Introduction to Language

Introduction
The child’s capacity to speak is a wonderful talent and gift. To develop his capacity, it is
crucial that the child be fully exposed to the language and culture around him. Adults wait a
long time to hear a child’s first word and celebrate it with great joy, unsure of how it happened
yet also taking for granted that a child will certainly speak at some point.
Language is at the center of culture, is a way to express intelligence, and is a product of
collective thought requiring cooperation and collaboration, thus bringing individuals with more
or less like thinking together.
It is important, not only for educational purposes but also for the individual child’s sake,
to understand the steps taken towards developing speech as well as reading and writing skills.
Dr. Montessori discovered the importance and ease of the children writing before beginning to
read; writing has thus become a key piece of work at the primary level. Other educational
systems over-emphasize reading - unconsciously (or not) minimizing the impact of writing, to
the detriment of both students and teachers and ultimately society.
Children have innate gifts to help them acquire language: the absorbent mind, all of the
sensitive periods, and the human tendencies. These gifts should be not only utilized but
capitalized upon based on the child’s interests and life experiences. Language is a not a subject
area – rather it is a discovery, full of joy. The adult should help this area of discovery come alive,
making it playful and fun.
Language begins as expressive spoken language at approximately one year of age,
occurring due to three specific causes:
1) The child has been exposed to speech and vocalization while his
vocal mechanisms are being developed.
2) The child has experienced formal human interaction both verbally
and non-verbally, interaction which is required for life.
3) The child has a symbolic capacity for language, helping him to make
sense of his world.

All of the keys listed above help unlock the world of knowledge for the child – a key to
development as well. Language and order are closely related and the child is in the sensitive
period for both. The child will look at the patterns in language to give meaning to new
experiences. The child enters the casa with an approximate vocabulary of 300-500 words and

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we build on all the experiences that have come before his time in the casa; the child will leave
with approximately 15,000 words if he has had full experiences.
In the area of language within the casa, the adult becomes more central. Language is
communication between and among people – the adult becomes a living piece of material: we
must be in love with language and share our passion with the children. Like the exercises of
practical life, many of the materials are handmade – something the children will realize and
appreciate at some capacity, helping them to love language in a different way. The
environment must be alive with language – in the air that the children breathe; language cannot
be learned in a silent classroom.
Outside of spoken and written language, there are other methods of communication. In
the casa, we also explore musical expression, rhythm, singing of songs, zoology and botany.
Other forms of communication include sign language, foreign language and dance which could
also be incorporated into the casa as appropriate and desired. The activities provided in zoology
and botany on the surface would appear to be more in line with the areas of practical life and
of sensorial, but are placed in the language area as extensions to provide further language
enrichment through real-life experiences, experiments and connections with real living animals
and plants.
The child has achieved various levels of independence throughout his life. Among others
are the following: At birth, he became physically independent of his mother; at weaning, he
became nutritionally independent. Speech ability allowed for stronger communication.
Entering the casa provides for educational independence. When the child is able to read and
write he has not only gained a new method of communication but he is now intellectually
independent of all the adults in his life – he is able to locate and discover information for himself
through the written word.

