Unit 1: The Database Environment

Topic 1: Basic Concepts and Terminologies

Data vs. Information
- Data
o meaningful facts, text, graphics, images, sound, video segments
o the foundation of information, which is the bedrock of knowledge
o building blocks of information
- Raw data
o must be formatted for storage, processing and presentation
- Information
o the result of processing raw data to reveal its meaning
o It requires context to reveal meaning
o produces by processing data
o used to revel meaning is the key to good decision making
 Good decision making is the key to organizational survival
 Data management: focuses on proper generation, storage and retrieval
of data.
- Metadata
o data that describes data
o data that describe the properties or characteristics of other data

Introducing the database

- Database
o shared, integrated computer structure that stored a collection of:
o End-user data: raw facts of interest to end user
o Metadata: data that describes data
- DBMS
o (Database Management System)
o software package that stores and manage databases
o Manages structure and controls access to data
- DBMS Architecture
 The design of a DBMS depends on its architecture. It can be:
o centralized or decentralized or hierarchical
 The architecture of a DBMS can be seen as either single tier or multi-tier.
An n-tier architecture divides the whole system into related but
independent n modules, which can be independently modified, altered,
changed, or replaced
o 1-tier architecture
 o DBMS is the only entity where the user directly sits on the
DBMS and uses it. Any changes done here will directly be
done on the DBMS itself. It does not provide handy tools
for end-users. Database designers and programmers
normally prefer to use single-tier architecture.
o 2-tier architecture
o It must have an application through which the DBMS can
be accessed. Programmers use 2-tier architecture where
they access the DBMS by means of an application. Here
the application tier is entirely independent of the database
in terms of operation, design, and programming.
o 3-tier Architecture
o A 3-tier architecture separates its tiers from each other
based on the complexity of the users and how they use the
data present in the database. It is the most widely used
architecture to design a DBMS.

1. Database (Data) Tier

o At this tier, the database resides along with its query processing languages. We
also have the relations that define the data and their constraints at this level.
2. Application (Middle) Tier
o At this tier reside the application server and the programs that access the
database. For a user, this application tier presents an abstracted view of the
database.
o End-users are unaware of any existence of the database beyond the application.
o At the other end, the database tier is not aware of any other user beyond the
application tier.
 o The application layer sits in the middle and acts as a mediator between the end-
user and the database.
3. User (Presentation) Tier
o End-users operate on this tier and they know nothing about any existence of the
database beyond this layer.
o At this layer, multiple views of the database can be provided by the application
o All views are generated by applications that reside in the application tier

 Multiple-tier database architecture

 is highly modifiable, as almost all its components are independent and
can be changed independently
Database Schema
- the skeleton structure that represents the logical view of the entire database
- defines how the data is organized and how the relations among them are associated
- It formulates all the constraints that are to be applied on the data
- defines its entities and the relationship among them
- It contains a descriptive detail of the database, which can be depicted by means of
schema diagrams
- The database designers design the schema to help programmers understand the
database and make it useful.
- A database schema can be divided broadly into two categories –
o Physical Database Schema
 This schema pertains to the actual storage of data and its form of storage
like files, indices, etc.
 It defines how the data will be stored in a secondary storage.
o Logical Database Schema
 This schema defines all the logical constraints that need to be applied on
the data stored
 It defines tables, views, and integrity constraints
Database Instance
- a state of operational database with data at any given time
- It contains a snapshot of the database
- Database instances tend to change with time
- A DBMS ensures that its every instance (state) is in a valid state, by diligently following
all the validations, constraints, and conditions that the database designers have
imposed.
DBMS-Data Independence
- If a database system is not multi-layered, then it becomes difficult to make any changes
in the database system. Database systems are designed in multi-layers as we learnt
earlier

