CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO TEXTILE PRINTING

1. Introduction

Colouration of textile materials involves the use of dyes and pigments of various classes, which are
applied to the materials by essentially different techniques of dyeing and printing.

The main objective in dyeing is the uniform colouration of the entire fabric with a primary, secondary or
tertiary colour with the production of the same shade on thousands of meters of the fabric without any
change either in tone or in depth and with adequate penetration with the dyestuffs inside the yarns and
fibres present in the fabric. This is usually achieved by moving the material in a stationary dyestuff
solution with or without subsequent squeezing, so as to facilitate the penetration of the dyestuff
solution across the thickness of the material (e.g., Jigger). By circulating the dyestuff solution through a
tightly or uniformly packed stationary material at atmospheric or elevated pressures (e.g., padding
mangle/Beam dyeing M/c.) or by moving a material in the circulating dyestuff solution (Jet dyeing M/c.).

The main objective in Textile printing is the production of attractive designs with well defined boundaries
made by the artistic arrangement of motif or motifs in one or more colours. In other words, dyes and
pigments are applied locally or discontinuously to produce the various designs. Therefore printing is
described as localized dyeing.

The forces which operate between the dye and fibre (mechanical retention, hydrogen bonding, chemical
reaction, electrostatic attraction etc.) are the same in dyeing and printing.

2. Differences between Dyeing and Printing

Dyeing Printing
1. Production of even dyeing (level dyeing) 1. Involves the deposition of a viscous paste
containing the dyestuffs, thickening agents and a
small amount of water on the surface of the fabric
and immediately dried to prevent any spreading
of the colour beyond the boundaries of the
design.
2. Fairly low concentrated, large volume of dye 2. Fairly high concentrated, dyestuff solution is
liquor is used. used.
3. Dyeing carried out more or less over prolonged 3. After dyeing, the entire amount of the dyestuff
period. Exhaustion of dyebath is controlled by the is present in the dried up thickener film placed on
manipulation of the temperature of dyebath. the fabric surface and can be washed out more or
less completely from the fabric surface by either
light rinsing or a through soaping.
The actual transfer of the dyestuff from the
thickener film into the fabric is carried out
subsequently in a hot and humid atmosphere
with or without pressure, usually in a short time.
This can be achieved by subjecting the printed
and dried goods to an atmosphere of steam at
100 to 102oC for 3 to 5 min.
4. Retarding/leveling agents or exhaustion agents 4. Special printing auxiliaries (solution aids and
are used to get economical dyeings in reasonably solvents) have to be incorporated.
short time.
5. The dyestuff molecules/aggregates have to 5. Dyestuff molecules travel a very short distance
travel a fairly large distance before they are before absorbed by the fibre surface.
absorbed by the fibre surface from the solution
phase.
6. Jiggers, winches and padding mangles as well 6. Blocks, Screens and rollers followed by
as beam dyeing machines. steamers.

The difference between dyeing and printing vanishes in some of the newer processes, in which a printed
effect is produced by using a padding mangle (essentially a dyeing technique/machine) with suitable
accessories.

Polychromatic dyeing (ICI): A number of jets of different dye liquors are separately directed onto a
moving cloth (using a padding mangle) and manipulating the directional flow of liquors, various
multicoloured, stylish (abstract) and geometrical like designs are produced.

Transfer Printing: The fabric in contact with paper which is already printed with suitable dyestuffs to
produce a multi-coloured design, is subjected to high temperature and pressure when the dyestuffs are
transferred (by sublimation, in a dry state) to the fabric from the paper. However, this method is
restricted to the application of disperse dyes to polyester, polyamide and acrylic fibre fabrics.

