Traditional file processing

- A number of characteristics distinguish the database

approach from the traditional approach of
programming with files.
In traditional file processing, each user defines and
implements the files needed for a specific application
as part of programming the application.
For example, one user, the grade reporting office, may
keep a file on students and their grades. Programs to
print a student's transcript and to enter new grades
into the file are implemented. A second user, the
accounting office, may keep track of students' fees and
their payments
 Characteristics of the Database
Approach
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, - - - - - - - - - - -..,.,----,-._- - - - ,
1. Self-Describing Nature of a Database System

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Database system contains not only t he database itself but also a complete
definition or description of the database structure and constraints. This
definition is stored in the system catalog, which contains information such
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:;;.,- as the structure of each file, the type and storage format of each data
item, and various constraints on the data. The Information stored in the
catalog is called meta-data, and it describes the structure of the primary
database. The catalog is used by the DBMS software and also by database
users who need information about the database structure.
- In traditional file processing, data definition is typically part of the
application programs themselves. Hence, these programs are constrained
to work with only one specific database, whose structure is declared in the
application programs.
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 Characteristics of the Database Approach
2. Insulation between Programs and Data, and Data Abstraction

• In traditional file processing, the structure of data files is embedded in the access programs, so any changes to
the structure of a file may require changing all programs that access this file. By contrast, DBMS access
programs do not require such changes in most cases. The structure of data files is stored in the DBMS catalog
separately from the access programs. We call this property program-data independence. For example, a file
access program may be written in such a way that it can access only STUDENT records of the structure.
• In object-oriented and object-relationa l databases, users can define operations on data as part of the database
definitions. An operation (also called a function) is specified in two parts.
1. The interface (or signature) of an operation includes the operation name and the data types of its
argument s (or parameters).
2. The implementation (or method) of the operation is specified separately and can be changed without
affecting t he interface. User application programs can operate on the data by invoking these operations through
their names and arguments, regardless of how the operations are implemented. This may be termed program-
operation independence.
The characteristic that allows program-data independence and program-operation independence is called data
abstraction.
 Characte1liistics of the Database App1~oacl1
3 Support of Multiple Vlews of the Data

A database typicaJly has many usersJJ each of wh.01m may req ui're a diffie mnt perspective or
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view of the database. A view may be a subset of the database or it may 100:ntain virtual data
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that is deriverd from the dablba 5e files but i5 not e,xpliicitl Vstared. A multiuser DBMS whose
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usJers have a1variety af ap plications must provide ra cilities ·fo1r defining multiple views. For
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exam1pie, one user of the database 01 may be 1interrested only i1n the trans cript of each ,s tudent
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A secend user, who is interested! onty in1checkiling that students have taken all the prerequisite~
1o f each cou1rse they register for, may require different v ie,w.
Cha1,acte1·istics of tl1e Database App1~oacl1
4 . Sharing of Data and Multiuser Transaction Processing

A multius.er DBMS must a lJow multiple users ro access the

database at the same time. The DB MS must include
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conr;urrency cont1roi software ta ensure 1hat several users

1rying to upda,e the same data do so, in a controlled
mal'lner so that the resu~ t cf the upd-ate-s is oorrect. For
example. when severa l reservation de,rk.s rry [O a,iSign a
seal on an airline flight, the DBMS should ensure that
each sear ran be accessed by □ n lly ane clerk at a rime for
a~signm@nt to 3 paSisengeir. These type5i of application.s are
generally caUed on-line tra nsaction processing (OLTP)
applications. A fund a menta I role of multiU1ser D8M5
software 1s lo ensure that concurrent transactions operate
correctly.
 Advantages ofUls ing a DBMS
1~ Controllling Redundancy

- In traditranal sch.ware deve~opment uti11:zing flle processing, every user group maintains Its
own fH~s fer handling its data-processing appl ~cations .. This redundancy in storing the same
data mu1tipl e times leads to severall J)roblems.
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1. Duplication of effort..
2. Storage ~ace is Wasted when the same data is stored repeatedly1 and this problem may be
s1erf0us for large databases.