- Logical Data Independence

o a kind of mechanism, which liberalizes itself from actual data stored on the disk,
If we do some changes on table format, it should not change the data residing on
the disk
o Logical data is data about database, that is, it stores information about how data
is managed inside
o For example, a table (relation) stored in the database and all its constraints,
applied on that relation
- Physical Data Independence
o the power to change the physical data without impacting the schema or logical
data
o All the schemas are logical, and the actual data is stored in bit format on the
disk.
o For example, in case we want to change or upgrade the storage system itself −
suppose we want to replace hard disks with SSD - it should not have any impact
on the logical data or schemas
Topic 2: Traditional File Processing vs. Database Approach
Traditional File Processing vs. Database Approach
What is A File Processing System?
- a method for storing and organizing computer files and the data they contain to make it
easy to find and access them
- may use a storage device such as a hard disk or CD-ROM and involve maintaining the
physical location of the files
Traditional approach
- Focuses on data processing needs of individual department in an organization without
considering the organization as a whole. Each computer application typically designed
with its own set of data file and application programs to meet the information
requirements of particular department or a user group.
Database approach
- Overcomes the limitation of file-oriented system by supporting an integrated,
centralized data structure, which allows to sharing database by different applications.
Traditional File System
- Data were stored and processed using a traditional file system and it makes it easy to
find any information.
- each file is independent of other file and data in the different file can be integrated only
by writing an individual program for each application
- Components of Traditional File System
o Hardware
o Software
o Data manager
o DB Engine
o User
o Data
o Database
o Database access language
o Server
o Run Time Manager
- Applications of Traditional File System
o The application is developed for a specific purpose and they will access the
database only.
- Uses of Traditional File System
o Language-specific run-time libraries
o User programs use file system APIs to make requests of the file system
o Data transfer
o Positioning
o Updating metadata
o Managing directories
o Managing access specifications
o Removal
- Advantages of Traditional File System
o Simple to use.
o Less complex.
o Minimal investment (Not make the investment in software because it allows us
to transport files from one to another computer)
o No requirement of the specialist.
- Disadvantages of Traditional File System
o Data redundancy (Each application has its own data file so, same data may have
to be recorded and stored in many times).
o Data inconsistency (Due to the same data items that appear in more than one
file do not get updated simultaneously in each and every file).
 o Data dependence (Program and application in the file processing system are data
dependent but, the problem is incompatible with file format).
o Limited data sharing.
o The problem with security.
o Retrieval (retrieval is not easy).
o Time-consuming.
o Inefficient to maintain the record of the big firm having a large number of items.
o Required Lots of labor work to do.