Speckle Printing: Tiny capsules containing dyestuffs (disperse dyestuffs) are applied to the fabric
(synthetic fibre fabric) either by printing or padding and the fabric is subjected to high temperature,
when the capsules burst and expose the dyestuffs which are then fixed in the fabric, thereby producing
tiny dots or specks.
3. Stages of Printing

Textile printing is carried out in various stages;

I. Preparation of the fabric
II. Preparation of the printing paste, preparation of roller, screen etc.
III. Printing the design
IV. Drying of the printed fabric
V. Steaming of the printed fabric and
VI. After-treatments

I. Preparation of cloth
Grey cloth as woven on a loom is quite unattractive and contains natural and added components, which
impart undesirable properties to the cloth and which hinder the successful carrying out of the
subsequent dyeing, printing and finishing processes.

Singeing: Singeing is a process carried out for removing (by burning) the loose hairy fibres projecting
from the surface of the cloth thus giving it a smooth appearance. Fabrics intended for printing and other
fabrics such as satins, sateen, poplins, handkerchiefs etc. are valued for their smooth appearance and
therefore, require to be singed. Goods, which are to be mercerized, are also singed in order to yield
maximum luster in the fabric. The need for singeing of fabric arises on account of the fact that some of
the fibres, which protrude from the surface of the yarn during spinning and from the surface of the cloth
during weaving, give it a fuzzy appearance.

Desizing: Grey cotton fabrics contain natural impurities as well as those added to the fabric such as size
to facilitate weaving. The very first operation of wet processing of fabrics therefore, is generally to
remove the added size. This operation of removal of size is known as desizing.

The purpose of desizing is to remove the starches used in sizing by converting them to water-soluble
degradation products such as dextrin’s and glucose without degrading the cellulose. Since the size
mixture contains other ingredients for which the starch acts as a binder, most of them are readily
released and removed when the starch is hydrolyzed and washed off. Desizing should be done uniformly.
The residual size on the fabric after desizing should be brought down to 0.2%. Grey fabrics are almost
water-repellent and will not easily take up the desizing solution. Moreover, starch, which is the main
ingredient in desizing, is not easily accessible to desizing chemicals or enzymes. The fabric is, therefore,
run through a bath of boiling water before desizing in order to swell the starch and also reduce antiseptic
agents used in sizing. The steeped fabric after a short time is then taken to the de-sizing bath.
The methods of desizing can be classified into;

1. Hydrolytic desizing viz. Rot steeping, acid steeping and enzyme steeping

2. Oxidative desizing viz. Treatments with chlorine, chlorite and bromite

Scouring: Grey yarn as such or grey cloth after desizing contains fats and waxes which hinder the
absorbency of the material leading to improper bleaching, dyeing, printing and finishing. These
impurities are, therefore, removed in the scouring process also called "kiering", "kier boiling", "boiling-
out" or "boiling". The main purpose of scouring is to remove natural as well as added impurities
essentially of water-repellent character as completely as possible and make the yarn or fabric highly
absorbent without damaging it and also to make the goods suitable for removing the natural colouring
matter of the cotton during the subsequent bleaching process.

Caustic soda even today is the most satisfactory agent for scouring operation. It is the most generally
employed chemical, though soda ash and sodium silicate are also extensively used. Mixtures of these
three are often used. In addition to this, kier-boiling assistants are also added to the scouring solution;
soap is used particularly for wetting-out but when a very thorough boiling-out is required, strongly
alkaline agent is necessary. Formerly slaked lime was extensively employed for boiling out cotton but its
use has rapidly given way to that of caustic soda.

The action of alkali is two fold viz.

1. Saponification and hydrolysis of fats and waxes together with break-down of pectins, proteins
etc. and,

2. Swelling of cellulose facilitating easier and quicker penetration of liquors.

During scouring, the saponifiable oils are converted into soaps, proteins are hydrolyzed into soluble
products, amino compounds are hydrolyzed and dissolved, pectins are converted into soluble pectates,
mineral matter is dissolved, unsaponifiable oils are emulsified and dirt particles are removed and held in
suspension. The temperature, pressure, composition of the liquor, duration of boiling etc. depend on the
nature of the goods being scoured. Coloured goods and finer goods require mild conditions of scouring
whereas coarser and medium quality grey goods require somewhat drastic conditions under pressure in
a kier.

