Equivalence between Schrödinger and Feynman formalisms for

Quantum Mechanics ─ The Path Integral Formulation

 A derivation to the Path Integral

In Quantum Mechanics, the probability amplitude for a particle to move from a
point xI to a point xF in time T=tF−tI is governed by the unitary operator U(tF ,tI )
defined as

This is the Time Evolution operator, letting one calculate the evolution of a
wavefunction, as shown. More precisely, denoting by |x⟩ the state in which the
particle is at x, the amplitude in question is just

Let us divide the time T into N segments, each lasting 𝜖=T/N. Then we write

Now we use the fact that |x⟩ forms a complete set of states so that .
Inserting completeness between all these factors of the unitary operator yields

Focus on an individual factor . For a H=p̂2/2m+V(x̂), we

have

The subtlety here is due to the impossibility of simply splitting the exponential into
two multiplying terms, since p̂ and V(x̂) are non-commuting operators. However,
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this unfortunate can be solved in the following way. In mathematics, the Baker-
Campbell-Hausdorff formula (Appendix A) state the following equation for non-
commuting operators

On the opposite side, if one replaces A and B for A/N and B/N, with N being a
real number, and then one raises the exponential to the Nth power, taking the limit
of N going to infinity yields

This is called the Trotter product formula and it will be of great use during the
development of the path integral. Since taking the limit will be one of our final
steps, for now we will just drop the commutator terms of BCH formula, knowing
that the equality eAeB=eA+B will hold for N→∞, as proposed in our terms.
Considered this discussion we may now rewrite our initial factor as follows

Denote |xj⟩ the eigenstate for the operator V(x̂) in which V(xj) is its respecting
eigenvalue, and |p⟩ the eigenstate of the operator p̂, with p as its eigenvalue,
namely V(x̂)|xj⟩=V(xj)|xj⟩ and p̂|p⟩=p|p⟩. Recalling that |p⟩ also forms a complete

set of states so that . From Quantum Mechanics (Appendix B),

. Again, inserting completeness on p, we write

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The integral over p is a Gaussian integral in the form

First, completing the square of the exponent

Then, shifting for a dummy variable y=p−b/a (so that dy=dp), yields

We now square the whole equation on two different variables, y and z, since the
change of variable is a pure choice of nomenclature, thus resulting in

One may notice the cleverness of a basis transformation from cartesian to polar
coordinates, (y,z)↦(r,θ), and thence

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A simple change of variable r2=2ω (yielding rdr=dω) provides

Finally, switching back the values of A, a and b, we obtain

Inserting back this solved integral into the propagator K(xF,xI,tF,tI) yields

with x0≡xI and xN-1≡xF. We can now go to the continuum limit of N→∞ (𝜖→0). This
limit ultimately justifies the drop of commutator terms in the BCH formula,
validating our initial assumption of eAeB=eA+B holding for non-commuting
operators A and B. Finally, one may define the integral over paths as

As a direct consequence, one thus obtain the path integral representation of

Quantum Mechanics, defined as

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The integral over paths should be interpreted as the sum of all possible paths
between xI and xF in the phase space. The only way this integral does not go to
infinity as well is to weight in a proper manner, and that is the purpose of the
Action functional for Quantum Mechanics, defined as . The
magic here is that, since each path as a different action, and a different phase in
the complex plane, in general, they cancel each other, until they come near the
classic path. In this case, S is stationary, and the Z weights add constructively
and produce a large sum. This schematic is illustrated below

In addition, Newton and Leibniz taught us to replace by and

by , implying that as N goes to infinity, the discrete S may be shifted to

This result means that one could simply make use of the Classical Action of
Lagrangian Mechanics to solve for the path integral, as after all integrations are
done, the limit N→∞. Although this may be a good method, one must remember
that, in principle, the action S, just as the paths x(t) are all quantized, with time
defined as t, t+𝜖, t+2𝜖… In principle, the limit to infinity could only be taken after
the integrations over all paths, an impractical method, since one needs the action
S to integrate over the infinite paths. In particular, there is no reason to believe
that replacing differences by derivatives is always legitimate. This discrete
process, used to derive the path integral, is called time slicing, since the
discretization of time allows the process of rewriting Schrödinger’s formulation of
Quantum Mechanics. The time slicing process is shown in the graphic below

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Finally, one may wish to compute the time evolution of the wavefunction.
Recalling the time evolution operator acting on |ψ⟩, for T=t −t and mixing
F I

Schrödinger and Dirac notation, one may proceed as below. With the time
evolution of |ψ⟩, multiplying both sides by ⟨xF| yields

Then, by inserting completeness over |xI⟩

for the Propagator K being the probability amplitude of a wavefunction between

a set of initial and final coordinates. The propagator may be found by using the
Path Integral presented in this section. Consequently, the wavefunction at final
conditions is just the convolution of the propagator and the function at its initial
conditions. Furthermore, if P(xF,xI) is the probability amplitude, we have

which states the probability amplitude of transition from an initial to a final state.