Topic 3: The Range of Advanced Database Application

The range of database application:
- The range of database application can be divided into four categories from simplest
to most complex
1. Personal Computer Database
o Personal computer (PC) databases are designed to support one
user with a standalone personal computer
o for example: a desktop or a laptop
2. Workgroup Databases
o A workgroup is a relatively small team of people who collaborate
on the same project or application.
o A workgroup typically comprise fewer than 25 persons.
o designed to support the collaborative efforts of such a team
o Each member of the workgroup has a desktop computer and the
computers are linked by means of Local Area Network (LAN).
o The database is stored on a central device called the database
server. Thus each member of the workgroup has access to the
shared data.
3. Department Database
o A department is a functional unit within an organization. Typical
examples of departments are personnel, marketing,
manufacturing & accounting.
o A department is generally larger than a workgroup (typically
between 25 & 100 persons)
o Department databases are designed to support the various
functions & activities of a department
 4. Enterprise Database
o The scope is the entire organization or enterprise. Such databases
are extended to support organization-wide operation and decision
making
o Arguably the most important type of enterprise database. Today
is called a data warehouse
o A data warehouse is an integrated decision support
database whose content is derived from the various
operational databases (such personal computer
workgroup & department databases)
Database System Application:
- Databases are widely used. Some representative applications are as follows:
o Banking: For customer information, accounts, loans and banking transaction.
o Airlines: For reservations schedules information.
o Universities: For student information, course, registration and results with
grades.
o Credit Card Transaction: For purchases on credit cards and generation of
monthly statements.
o Telecommunication: For keeping records of calls made, generating monthly bills,
maintaining balances on prepaid calling cards and storing information about the
communication networks.
o Finance: For storing information about holdings, sales, purchases of financial
instruments such as stocks and bonds; also for storing real time market data to
enable online trading by customers and automated trading by the firm.
o Sales: For customer, product and purchase information.
o Online Retailers: For sales data noted above plus online order tracking,
generation of recommendation lists and maintenance of online product
evaluations.
o Manufacturing: For management of the supply chain and tracking production of
items in factories, inventories of items in warehouse and stores and orders for
items.
o Human Resources: For information about employees, salaries, payroll taxes,
benefits and for generation of pay checks
Topic 4: Components of Database Environment
What is a Database Management System (or DBMS)?
- a technology tool that directly supports data management
- a package designed to define, manipulate, and manage data in a database
- Some general functions of a DBMS:
o Designed to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, and administration
of databases
o Define rules to validate the data and relieve users of framing programs for data
maintenance
o Convert an existing database, or archive a large and growing one
o Run business applications, which perform the tasks of managing business
processes, interacting with end-users and other applications, to capture and
analyze data
o Some well-known DBMSs are:
 Microsoft SQL Server, Microsoft Access, Oracle, SAP, and others.
- Components of DBMS
o Software
 This is the set of programs used to control and manage the overall
database.
 This includes the DBMS software itself, the Operating System, the
network software being used to share the data among users, and the
application programs used to access data in the DBMS.
o Hardware
 Consists of a set of physical electronic devices such as computers, I/O
devices, storage devices, etc.,
 provides the interface between computers and the real world systems
o Data
 DBMS exists to collect, store, process and access data, the most
important component. The database contains both the actual or
operational data and the metadata.
o Procedures
 These are the instructions and rules that assist on how to use the DBMS,
and in designing and running the database, using documented
procedures, to guide the users that operate and manage it
o Database Access Language
 This is used to access the data to and from the database, to enter new
data, update existing data, or retrieve required data from databases
  The user writes a set of appropriate commands in a database access
language, submits these to the DBMS, which then processes the data and
generates and displays a set of results into a user readable form.
o Query Processor
 This transforms the user queries into a series of low level instructions
 This reads the online user’s query and translates it into an efficient series
of operations in a form capable of being sent to the run time data
manager for execution
o Run Time Database Manager
 Sometimes referred to as the database control system
 the central software component of the DBMS that interfaces with user-
submitted application programs and queries, and handles database
access at run time
 Its function is to convert operations in user’s queries. It provides control
to maintain the consistency, integrity and security of the data
o Data Manager
 Also called the cache manger
 Responsible for handling of data in the database, providing a recovery to
the system that allows it to recover the data after a failure.
o Database Engine
 The core service for storing, processing, and securing data, this provides
controlled access and rapid transaction processing to address the
requirements of the most demanding data consuming applications
 It is often used to create relational databases for online transaction
processing or online analytical processing data
o Data Dictionary
 This is a reserved space within a database used to store information
about the database itself. A data dictionary is a set of read-only table and
views, containing the different information about the data used in the
enterprise to ensure that database representation of the data follow one
standard as defined in the dictionary.
o Report Writer
 Also referred to as the report generator
 A program that extracts information from one or more files and presents
the information in a specified format
 Most report writers allow the user to select records that meet certain
conditions and to display selected fields in rows and columns, or also
format the data into different charts.
Topic 5: Advantages and Disadvantages of Database Processing
Roles and Advantages of the DBMS
- Roles:
o DBMS is the intermediary between the user and the database
o Database structure stored as file collection
o Can only access files through the DBMS
o DBMS enables data to be shared
o DBMS integrates many users’ views of the data
- Advantages:
o End users have better access to more and better-managed data
 Improved data sharing
 Improved data security
 Better data integration
 Minimized data inconsistency
 Improved data access, thereby producing quick answers to ad hoc
queries
 Improved decision making
 Increase end-user productivity
Advantages of database processing system:
1. Backup:
o It is possible to take faster and automatic back up of database stored in files of
computer-based systems.
o computer systems provide functionalities to serve this purpose , it is also
possible to develop specific application program for this purpose
2. Compactness:
o It is possible to store data compactly.
3. Data Retrieval:
o Computer-based systems provide enhanced data retrieval techniques to retrieve
data stored in files in easy and efficient way.
4. Editing:
o It is easy to edit any information stored in computers in form of files.
o Specific application programs or editing software can be used for this purpose
5. Remote Access:
o In computer-based systems, it is possible to access data remotely.
 o so, to access data it is not necessary for a user to remain present at location
where these data are kept.
6. Sharing:
o Data stored in files of computer-based systems ca be shared