Bleaching: The scouring process removes substantial quantities of wax and other impurities from cotton
and leaves the material in a very absorbent condition. But the natural colouring matter is still present in
the cloth (or yarn) and has a creamy appearance. In order to obtain white cloth and facilitate the
production of pale and bright shades, it is necessary to decolourise the natural colouring matter in the
yarn or cloth by a process known as bleaching or "chemicking". This is done in different ways e.g.,

1. By using dilute hypochlorite solution (Sodium hypochlorite or bleaching powder solution) at

room temperature usually under alkaline conditions,
2. By using hydrogen peroxide under alkaline conditions in the presence of stabilisers like
sodium silicate at 80 to 85oC,
3. By using sodium chlorite under acidic conditions at the boil or,
4. By using some peroxy compounds like peracetic acid.

An effective bleaching process must ensure a pure and permanent white, level dyeing properties and
that the fabric does not undergo chemical damage or degradation during bleaching. A control over the
concentration of the bleaching agent, the pH and temperature of the solution, the duration of bleaching,
the presence of catalysts like rust etc, on the cloth during bleaching should be controlled in order to
minimise or prevent any chemical damage of the cloth being bleached or wastage of the bleaching agent
by self-decomposition.

Souring: Since the bleaching is done in alkaline medium (pH 10 -11) the alkali which is present in the
material has to be neutralised with dilute mineral acid because any alkali in the fabric on drying may
concentrate and weaken the fabric. This treatment with dilute hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid is
referred to as souring. Another reason for souring is that during bleaching with calcium hypochlorite
solutions, calcium carbonate is formed and the greater part of it is deposited on the fabric or yarn from
which it is difficult to remove by washing with water. If these calcium deposits are allowed to remain on
the cotton, it acquires a harsh feel on drying. Hence dilute acid is employed to change the carbonate into
a soluble salt, which can be washed off with water.

During souring, especially with dilute hydrochloric acid, this carbonate is converted into soluble calcium
chloride, which then can be washed completely from the fabric. If sulphuric acid is used instead of
hydrochloric acid, sparingly soluble calcium sulphate is formed, which gets deposited on the fabric.
Therefore, hydrochloric acid is used in the souring of cloth bleached with bleaching powder solution.
When sodium hypochlorite is used for bleaching, the souring may be done by employing sulphuric acid
which produces sodium sulphate. This can be easily washed off. In either case, a final thorough rinse to
make the fabric free from the acid is absolutely necessary. As a precaution to ensure that no chlorine is
left in the goods an 'anti-chlor' treatment is given alternatively with dilute solution of sodium
thiosulphate or sodium bisulphite to remove any residual chlorine from the bleached fabric which is then
washed thoroughly.
II. Preparation of the Printing paste

The main objective in printing is to produce coloured designs in one or more colours with sharp
boundaries on textile materials, without any of the dyes spreading beyond the boundaries of the design.
In order to achieve this, a concentrated dye solution has to be prepared with minimum water and
thickened with a suitable thickening agent, such as starch, gum etc., special solution aids or solvents
should be used in the printing paste preparation.

A hygroscopic agent like glycerine, urea etc., is also included in the paste so as to provide the necessary
amount of moisture during the next step of steaming. Reducing agents, oxidizing agents, acids or acid
liberating agents, alkali or alkali liberating agents, catalysts, fibre-swelling agents etc., are some of the
ingredients used.

All these are not used in single printing paste but depending on the class of the dye being printed and
the styles of printing selected, different ingredients are used.

Thickening agents

1. Temporary Thickeners: Which acts as a vehicle for the dye and after the dye is transferred to the
fabric the thickener is washed off from the fabric completely i.e., starches, gums.

2. Permanent Thickeners: The one which also acts as a vehicle for dye, but is retained in the fabric
and forms the integral part of the final print e.g., synthetic resins, binders, albumin etc.

