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 PHYSICS OF
CRYOGENICS
AN ULTRALOW TEMPERATURE
PHENOMENON

BAHMAN ZOHURI
University of New Mexico, Albuquerque
Elsevier
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This book is dedicated to my son Sasha.
 About the Author
Dr. Bahman Zohuri currently works for
Galaxy Advanced Engineering, Inc., a
consulting firm that he started in 1991 when
he left both the semiconductor and defense
industries after many years working as a
chief scientist. After graduating from the
University of Illinois in the field of physics,
applied mathematics, he went to the Uni-
versity of New Mexico, where he studied
nuclear engineering and mechanical engi-
neering. He joined Westinghouse Electric
Corporation, where he performed thermal
hydraulic analysis and studied natural cir-
culation in an inherent shutdown, heat
removal system (ISHRS) in the core of a
liquid metal fast breeder reactor (LMFBR) as
a secondary fully inherent shutdown system
for secondary loop heat exchange. All these
designs were used in nuclear safety and
reliability engineering for a self-actuated
shutdown system. He designed a mercury
heat pipe and electromagnetic pumps for
large pool concepts of an LMFBR for heat
rejection purposes for this reactor around
1978, when he received a patent for it. He
was subsequently transferred to the defense
division of Westinghouse, where he over-
saw dynamic analysis and methods of
launching and controlling MX missiles from
canisters. The results were applied to MX
launch seal performance and muzzle blast
phenomena analysis (i.e., missile vibration
and hydrodynamic shock formation). Dr.
Zohuri was also involved in analytical cal-
culations and computations in the study of
nonlinear ion waves in rarefying plasma.
The results were applied to the propagation
of so-called soliton waves and the resulting
xi
charge collector traces in the rarefaction
characterization of the corona of laser-
irradiated target pellets. As part of his
graduate research work at Argonne National
Laboratory, he performed computations and
programming of multiexchange integrals in
surface physics and solid-state physics. He
earned various patents in areas such as
diffusion processes and diffusion furnace
design while working as a senior process
engineer at various semiconductor com-
panies, such as Intel Corp., Varian Medical
Systems, and National Semiconductor Cor-
poration. He later joined Lockheed Martin
Missile and Aerospace Corporation as Senior
Chief Scientist and oversaw research and
development (R&D) and the study of the
vulnerability, survivability, and both radia-
tion and laser hardening of different com-
ponents of the Strategic Defense Initiative,
known as Star Wars.
This included payloads (i.e., IR sensor)
for the Defense Support Program, the Boost
Surveillance and Tracking System, and
Space Surveillance and Tracking Satellite
against laser and nuclear threats. While at
Lockheed Martin, he also performed ana-
lyses of laser beam characteristics and nu-
clear radiation interactions with materials,
transient radiation effects in electronics,
electromagnetic pulses, system-generated
electromagnetic pulses, single-event upset,
blast, thermomechanical, hardness assur-
ance, maintenance, and device technology.
He spent several years as a consultant at
Galaxy Advanced Engineering serving Sandia
National Laboratories, where he supported
the development of operational hazard
xii ABOUT THE AUTHOR
assessments for the Air Force Safety Center in
collaboration with other researchers and third
parties. Ultimately, the results were included
in Air Force Instructions issued specifically for
directed energy weapons operational safety.
He completed the first version of a compre-
hensive library of detailed laser tools for
airborne lasers, advanced tactical lasers,
tactical high-energy lasers, and mobile/
tactical high-energy lasers, for example.
He also oversaw SDI computer programs, in
connection with Battle Management C3I
and artificial intelligence, and autonomous
systems. He is the author of several publica-
tions and holds several patents, such as for a
laser-activated radioactive decay and results of
a through-bulkhead initiator. He has published
the following works: Heat Pipe Design and
Technology: A Practical Approach (CRC Press);
Dimensional Analysis and Self-Similarity Methods
for Engineering and Scientists (Springer); High
Energy Laser (HEL): Tomorrow’s Weapon in
Directed Energy Weapons Volume I (Trafford
Publishing Company); and recently the book
on the subject Directed Energy Weapons and
Physics of High Energy Laser with Springer. He
has published other books with Springer Pub-
lishing Company and CRC in various subjects
related to: Thermodynamics in Nuclear Power
Plant Systems (Springer); and Thermal-Hydraulic
Analysis of Nuclear Reactors (Springer), heat pipe
technology, artificial intelligence, and so on. He
also has more than 60 software copyrights and
patents.
 Preface
This book has written for scientists and
engineers, as well as graduate students and
senior undergraduate students who need
to have a better understanding of physics
of cryogenics and related thermodynamics
to do their job or get a job in this field. This
is a book with the intention of being a
desktop reference, containing hundreds of
tables and charts of cryogenic data gathered
under one roof, and they are hard to come
cross as sum of materials related to subject
of physics of cryogenic.
The writer assumes that readers have
some fundamental knowledge of engineer-
ing and science and also some of calculus of
differential equations. It is more convenient
for the measurement units of trade to be in
SI, although some steam tables are presented
in MKS units.
Cryogenic processes differ from general
chemical processes in several ways. The use
of multistream heat exchangers with internal
pinch points makes it necessary to use
somewhat different approaches to simulate
mixed refrigerant processes. The methods
for simulating and optimizing cryogenic
processes using a process simulator are pre-
sented in Chapter 2.
The need for using refrigerant mixtures
over pure fluids is presented in Chapter 3
with reference to simple refrigeration and
gas-cooling processes. The more complex
refrigeration processes are presented in
Chapter 4. A unified design approach has
been evolved for optimizing mixed refrig-
erant process refrigerators and liquefiers and
is presented in Chapter 5. The different
xiii
natural gas and nitrogen liquefaction pro-
cesses are presented in Chapters 6 and 7,
respectively.
This book also:
• Provides an overview of the history of the
development of cryogenic technology;
• Includes the latest information on micro-
coolers for military and space applications;
• Offers detailed information on high-
capacity cryogenic refrigerator systems
used in applications such as food stor-
age, high-power microwave and laser
sensors, medical diagnostics, and
infrared detectors.
Today’s technology of cryogenics is tak-
ing a new turn and has found different
medical applications for the future, such as
preserving the body, although this seems to
be a fantasy and dream, however it is a fact
that some researchers are looking into it. As
can be seen in this book, cryogenic freezing is
the process of preserving a dead body with
liquid nitrogen.
Advocates believe that scientists will one
day work out how to warm the bodies up
and bring them back to life, by which time
doctors might be able to cure cancers and
other diseases which are untreatable today.
In this case, the freezing needs to begin as
soon as possible after the patient dies to
prevent damage to the brain; the body is first
cooled in an ice bath to gradually reduce its
temperature.
This book provides a practical prospective
on the cryogenics world. An historical and
current picture of cryogenics in industry,
xiv
government, and university laboratories will
be helpful in many careers. The technical
aspects of both the classroom and laboratory
work will prepare you to actually begin
work in many different types of jobs in
cryogenics, which has become ubiquitous in
industry, government labs, and medical
centers. You will be able to see the equip-
ment and processes that are prevalent in the
modern cryogenic workplace. You will also
be given the background that will enable you
to contribute to the advancement of the art of
cryogenics in the future.
This book is formatted in such a way that
Chapter 1 starts with an introduction to
cryogenics as a high-level approach and
Chapters 2e13 describe the fundamentals of
thermodynamics and heat transfer as well as
the concept of heat exchangers in particular
compact types. This allows going into the
granular depth of the physics of cryogenics,
PREFACE
starting from Chapter 14. For those readers
who have such knowledge, they can easily
skip forward to Chapter 14 and scan through
Chapters 2e13 for any necessary reminders.
Taking this approach does not give this book
the presentation of a classical thermody-
namics book, yet it gives a flavor of what the
reader needs to know to be able to easily
follow the concept of ultra-low-temperature
phenomena. It is particularly helpful for
students at undergraduate level to take a
course in this subject, with or without
knowledge of thermodynamics, heat trans-
fer, etc., so long as they have basic courses in
differential and partial differential subjects,
as well advanced calculus.
B. Zohuri
Albuquerque, New Mexico, 2016
United States of America
 Acknowledgments
I am indebted to the many people who
aided me, encouraged me, and supported
me beyond my expectations. Some are not
around to see the results of their encour-
agement in the production of this book, yet I
hope they know of my deepest appreciation.
Above all, I offer very special thanks to
my late mother and father, and to my
xv
children, in particular, my son Sasha. They
have provided constant interest and
encouragement, without which this book
would not have been written. Their patience
with my many absences from home and
long hours in front of the computer to
prepare the manuscript are especially
appreciated.
 C H A P T E R