Disadvantages of database processing system:

1. Data Redundancy:
o It is possible that the same information may be duplicated in different files, this
leads to data redundancy results in memory wastage
2. Data Inconsistency:
o Because of data redundancy, it is possible that data may not be in consistent
state
3. Difficulty in Accessing Data:
o Accessing data is not convenient and efficient in file processing system
4. Limited Data Sharing:
o Data are scattered in various files. also different files may have different formats
and these files may be stored in different folders may be of different department
o So, due to this data isolation, it is difficult to share data among different
applications
5. Integrity Problems:
o Data integrity means that the data contained in the database in both correct and
consistent for this purpose the data stored in database must satisfy correct and
constraints.
6. Atomicity Problems:
o Any operation on database must be atomic.
o this means, it must happen in its entirely or not at all
7. Concurrent Access Anomalies:
o Multiple users are allowed to access data simultaneously this is for the sake of
better performance and faster response
8. Security Problems:
o Database should be accessible to users in limited way
o Each user should be allowed to access data concerning his requirements only

Unit 2: The Development Process

Topic 1: Database within Information Systems Development
The Information System
- Database
 o a carefully designed and constructed repository of facts
o a part of a larger whole known as an information system, which provides for data
collection, storage, and retrieval.

- information system
o facilitates the transformation of data into information, and it allows for the
management of both data and information
o complete information system is composed of people, hardware, software, the
database(s), application programs, and procedures
o One key characteristics of current information systems is the strategic value of
information in the age of global business and should always be aligned with the
strategic business goals
o Current information systems should always be integrated with the company’s
enterprise-wide information systems architecture
- System analysis
o the process that establishes the need for and the extent of an information
system
- Systems development
o The process of creating an information system
- Performance of Information system depends on three factors:
o Database design and implementation
o Application design and implementation
o Administrative procedures
- Database development
o describes the process of database design and implementation
o The primary objective in database design is to create complete, normalized,
non-redundant (to the extent possible), and fully integrated conceptual, logical,
and physical database models
The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
- Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
o Traces the history (life cycle) of an information system. Perhaps more important
to the system designer
o provides the big picture within the database design and application development
can be mapped out and evaluated
o the traditional SDLC is divided into five phases:
 planning
 analysis
 detailed systems design
  implementation
 maintenance

Phase 1. PLANNING
- yields a general overview of the company and its objectives
- An initial assessment of the information flow-and-extent requirements must be made
during this discovery portion of the SDLC
Phase 2: ANALYSIS
- Problems defined during the planning phase are examined in greater detail during the
analysis phase
- A macro analysis must be made of both individual needs and organizational needs
- The result of analysis should be a better understanding of the system’s functional areas,
actual and potential problems, and opportunities
- analysis phase also includes the creation of a logical systems design
 o The logical design must specify the appropriate conceptual data model, inputs,
processes, and expected output requirements
Phase 3: DETAILED SYSTEMS DESIGN
- the designer completes the design of the system’s processes
- The design includes all the necessary technical specifications for the screens, menus,
reports, and other devices that might be used to help make the system a more efficient
information generator.
Phase 4: IMPLEMENTATION
- the hardware, DBMS software, and application programs are installed, and the database
design is implemented
- During the initial stages of the implementation phase, the system enters into a cycle of
coding, testing, and debugging until it is ready to be delivered
- actual database is created
Phase 5: MAINTENANCE
- Almost as soon as the system is operational, end users begin to request changes in it.
Those changes generate system maintenance activities, which can be grouped into
three types:
o Corrective maintenance in response to systems errors
o Adaptive maintenance due to changes in the business environment
o Perfective maintenance to enhance the system
o Computer-aided systems engineering (CASE) tools
 such as System Architect or Visio Professional, helps make it possible to
produce better systems within a reasonable amount of time and at a
reasonable cost
Topic 2: Database Development Process
The Database Life Cycle (DBLC)
- The Database Life Cycle (DBLC) contains six phases:
o database initial study
o database design
o implementation and loading,
o testing and evaluation
o operation
o maintenance and evolution
Phase 1: THE DATABASE INITIAL STUDY
- The overall purpose of the database initial study is to:
o Analyze the company situation
 The company situation describes the general conditions in which a
company operates, its organizational structure, and its mission
o Define problems and constraints
 The designer has both formal and informal sources of information. If the
company has existed for any length of time, it already has some kind of
system in place (either manual or computer-based).
o Define objectives
 A proposed database system must be designed to help solve at least the
major problems identified during the problem discovery process
o Define scope and boundaries
 The system’s scope defines the extent of the design according to
operational requirements
  The proposed system is also subject to limits known as boundaries, which
are external to the system.

