus spp) are thought to be natural host or reservoirs. Transmission of
virus is through inhalation or ingestion of urine, saliva from infected pigs and
bats. Other species affected are cats, dogs, goats and horses. In pigs, the Nipah
virus causes rapid and labored breathing, an explosive and non-productive cough,
neurologic changes including lethargy or aggressive behavior, and sudden death.
In Malaysia, most human cases seemed to occur after close direct contact with the
excretions or secretions from an infected pig. The most common signs in humans
are fever, severe headache, myalgia, encephalitis, or meningitis. Approximately
half of all human cases seen to date have been fatal (Spickler and Roth 2006).

Hendra virus: Hendra virus is an emerging zoonotic disease caused by the Hendra
virus; a previously unknown virus placed in a new genus Henipavirus in the
family Paramyxoviridae. This disease has been found to date, only in Australia.
The disease appears to be spread from fruit bats and can cause fatal pneumonia in
horses and cats. Hendra can also spread to humans and has been fatal in 2 of 3
cases diagnosed (Spickler and Roth 2006).

Doj Raj Khanal and Rebati Man Shrestha

References
Annonymous. 2008. Annual Epidemiological Bulletin, January-December. Including Basic
Livestock Information of Nepal, Veterinary Epidemiology Centre, Directorate of
Animal Health, Tripureshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal.

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 Jha, V.C, K.S. Bista and K.K. Tamang. 2008. Bluetongue in sheep in Nepal. Veterinary
Record 162(9):288.
OIE. 2008. Terrestrial Manual. Office International des Epizooties, World Organization of
Animal Health.
Sharma, S.N. and S.C. Adlakha. 2005. Textbook of Veterinary Microbiology.
Spickler, A.R. and J.A. Roth (eds.). 2006. Emerging and Exotic Diseases of Animals. 3rd
edition, Iowa State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ames, Iowa, USA.
The Merck Veterinary Manual. 1998. Eighth Edition.
www.oie.int/eng/info/en_infold.htm?e1d5.
www.oie.int/eng/ressources/AI-EN.pdf.
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www.thepigsite.com/pighealth/article/142/porcine-reproductive-and-respiratory-syndrome-
prrs.

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