1
Cryogenic Technologies

O U T L I N E

1.1 Introduction 2 1.5 Refrigeration and Liquefaction 25

1.5.1 Thermodynamics of
1.2 Low Temperature in Science and
Refrigeration 25
Technology 4
1.5.2 Helium Refrigerators versus
1.3 Defining Cryogenic Fluids or Liquefiers 26
Liquids 8 1.5.3 Real Cycles and Refrigeration
1.3.1 Type of Cryogenic Liquids 10 Equipment 28
1.3.2 Thermophysical Properties 13
1.6 Industrial Applications 33
1.3.3 Liquid Boil-Off 13
1.6.1 Cryogenic Processing for Alloy
1.3.4 Cryogen Use for Equipment
Hardening 33
Cool-Down 14
1.6.2 Cryogenic Fuels 34
1.3.5 Phase Domains 15
1.6.3 Cryogenic Application in
1.3.6 Personal Protective Equipment
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
to Be Worn 15
Spectroscopy 34
1.3.7 Handling Cryogenic Liquids 16
1.6.4 Cryogenic Application in
1.3.8 Storing Cryogenic Liquids 16
Magnetic Resonance Image 35
1.3.9 Hazards of Cryogenic Liquids 17
1.6.5 Cryogenic Application in
1.3.10 General Hazards of Cryogenic
Electric Power Transmission
Liquids 17
Within Big Cities 35
1.4 Heat Transfer and Thermal Design 18 1.6.6 Cryogenic Application in
1.4.1 Solid Conduction 18 Frozen Food Transport 36
1.4.2 Radiation 19 1.6.7 Cryogenic Application in
1.4.3 Convection 21 Forward Looking Infrared 37
1.4.4 Gas Conduction 22 1.6.8 Cryogenic Application in
1.4.5 Multilayer Insulation 22 Space 38
1.4.6 Vapor Cooling of Necks and 1.6.9 Cryogenic in Blood Banking,
Supports 23 Medicine, and Surgery 39