Phase 2: DATABASE DESIGN

- focuses on the design of the database model that will support company operations and
objectives
- This is arguably the most critical DBLC phase: making sure that the final product meets
user and system requirements.
- you must concentrate on the data characteristics required to build the database model
- there are four essential stages:
o conceptual, logical, and physical design, plus the DBMS selection stage
Phase 3: IMPLEMENTATION AND LOADING

- The output of the database design phase is a series of instructions detailing the creation of
tables, attributes, domains, views, indexes, security constraints, and storage and performance
guidelines. In this phase, you actually implement all these design specifications.
a. Install the DBMS
 Virtualization is a technique that creates logical representations of computing
resources that are independent of the underlying physical computing resources.
 This technique is used in many areas of computing such as the creation of virtual
servers, virtual storage, and virtual private networks
b. Create the Database(s)
 In most modern relational DBMSs, a new database implementation requires the
creation of special storage-related constructs to house the end-user tables. The
constructs usually include the storage group (or file groups), the table spaces,
and the tables.
c. Load or Convert the Data
 After the database has been created, the data must be loaded into the database
tables. Typically, the data will have to be migrated from the prior version of the
system

Phase 4: TESTING AND EVALUATION

- This phase occurs in conjunction with applications programming. Programmers use database
tools to prototype the applications during the coding of the programs.
o Test the database
 In database testing you must you must test the following:
o Physical security allows only authorized personnel physical access
to specific areas
 o Password security allows the assignment of access rights to
specific authorized users and is usually enforced at login time at
the operating system level
o Access rights can be established through the use of database
software.
o Audit trails are usually provided by the DBMS to check for access
violations. Although the audit trail is an after-the-fact device, its
mere existence can discourage unauthorized use.
o Data encryption can be used to render data useless to
unauthorized users who might have violated some of the
database security layers
o Diskless workstations allow end users to access the database
without being able to download the information from their
workstations
o Fine-Tune the Database
 Different systems will place different performance requirements on the
database
 Many factors can impact the database’s performance on various tasks
 Environmental factors, such as the hardware and software environment
in which the database exists, can have a significant impact on database
performance
o Evaluate the Database and Its Application Programs:
 Testing and evaluation of the individual components should culminate in
a variety of broader system tests to ensure that all of the components
interact properly to meet the needs of the users.
 To ensure that the data contained in the database are protected against
loss, backup and recovery plans are tested.
 Database backups can be performed at different levels:
o A full backup of the database, or dump of the entire database. In
this case, all database objects are backed up in their entirety
o A differential backup of the database, in which only the last
o modifications to the database (when compared with a previous
full backup copy) are copied. In this case, only the objects that
have been updated since the last full backup are backed up.
o A transaction log backup, which backs up only the transaction log
operations that are not reflected in a previous backup copy of the
database. In this case, only the transaction log is backed up; no
other database objects are backed up.
PHASE 6: MAINTENANCE AND EVOLUTION
 - The database administrator must be prepared to perform routine maintenance activities
within the database. Some of the required periodic maintenance activities include:
o Preventive maintenance (backup).
o Corrective maintenance (recovery).
o Adaptive maintenance (enhancing performance, adding entities and attributes,
and so on).
o Assignment of access permissions and their maintenance for new and old users.
o Generation of database access statistics to improve the efficiency and
usefulness of system audits and to monitor system performance.
o Periodic security audits based on the system-generated statistics.
o Periodic (monthly, quarterly, or yearly) system-usage summaries for internal
billing or budgeting purposes.
The Database Development Process
Software Development Life Cycle – Waterfall
Waterfall Model
- shows the process as a strict sequence of steps where the output of one step is the
input to the next and all of one step has to be completed before moving onto the next
- We can use the waterfall process as a means of identifying the tasks that are required,
together with the input and output for each activity. What is important is the scope of
the activities, which can be summarized as follows:
o Establishing requirements involves consultation with, and agreement among,