3. ThirdJ files that represent the same data may became in consistent. This may hr.1ppen b'3cause
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lied to some ofr the files but not to other".s.

,~ s. Nieeta Georphi n ,.J ·• • •
 - .2 Restricting Unauthorized Access
- Wliien multiple 1J5ers 5hare a database, it is li1kely that some users will not be
authorized to access all iniarmation 1rn the database. For exam pie, financi1a 1 da,ta 1is
often co nsidered eanfidentia~., and hence on1l'y authorized persons are ,a llo,wed to
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access such data.

- Im addition~ some users may: be permitted only to retrieve data, whereas others are
allHwed both to retd eve ;and to update. Hlence, the type of access opera1tian-
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retrleua~ or update-must alls,o be controUed.

- Ty~icaUy, users or user groups are 1g iven 1accournt numbers protected by passwords,
which they can use to gain access to the database. A DBMS should prov'i de a security
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and authorization subsystem~ which the OBA us,e s ta creat e accounts and lo specify
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[ ~w~ns.
- 3 Prmviding P1
ersistent Storage for Pragram1Objects an1d Data Structures

- Databases can ~2 used to provtae 1µ ersh.tent storage rar program alijects ana da~a s.tructures. This ~s one o,f the
matn r~asons f0r the emergence of the object~riented database systems..
- Tlhe va1ue·s of. program varfables are di5'Carded oinre a program terminates, unless the programmer explicitl'i; stores
them In permanent files.
- ObJect...c rle11ted database systems are compatible with programming languages su.ch as C++ and JAVA. and the
DBMS software autornatlcally performs any necessary co11verslons.

- A complex object In c~ ~ can be stored p1?irmanent1v In an obJect•0rlcn ted DBMS, !iuch iln object Is silitl to be
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pet slsLenL s,r1ce 1l surv~ves the te1mlnatlon a,f l'UOf.narn execuricn nnd can later be directlv H::h fevea by another
C++ program. The per~lstenl storage of program objects and daita structura,;:s is an lm~u,rtiil nl function of database
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system ~. Trmditmnal database 5Y!itern~ often Siufi-ere:d fram 1he so-rallled impedance m1!imatch prob1em, ,slnf:e the
da1ta strur=t1.11res prcivlded by the DB MS were i1ncompatlble with the J]rogrammTng language•s data structures.
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M•111Gl-oNel'IIIIG-illll•111rat'5 tem& 1-yplcallly offer data structure compatibi1Uty ""ilh

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one or mere object•oriented
 4.Pe1 mitting lnfe1·enci11g and Actio11s Using Ru1les
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Some d.ptabase sy5tems provide carJablUtie.s for defl11lng deducti □ n rules fD'r irrterendng new lnformat1on
from the 5:toried database racts. Suc:h sy5tems are cal led deduruvei database systems.
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- ~r example, rhcu11 may be compleJC rules in 1he mln~worl d appHcatron for del~rmlnlmg when a 5tudint 1s
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on prrobatlorn. lhese iran be spedfted declaratively as rules~ which when compiled and maintained by Lhe
DBMS ,:,an detieir mine aU students on probatilln.
.... In a trddltlonal DBMS, ~11 exp11dt prccecjural praura1rr, code wculd have t,o be written to supl!Jcrt 5uch
appllcatlons, But if the miniworld rures change, It Is, generally more ccnvenlent to rhange the ~eclared
deduction rules th41n to recode procedur:al programs. More [Powerful functic11alltv is provided by actiMe
database systems, which prtn1•de t1ctive rules that can autamati[~Uv lnitfate actions.

Ms. J;J,eeta Geor hin J • • •

 5. Providing multiple user interfaces

- Because many types of users with varying levels of technical knowledge use a
database, a DBMS should provide a variety of user interfaces. These include
query languages for casual users; programming language interfaces for
application programmers; forms and command codes for parametric users;
and menu-driven interfaces and natural language interfaces for stand-alone
users.
- Both forms-style interfaces and menu-driven interfaces are commonly known
as graphical user interfaces (GUls).