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  Equivalence with the Schrödinger Equation
For this section, and to complete the proof of equivalence with the ordinary
formulation of Quantum Mechanics, we now show that the wavefunction defined
in the previous section satisfies the Schrödinger Equation, which states

The relation between those two formalisms is similar to that of Newtonian and
Lagrangian Mechanics. As Newton’s Second Law of Motion, the Schrödinger
Equation is local in time and deals with time evolution over infinitesimal periods,
whereas both the Least Action Principle and the Path integral are global in time
and deals directly with propagation over finite times. Starting from t=0, and for an
infinitesimal change in time 𝜖 and for H= p̂2/2m+V(x̂)

which becomes in the x basis

to first order in 𝜖. This result shall now be compared to path integral prediction, in
the same order of 𝜖. We begin with time evolution of |ψ⟩ as its convolution with
the propagator K, for xI=x’, xF=x, tI=0, tF=𝜖

Because there is just one slice of time 𝜖, no integration needs to be taken over
intermediate values of x’s and the propagator is roughly

We assume the time argument to be zero since there is already a factor of 𝜖

multiplying V and any variation of it with time in the interval 0 to 𝜖 will produce an
effect of second order in 𝜖. So, the wavefunction is

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Consider the factor exp[im(x−x’)2/2𝜖ћ]. It oscillates very rapidly as (x−x’) varies,
as a result of the presence of 𝜖ћ in the denominator (𝜖 is infinitesimal and ћ is
very small). As such, the integral vanishes for the most part by virtue of the
random phase of the exponential. Therefore, the only meaningful contribution
comes from the region where the phase is stationary (x’=x). This idea is very
similar to the one presented in the Path Integral itself. We are inclined to define
η=x−x’, so that the exponential is stationary for η≈0, and the region of coherence
is

This yields

Out of this, one can expand these functions for η around zero. We care only for
terms to first order in 𝜖, hence, in second order of η. Then, the expansions of each
of the last two terms (including the potential) are

Because η𝜖 terms are not of first order, they are also neglected. Thus, the
wavefunction is now

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As for the gaussian integral in the last section, those may be solved in a similar
way, using integration by parts and giving

And the wavefunction is now

or

which agrees with the Schrödinger Equation.

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Appendix A - A simple computation for the Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff
formula
As stated in the first section, the BCH formula describes the multiplication of
exponential maps eA and eB as the exponential of a summation over its terms, A
and B, and their commutation relations, as shown

To be able to compute this, first we need to find a recursion for the commutation
relations of operators A and B. The first relation is

To prove this, define a function F(x) as below

To make this function equal to the relation defined above, we must compute the
derivative of the function, as it gives

However, the derivative of the series expansion can be set to

One can shift n→n+1 on the left-hand side, finding Fn+1=[A,Fn]. It is clear that
F0=B and the remaining Fn follow from this recursion relation. The result of the
first relation is then found setting x=1. The second useful relation is just a rewriting
of the first, with a few modifications, such as

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The key point here is when we differentiate G we cannot assume that G and G’
commute. And from this

Finally, we define

where G0 is defined to be zero for easier manipulations. To force the relations

found out of this equation we do as follows

once (AB)−1=(B−1A−1). The left-hand side is easily evaluated

The idea behind the term e−xBAexB is the same as in the first relation mentioned.
Now the term on the right-hand side is

where we have used G’=G1+2xG2+3x2G3+... and

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We compute till the quadratic terms, which results in

Thus, for x=1

Higher order terms can be computed when considered higher orders of x.

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Appendix B - The computation of ⟨x|p⟩ and the completeness relation for p
Following the de Broglie relations, the plane wavefunction for a free particle is
defined as

However, the Schrödinger Equation admits more general functions than this. In
fact, since the equation is linear, any superposition of plane wave solutions with
different values of k is a solution

Omitting the time dependent term by making t=0, we can make this summation
go to infinity. Also, it is very useful to modulate each of this summands with a
coefficient an, granting a weight to each term, hence

This is the work presented by Jean-Baptiste Fourier. Simply put, his theorem
states that any periodic function can be represented by an infinity sum of
sinusoidal functions, with definite amplitude and phase. Following this line of
reasoning, we may take the continuum limit for n→∞, and Δkn(kn+1−kn)→0, and
the result is the succeeding set of equations

These are two different representations of the same wavefunction, one in

coordinate space, and the other in the wavenumber space. Since physically we
associate our plane waves with eigenstates of momentum, let us rewrite this set
of equations

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We may now turn to Dirac notation of brackets. Taking and inserting a
complete set of states for the coordinate space yields

Also, from the properties of inner products, ⟨x|p⟩=eipx/ћ. From this relation, we
conclude that inserting completeness over q x for leads to the Fourier
definition of wavepackets of plane waves. Finally, one can find a completeness
relation for the momentum space. Taking the definition of the coordinate space
wavefunction as the inverse Fourier transform yields

Summarizing the relations found

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