stakeholders about what they want from a system, expressed as a statement of
requirements.
o Analysis starts by considering the statement of requirements and finishes by
producing a system specification. The specification is a formal representation of
what a system should do, expressed in terms that are independent of how it may
be realized
o Design begins with a system specification, produces design documents and
provides a detailed description of how a system should be constructed
o Implementation is the construction of a computer system according to a given
design document and taking into account the environment in which the system
will be operating (e.g., specific hardware or software available for the
development). Implementation may be staged, usually with an initial system that
can be validated and tested before a final system is released for use.
o Testing compares the implemented system against the design documents and
requirements specification and produces an acceptance report or, more usually,
a list of errors and bugs that require a review of the analysis, design and
 implementation processes to correct (testing is usually the task that leads to the
waterfall model iterating through the life cycle).
o Maintenance involves dealing with changes in the requirements or the
implementation environment, bug fixing or porting of the system to new
environments (e.g., migrating a system from a standalone PC to a UNIX
workstation or a networked environment). Since maintenance involves the
analysis of the changes required, design of a solution, implementation and
testing of that solution over the lifetime of a maintained software system, the
waterfall life cycle will be repeatedly revisited
Database Life Cycle - Waterfall
We can use the waterfall cycle as the basis for a model of database development that
incorporates three assumptions:
1. We can separate the development of a database – that is, specification and creation of
a schema to define data in a database – from the user processes that make use of the
database.
2. We can use the three-schema architecture as a basis for distinguishing the activities
associated with a schema.
3. We can represent the constraints to enforce the semantics of the data once within a
database, rather than within every user process that uses the data

Requirements Gathering
- The first step is requirements gathering where the database designers have to interview
the customers (database users) to understand the proposed system and obtain and
document the data and functional requirements.
- The result of this step is a document that includes the detailed requirements provided
by the users.
- Establishing requirements involves consultation with, and agreement among all the
users as to what persistent data they want to store along with an agreement as to the
meaning and interpretation of the data elements.
- The data administrator plays a key role in this process as they overview the business,
legal and ethical issues within the organization that impact on the data requirements
- The data requirements document is used to confirm the understanding of requirements
with users. To make sure that it is easily understood, it should not be overly formal or
highly encoded. The document should give a concise summary of all users’
requirements – not just a collection of individuals’ requirements – as the intention is to
develop a single shared database.
- The requirements should not describe how the data is to be processed, but rather what
the data items are, what attributes they have, what constraints apply and the
relationships that hold between the data items
Analysis
- Data analysis begins with the statement of data requirements and then produces a
conceptual data model.
- The aim of analysis is to obtain a detailed description of the data that will suit user
requirements so that both high and low level properties of data and their use are dealt
with
- The conceptual data model
o provides a shared, formal representation of what is being communicated
between clients and developers during database development it is focused on
the data in a database, irrespective of the eventual use of that data in user
processes or implementation of the data in specific computer environments.
o concerned with the meaning and structure of data, but not with the details
affecting how they are implemented.
o a formal representation of what data a database should contain and the
constraints the data must satisfy. This should be expressed in terms that are
independent of how the model may be implemented.
- As a result, analysis focuses on the questions, “What is required?” not “How is it
achieved?”
Logical Design
- Database design starts with a conceptual data model and produces a specification of a
logical schema; this will determine the specific type of database system (network,
relational, object-oriented) that is required.
 - The output of this stage is a detailed relational specification, the logical schema, of all
the tables and constraints needed to satisfy the description of the data in the
conceptual data model. It is during this design activity that choices are made as to which
tables are most appropriate for representing the data in a database.