Spoken Language
There are four areas in which the children are helped in language development: in
building their confidence, providing them with ideas, activities in vocabulary enrichment and
language training, and in the adult serving as a model of language.
The initial activities in the language area as in the other areas are to help the child build
confidence – in himself and in his new surroundings. As he integrates into his new community
and accepts the adults as new people in his life, we play language games with him, provide him
the opportunity for experiences in the exercises of practical life and observe his interactions
with others. As he builds his confidence and abilities, we allow him to work at his own pace,
repeating when necessary, allowing mistakes and correction of his own errors. We never insist
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that the child speak, but we offer many opportunities for him to do so, such that he will open
up at the moment that is right for him. We watch his body language to read between the
spoken lines. We create an oasis of peace in the arrangement of the materials and our
interactions with the children. We listen to their stories and consciously guide them in
conversation with questions. We do not directly correct mistakes as mistakes are
developmental, but we listen and repeat in proper form and offering grace and courtesy lessons
so that the child can communicate in a socially acceptable way.
Ideas are needed in order to communicate a mental image. We begin with concrete
experiences and give sensorial impressions of the world – we want them excited about words.
Through vocabulary building activities and categories and classes of words, presenting words
in a classified manner and through the name lessons, the child refines his learned and used
words.
The child will need a rich vocabulary in order to make the connection into writing and
reading. It is difficult to write without ideas to write about and it is difficult to gain any
comprehension from reading without some reference point from which to understand the
writer’s style, purpose, and meaning. Vocabulary enrichment and language training is done
very consciously and we encourage the children to ask if they don’t know the meaning of a
word. Vocabulary is an individual storehouse for each child and we want to expand it. We tell
stories to the children – not just reading but telling – and we encourage the child to tell his own
stories.
When we read books, we provide the author and the illustrator as well as any other
pertinent information to develop an appreciation for the story and all that went into it. For
personal reading, we provide well-chosen books in a comfortable reading area with a table
lamp and a rack which holds books at various levels - few in number at any given time, rotated
out for others as too many at once causes the appreciation for books to be lost. We should help
them see that not everything in print is great or even correct. We encourage children to be
critical thinkers, questioning the process: “How would you end this story?” We do not provide
fairy tales for the child under age six, because the sensitive period for morality occurs from six
to nine years of age; under six, the child is not yet mature enough to handle the frightening
tales and to separate fact from fiction. Instead, we choose books with a positive affect or
benefit for the children.
The adult must be a model of language for the children, speaking clearly and in full
sentences. We show the children that language will always be positive and respectful in the
casa, even during any necessary behavior correction. The children feel an attitude of honesty
in us. Language builds bridges to human understanding and begins early. There is quite a large
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amount of general rudeness on our world and we can help to provide a positive, healthy base
towards proper human understanding and empathy towards others, not only in our actions, but
in our language and tones.

Written Language: Overview

Through the entire casa, we provide keys for discovery, not a curriculum – and the
language area, particularly in written language, is no exception. It is our responsibility to offer
the most useful and most basic keys. We know that children can absorb written language
visually as it is something they see everywhere – they read symbols and logos long before they
read full words. The basic key for written language which we provide is the movable alphabet.
Dr. Montessori had the letters cut from wood and invited the children to trace the letters, giving
the sound of each one. She never expected them to begin writing with them, but they did,
through their unknowing indirect preparation.
We prepare the hand and the mind separately, both directly and indirectly, in such a
manner that they are able to come together in cooperation at the ideal time for each child.
Indirect preparation allows the child to have success at some level with a new experience before
ever having touched that material. Through indirect preparation, children will spontaneously
write before they read – in a seeming explosion. We introduce written language to the children
while they are still in the sensitive period for spoken language in order to capitalize on the
child’s innate drive to communicate ideas. We provide the keys to reading, writing and spelling
and the children learn spontaneously and joyfully. While we use a phonetic approach, we do
not use it in a traditional manner – we use 42 sounds where a traditional phonetics approach
uses 150 or more.
The hand is indirectly prepared through many of the exercises of practical life as well as
sensorial materials, in the left to right orientation, fingers used to pick up and move objects for
the writing grip, lightness of touch in tracing and touching, keeping movements within a
confined space, control of the hand, flexible wrist movement (particularly in the sound
cylinders), hand/eye coordination in sewing, cutting, and pouring, etc. The physical act of
writing is directly prepared through the use of the metal insets – a key bringing all other
activities together; the children also trace the sandpaper letters, write letters in sand, practice
on chalkboard and other art of handwriting activities and practice on paper.
The mind is also prepared both directly and indirectly. The children are in the sensitive
periods for both order and language. When presented in an interesting way using movement,
sensorial exploration and manipulation of materials, language develops easily and
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spontaneously, bringing great joy. After age six, when the sensitive periods have ended,
learning to read and write becomes laborious work.
Writing generally begins around age 4 with the movable alphabet, simultaneously with
the art of handwriting activities. Reading generally begins about 6 months later. Reading and
writing are different processes with reading requiring a greater level of maturity. Writing is
analyzing sounds while reading is a process of synthesizing. Writing is simply having an idea in
one’s mind, analyzing the sounds and choosing the symbols which best represent those sounds,
placing them in order.
“Writing on the other hand… means that a child translates sounds materially
into signs. The process involves motion which is always present and easy for him.
Writing develops easily and spontaneously in a little child in the same way as
speech, which is also a motor translation of sounds which have been heard.
Reading on the other hand, forms a part of an abstract intellectual culture. It
interprets ideas represented by graphic symbols and is acquired only later.”16