Before the printing paste is prepared, the thickener is soaked in water and slurry is made. This is then
boiled while continuously stirring, when the starch granules swell, burst and finally form a smooth paste,
usually 6% starch paste give fairly viscous thickening, suitable for use in the printing paste preparation.
CMC and sodium alginate are water-soluble thickeners.

While preparing the printing paste, the required dyes and chemicals are dissolved in minimum quantities
of water, the thickener paste added and the whole stirred vigourously to produce a uniform paste. This is
then filtered (strained) through a fine cloth, remove any undissolved or solid material remained.

4. Methods of Printing

Based on the machine used to print the fabric there are various methods of printing. Methods are used
just to transfer the design on the fabric.
1. Block Printing
2. Screen Printing
3. Roller or Machine Printing etc.
After the printed cloth leaves the machine, it is passed without contact over a series of hollow plates,
which are steam heated, to dry the cloth. This drying is essential to prevent any spreading of the colour
beyond the boundaries of the design. Depending on the class of the dye and style of printing employed,
the printed and dried cloth is steamed immediately or after sometime.

V. Steaming

When the cloth is printed and dried, the dye is not actually transferred into the cloth; only a thin dried
film containing dye and other chemicals is mechanically deposited on the cloth surface. In order to bring
about the transfer of the dye into the fabric as much as possible, steaming is carried out, in which the
printed and dried cloth is exposed to the action of moist, saturated or superheated steam at
atmospheric or higher pressure over a range of temperatures for various periods. It can be done either
batchwise or continuously.

As soon as the printed cloth enters the steaming chamber, steam condenses into water, which is then
absorbed by the dry thickener film present on the cloth surface. The hygroscopic agent present aids the
absorption of water therein. The dyes and chemicals dissolve in this water, which is in very small
quantities. As a result, a very concentrated dye solution is formed within the thickener film. In the
meantime, the temperature of the cloth reaches 95 to 100 oC (if steamer is kept at 100 to 105 oC) and due
to the high temperature and high concentration of the dye (both of which increase the rate of dyeing)
the dye from the thickener film is rapidly transferred to the cloth and very little or no dye remains in the
film (the film gets exhausted).

VI. After-treatments

When the printed cloth leaves the steaming chamber, it contains the exhausted thickener film along with
certain chemicals dispersed in it. They should be washed out without affecting the dye, which is already
transferred into cloth.

In case of direct dye: cold rinsing should be done

In case of azoic and vat dyes: soaping can be done
In case of vat prints: oxidation treatment should be given before soaping

In the case of reactive dye, hydrolysed reactive dye tint the white ground during soaping treatment, as it
bleeds into the soaping bath.
5. Styles of Printing

Based on the manner in which a particular design effect is created on the fabric, there are 3 basic styles
of printing;

Direct Style: (conventional, transfer, polychromatic, speckle, foam, vigoureaux)

Discharge Style: White and coloured (illuminated)
Resist Style: White and coloured (illuminated)

Direct Style

This style involves direct application of colour to the fabric in the form of a paste containing the
colouring matter, thickener or binder and other required ingredients. After printing and drying, the
colour is fixed by steaming or curing or thermo-fixing or treatment with chemicals.

Discharge Style

This involves uniform dyeing of fabric by any of the conventional dyeing methods, followed by drying and
printing a thickened solution of an oxidizing agent (potassium or sodium chlorate) or reducing agent
(Rongolite C – sodium sulphoxylate formaldehyde) or formosul G.

Resist Style

This style is applicable to dyes, which are dyed on the fabric by two or more separate chemical
processes.

First certain dye-producing substances (e.g., naphthols, solubilized vat dyes, aniline hydrochloride etc.)
are uniformly applied on the fabric by padding. This is followed by drying and printing thickened solution
of certain other chemicals (acids or alkalies and oxidizing or reducing agents), which counteract the
subsequent developing conditions to which the whole cloth is subjected.