Implementation
- involves the construction of a database according to the specification of a logical
schema
- This will include the specification of an appropriate storage schema, security
enforcement, external schema and so on
- Implementation is heavily influenced by the choice of available DBMSs, database tools
and operating environment
Realizing the Design

- After the logical design has been created, we need our database to be created according to the
definitions we have produced. For an implementation with a relational DBMS, this will probably
involve the use of SQL to create tables and constraints that satisfy the logical schema description
and the choice of appropriate storage schema (if the DBMS permits that level of control).
- One way to achieve this is to write the appropriate SQL DDL statements into a file that can be
executed by a DBMS so that there is an independent record, a text file, of the SQL statements
defining the database. Another method is to work interactively using a database tool like SQL
Server Management Studio or Microsoft Access.
- Whatever mechanism is used to implement the logical schema, the result is that a database,
with tables and constraints, is defined but will contain no data for the user processes.

Populating the Database

- After a database has been created, there are two ways of populating the tables – either from
existing data or through the use of the user applications developed for the database

Guidelines for Developing an ER Diagram

Note: These are general guidelines that will assist in developing a strong basis for the actual database
design (the logical model):

1. Document all entities discovered during the information-gathering stage.

2. Document all attributes that belong to each entity. Select candidate and primary keys. Ensure
that all non-key attributes for each entity are full-functionally dependent on the primary key.
3. Develop an initial ER diagram and review it with appropriate personnel (Remember that this is
an iterative process.)
4. Create new entities (tables) for multivalued attributes and repeating groups. Incorporate these
new entities (tables) in the ER diagram. Review with appropriate personnel.
 5. Verify ER modeling by normalizing tables.

Topic 3: Managing People Involved in Database Development

Personnel Involved in Database Management System

- Many persons are involved in the design, use, and maintenance of a large database with a few
hundred users. Here we will consider people who may be called “Actors on the Scene”, whose
jobs involve the day-to-day use of a large database.

1. Database Administrators:
 person responsible for the control of the centralized and shared database
 Administrating the primary (database) and secondary (DBMS and related
software) is the responsibility of the database administrator (DBA).
 The DBA is responsible for authorizing access to the database, for coordinating
and monitoring its use, and for acquiring software and hardware resources as
needed.
 DBA function might be defined as either a staff or line position.
o DBA function in a staff position often creates a consulting environment
in which the DBA is able to devise the data administration strategy but
does not have the authority to enforce it or to resolve possible conflicts.
o DBA function in a line position has both the responsibility and the
authority to plan, define, implement, and enforce the policies,
standards, and procedures used in the data administration activity
2. Database Designers:
 Database Designers are responsible for identifying the data to be stored in the
database and for choosing appropriate structures to represent and store this
data.
 Database designer typically interact with each potential group and users and
develop a view of the database that meets the data and processing
requirements of this groups.
3. End Users (database users):
 End users are the people whose jobs require access to the database for
querying, updating and generating reports; the database primarily exists for
their use.
 There are several categories of end users:
o Casual end user:
o Occasionally access the database, but they may need different
information each time. They are typically middle-or high-level
managers or other occasional browsers.
o Naive or Parametric end user:
o Their main job function revolves around constantly querying
and updating the database, using standard types of queries and
updates that have been carefully programmed and tested. Bank
 tellers, Reservation Clerks for airlines, hotels, etc. are the
example of Naive end users
o Sophisticated end users:
o Sophisticated end users include engineers, scientist, business
analyst and others who thoroughly familiarize themselves with
the facilities of the DBMS so as to implement their applications
to meet their complex requirements.