Children continue with the indirect preparation work even after beginning to write and
even to read in order to strengthen their skills, and interestingly enough to avoid the
acquiescence that can come from constant error correction found in other educational realms.
“My method of teaching of writing, on the other hand, contains a valuable educational
principle. It teaches a child the wisdom of avoiding errors, the dignity of foresight as a guide to
perfection, and that humility which keeps one constantly united with the sources of goodness,
from which alone one obtains and preserves mastery over oneself. It also frees him from the
illusion that once one has succeeded in doing something it is quite enough simply to continue
on the road that has been taken.”17 Children of all writing levels are using the same preparatory
work – some for preparing and some for perfecting. They also share knowledge with one
another and feel united in their work rather than feeling in competition with one another.

Written Language: Writing

“Another problem for investigation would be to consider the nature of writing itself,
analyzing its various components and seeking to separate them into independent exercises
which could be employed at different ages and thus be distributed according to the natural
powers of the child.” 18 This is precisely what Dr. Montessori has done. Through keen
observation and analysis, Dr. Montessori was able to deduce the basic necessities in learning

16
The Discovery of the Child. Chapter 14. (deleted reference to something further in the original work)
17
The Discovery of the Child. Chapter 15.
18
The Discovery of the Child. Chapter 14.

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how to write and read; allowing the child to respond naturally revealed many previously
unknown secrets about the child and about the writing and reading processes. “A method
starting from an investigation of the individual instead of writing would be completely original
and far different from any other method that has preceded it.”19
Dr. Montessori found two distinct groups of movements in the process of writing: that of
making the letters of the alphabet and a separate movement for the holding of the writing
utensil.20 We should therefore provide the necessary elements to produce these two groups of
movements during the child’s sensitive period for refinement of movement. We provide
activities in the exercises of practical life as well in sensorial that encourage the lightness of
touch, which Dr. Montessori notes is sometimes more an issue than the actually holding of the
writing utensil. Tracing the sandpaper letters and the geometric figures, using the stick to trace
the leaf shapes, placing objects quietly and smoothly, three fingers grasping the knobs of the
cylinders in their blocks, feeling the rough and smooth tablets particularly when blindfolded,
and other materials provide the necessary experiences in preparation for writing.
As stated elsewhere, the sandpaper letters, the sand tray, and the moveable alphabet
with all their various exercises, prepare the child to actually write the letters of the alphabet in
both the movement and the visual experience. Through the use of the movable alphabet, the
child is able to put together various sounds to write his first words, without being bogged down
by the cumbersome task of using a writing utensil while still learning how to use it. He can
practice using the writing utensil separately and bring the two skills together when both have
been perfected to his own satisfaction.
The metal insets are more direct preparation for the use of the writing utensil and the
necessary coordination for making proper marks on a page within a limited space. The metal
insets are also an indirect preparation for the creation of the letters themselves: in the tracing
of the various shapes, both straight-lines and curvilinear as well as the various exercises of
coloring them in with parallel strokes in a variety of manners (closer and closer lines, shading,
overlapping shapes, staying within prescribes lines, etc.). Dr. Montessori encourages continued
use of the metal insets after the onset of writing to improve coordination even further and to
encourage design work and creativity.
“All the mechanics for writing are now ready. Turning now directly to the method for
teaching writing, we may notice that it is already contained in the two stages just described.
When a child has been given these exercises, he can learn and fix the muscular mechanism
necessary for holding the pen and for making graphic symbols. When he has been exercised at