o Stand-alone users:
o They maintain personal database by using ready-made program
packages that provide easy-to-use menu or graphics-based
interfaces
4. Software Engineers:
 System analysts determines the requirements of end users, especially naive and
parametric end users, and develop specifications for canned transactions that
meet these requirements. Application programmers implement these
specifications as programs; then they test, debug, document, and maintain
these canned transactions.
 Such analyst and programmers are called Software Engineers.
5. Data Administrator (DA)
 The DA, also known as the information resource manager (IRM), usually reports
directly to top management
 given a higher degree of responsibility and authority than the DBA
 responsible for controlling the overall corporate data resources, both
computerized and manual
 in charge of controlling not only the computerized data but also the data
outside the scope of the DBMS.
 responsible for providing a global and comprehensive administrative strategy
for all of the organization’s data
 responsible for the consolidation and consistency of both manual and
computerized data
 The DA must also set data administration goals. Those goals are defined by
issues such as:
o Data “sharability” and time availability.
o Data consistency and integrity.
o Data security and privacy.
o Data quality standards.
o Extent and type of data use.

The Evolution of the Database Administration Function

- Electronic Data Processing (EDP) or data processing (DP) department

 o The cost of data and managerial duplication in such file systems gave rise to a
centralized data administration function known as the electronic data processing (EDP)
or data processing (DP) department.
o The DP department’s task was to pool all computer resources to support all
departments at the operational level.
o The DP administration function was given the authority to manage all existing company
file systems as well as resolve data and managerial conflicts created by the duplication
and/or misuse of data.
o The advent of the DBMS and its shared view of data produced a new level of data
management sophistication and led the DP department to evolve into an information
systems (IS) department. The responsibilities of the IS department were broadened to
include:
1. A service function to provide end users with active data management
support.
2. A production function to provide end users with specific solutions for their
information needs through integrated application or management
information systems.

The Database Environment’s Human Component

- DA’s job typically has a strong managerial orientation with companywide scope.
- DBA’s job tends to be more technically oriented and has a narrower DBMS-specific scope.
o Both the DA and the DBA perform “people” functions common to all departments in an
organization.
DBA or Database Administrator
 Is the focal point for data/user interaction
 DBA defines and enforces the procedures and standards to be used by
programmers and end users during their work with the DBMS
 DBA also verifies that programmer and end-user access meet the required
quality and security standards.
 Database users might be classified by the:
o Type of decision-making support required (operational, tactical, or
strategic).
o Degree of computer knowledge (novice, proficient, or expert).
o Frequency of access (casual, periodic, or frequent).
 DBA must be able to interact with all of those people, understand their different
needs, answer questions at all levels of the expertise scale, and communicate
effectively.
 DBA must perform two distinct roles.
o The DBA’s managerial role is focused on personnel management and on
interactions with the end-user community
o As a manager, the DBA must concentrate on the control and
planning dimensions of database administration.
o the DBA’s managerial role is responsible for:
 Coordinating, monitoring, and allocating database
administration resources: people and data.
 Defining goals and formulating strategic plans for the
database administration function.

o The DBA’s technical role involves the use of the DBMS—database

design, development, and implementation—as well as the production,
development, and use of application programs.
o The DBA’s technical role requires a broad understanding of
DBMS functions, configuration, programming languages, data
modeling and design methodologies, and so on.
o DBA’s technical activities include the selection, installation,
operation, maintenance, and upgrading of the DBMS and utility
software, as well as the design, development, implementation,
and maintenance of the application programs that interact with
the database.
o The technical aspects of the DBA’s job are rooted in the
following areas of operation:
 Evaluating, selecting, and installing the DBMS and
related utilities.
 Designing and implementing databases and
applications.
 Testing and evaluating databases and applications.
 Operating the DBMS, utilities, and applications.
 Training and supporting users.
 Maintaining the DBMS, utilities, and applications