19
The Discovery of the Child. Chapter 14.
20
The Discovery of the Child. Chapter 15.

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length in these methods, he should be ready to write all the letters of the alphabet and simple
syllables without ever having taken pen or chalk in his hand to write.”21
When children begin to write, the chalkboard and paper activities are introduced, as well
encouragement to continue with the sandpaper letters. “Signs which enable the teacher to
determine the readiness of a child for spontaneous writing are the following: lines drawn
straight and parallel in filling in geometrical figures, recognition of the letters of the alphabet
in sandpaper with eyes closed, and sureness and ease in composing words (with the movable
alphabet). However, even after a child has been judged ready for the spontaneous explosion of
writing, it is well to wait a week before encouraging him to write (if he has not naturally done
so of his own accord).”22
Indirect preparation for writing can be summed up with Dr. Montessori’s words: “My
children thus perfect themselves in writing without writing.”23 Yet children also perfect their
writing even further by continued use of the preparatory work – not abandoning it for simply
practicing writing for writing itself, but further practice with the indirect work, where they
learned to write to begin with, only serves to strengthen their skills with writing.
Interestingly, Dr. Montessori adds a paragraph about calligraphy at the end of one her
writings on the subject of the writing process. She writes, “We, instead, prepare a child
indirectly not only for writing but also for calligraphy according to its two basic principles –
beauty of form (by touching beautiful letters) and vigorous execution (by exercises in filling in
figures).”24

Written Language: Cursive

“Hand•writ•ing: 1. writing done with pen or pencil in the hand; script. 2. A style or
manner of writing by hand, esp. that which characterizes a particular person; penmanship.”25
In today’s world, many people have chosen to forgo handwriting (cursive) altogether
because we are so surrounded by print, print is standardized (everyone can read it), etc. But this
is a mistake. We are surrounded by print because of the beginnings of the loss of handwriting
and standardization of print only detracts from individuality. Group cohesion within a society
is excellent, however each person must be an established individual in order to contribute the
greatest amount to group dynamics. The number of font choices available in computer writing
programs testifies to the need for expressing individuality. The issue of handwriting is only a

21
The Discovery of the Child. Chapter 15.
22
The Discovery of the Child. Chapter 15.
23
The Discovery of the Child. Chapter 15.
24
The Discovery of the Child. Chapter 14.
25
Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary.

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sign of the times, rather than the deep-seated issue itself, however the issue can become a
heated discussion among educators and parents.
Dr. Montessori has encouraged the use of cursive from some of her earliest work with
special needs children, finding that curved lines are easier for the child, not because of the
child’s experience with a curved horizon as Seguin and Itard put forth, but because curved
connected lines are truly easier and more natural for the child: “the straight line (of print) is
unique in that it follows the shortest distance between two points. Every variation from this
means that a line is not straight. The countless variations are therefore easier to make than the
single stroke which is the standard of perfection.”26 Dr. Montessori describes children tracing
curved, connecting lines and loops in the sand with a stick, and the artwork and scribbles of the
youngest children of today still testifies to the fact of curved connected lines being easier for
the child to recreate.
Not only is cursive easier for young children to learn, but by learning it young, they will
not have to unlearn print in order to learn handwriting later in childhood, when they are already
burned out from school as well as moved out of the sensitive period for order and language. On
the other hand, print can be learned at any time, as it is indeed “all around us.”
In addition to these factors, today as even in Dr. Montessori’s time it is observed that
“it is impossible to forge a person’s handwriting.” 27 Handwriting is an art form in itself.
Examples of this art form can be seen in older texts with fancy first letters of chapters and
sections, the variations from culture to culture of creating various letters of the alphabet,
particularly capitals. Handwritten letters and cards are still cherished by many, much more than
easily written (and usually error-ridden) e-mails that fly around the planet in the billions or
trillions each day.
“Even though we all use the same alphabet, the motions we make are so individual that
each one has his own particular style of writing,
and there are thus as many forms of writing as there are men.”28

26
The Discovery of the Child. Chapter 14.
27
The Discovery of the Child. Chapter 15.
28
The Discovery of the Child. Chapter 15. emphasis mine.

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Written Language: Reading
“By reading I mean the interpretation of an idea by means of graphic symbols…. A child
does not read until he receives ideas from the written word.”29
Where writing is largely mechanical, reading is a purely intellectual work. The steps to
reading are as follows: identify the symbols, attach sound to the symbols, fuse them together,
attach meaning to the words (a limited vocabulary impairs ability to attach meaning – a limited
vocabulary on the part of the child OR within the text to be read (i.e. readers do not aid total
reading)), and finally put that meaning into context of the child’s own experience –
comprehension. Even many adults struggle to reach a decent level of reading comprehension.
At four and a half, we start with phonetic words in the phonetic object box, using real
objects and stressing comprehension – the child decodes the word and places it next to the
appropriate object. We then provide many exercises to reinforce this experience before moving
on to phonogram work and puzzle words. At about age five, reading classification combines
the child’s knowledge of phonograms and puzzle words, based on spoken language, and
includes definitions of many words. The main aim of all of these activities is experience with
reading, the development of total reading and creative writing.
All activities are initially presented with handwritten strips of paper. The children are
generally able to make the leap over to the ability to read the printed word, ostensibly because
they have already been exposed to it, but even Dr. Montessori notes the children’s natural
connection to print without having had any exposure, handwriting charts or other exercises.30
The children are given many rotated classified cards in order to begin matching objects
(pictures) with words, having subjects according to the particular interests of each child. From
simple matching of names with objects, we add full definitions as well as definition strips. The
children are also provided with simple booklets based on activities within the casa as well as
books from simple to complex, based on reality, to provide a greater amount of experience and
real vocabulary for the children.31 When the child begins the function of words activities he is
already comfortable with reading. We do not teach grammar but give sensorial impressions of
the function within our language of each word within a phrase. The children then move on to
reading analysis where they come to appreciate sentence structure and order. Word study
activities look at different elements of the word such as compounds, plurals and contractions.
By the time a child has been in the Montessori environment for three years, he has been
exposed to a great amount of reading and writing and is generally on par with the state goals

29
The Discovery of the Child. Chapter 16.
30
The Discovery of the Child. Chapter 16.
31
The only reason for having any given book in the environment should not be “because the children like it” but should be carefully considered for its artistic, intellectual, experiential and
spiritual qualities.

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for second and third grade students, generally outperforming students in public schools at
those levels. No child however is forced into writing and reading if he has no interest
whatsoever, but group dynamics minimize this sort of outcome as the children share one
another’s experiences and readily pass to another what has been received, in addition to the
human tendency for communication and self-expression.

Musical Expression and Language Extensions

After a great deal of sensorial experience with the bells, the children are provided with
further sensorial and language experiences in which they will be able to compose, read and
write music; this experience provides a base for further music study, including music
appreciation and learning to play instruments.
The various activities in language extensions include zoology, botany, singing songs,
rhythms, and the ‘Who Am I?’ riddles. The ‘Who Am I?’ stories are great riddle stories for the
children to explore animals, people, artists, flowers and more. All of these activities provide
further practical and language experiences for the child to explore the world around him, while
laying a foundation for further science exploration and alternate forms of human
communication in the years ahead.

Conclusion
All of these activities lead to total reading, which is the ability to receive all that is offered
through the written word; to understand what is read, appreciate the style of the author as well
as the emotions, characters and the message conveyed by the author. When all of these
elements come together for the child, he reaches a level of reading rarely seen in children of
this age or even older. The pathway to literature is now open and the child is helped to develop
creative writing and free expression. In this moment, the child may experience joy in this self-
taught activity.
The child now has 15,000 words in his vocabulary. He can read and write both print and
cursive, while expressing himself both orally and through the written word with clarity and
maturity rarely seen in children of other educational situations. The child demonstrates a
greater empathy than otherwise would have been possible. He is sure of himself and is ready
for further challenges as he enters the next plane of his development.

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