Physics of Cryogenics
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814519-7.00001-X 1 Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 1. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGIES

1.6.10 Cryogenic in Manufacturing 1.7.3 Right: Lightweight,

Process 42 High-Efficient Cryocooler 48
1.6.11 Cryogenic in Recycling of 1.7.4 Background 49
Materials 43 1.7.5 Right: Liquefier Demo and
1.6.12 Cryogenic Energy Storage 43 Cryogenic Insulation Test
1.6.12.1 CES Characteristics 44 Facility 49
1.6.13 CES in Nuclear Power Plants 45
1.8 Conclusion 50
1.6.14 Cryogenic Application in
Research 47 References 50
1.7 Cryogenic Fluid Management 47 Further Reading 51
1.7.1 Benefits 47
1.7.2 Research Overview 47

Cryogenics is the science that addresses the production and effects of very low tempera-
tures. The word originates from the Greek words kryos meaning “frost” and genic meaning
“to produce.” Under such a definition, it could be used to include all temperatures below
the freezing point of water (0
C). However, Prof. Kamerlingh Onnes of the University of Lei-
den in the Netherlands first used the word in 1894 to describe the art and science of produc-
ing much lower temperatures. He used the word in reference to the liquefaction of permanent
gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and helium. Oxygen had been liquefied at 183
C
a few years earlier in 1887, and a race was in progress to liquefy the remaining permanent
gases at even lower temperatures. The techniques used in producing such low temperatures
were quite different from those used somewhat earlier in the production of artificial ice. In
particular, efficient heat exchangers are required to reach very low temperatures. Over the
years, the term “cryogenics” has generally been used to refer to temperatures below
approximately 150
C (123.15K, 238.00
F).

1.1 INTRODUCTION

According to the laws of thermodynamics, there exists a limit to the lowest temperature
that can be achieved, which is known as absolute zero. Molecules are in their lowest, but finite,
energy state at absolute zero. Such a temperature is impossible to reach because the input po-
wer required approaches infinity. However, temperatures within a few billionths of a degree
above absolute zero have been achieved. Absolute zero is the zero of the absolute or thermo-
dynamic temperature scale. It is equal to 273.15
C or 459.67 F. The metric or SI (Interna-
tional System) absolute scale is known as the Kelvin scale, whose unit is the kelvin (not
Kelvin), which has the same magnitude as the degree Celsius. The symbol for the Kelvin scale
is K, as adopted by the 13th General Council on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in 1968. Thus,
0
C equals 273.15K. The English absolute scale, known as the Rankine scale, uses the symbol R
and has an increment the same as that of the Fahrenheit scale. In terms of the Kelvin scale, the
cryogenic region is often considered to be that below approximately 120K (153
C). The com-
mon permanent gases referred to earlier change from gas to liquid at atmospheric pressure at
the temperatures shown in Table 1.1, called the normal boiling point (NBP). In this table, we
 1.1 INTRODUCTION 3
TABLE 1.1 Normal Boiling, Triple, and Critical Points
Cryogen (K) (
C) (
R) (
F) Triple Point Critical Point

Methane 111.7 161.5 201.1 258.6 90.7 190.5

Oxygen 90.2 183.0 162.4 297.3 54.4 154.6

Nitrogen 77.4 195.8 139.3 320.4 63.1 126.2
Hydrogen 20.3 252.9 36.5 423.2 13.8 33.2
Helium 4.2 269.0 7.6 452.1 2.2 5.2
Absolute Zero 0.0 273.15 0.0 459.67 e e

have included the triple point and critical point, which we will explain them in next chapter.
Such liquids are known as cryogenic liquids or cryogens. When liquid helium is cooled further
to 2.17K or below, it becomes a super-fluid with very unusual properties associated with being
in the quantum mechanical ground state. For example, it has zero viscosity and produces a
film that can creep up and over the walls of an open container, such as a beaker, and drip
off the bottom as long as the temperature of the container remains below 2.17K.
The measurement of cryogenic temperatures requires methods that may not be so familiar
to the public in general. Normal mercury or alcohol thermometers freeze at such low temper-
atures and become useless. One of the metal elements that has a well-defined behavior of
electrical resistance versus temperature is platinum resistance thermometer. It is commonly
used to measure accurately, including cryogenic temperatures down to about 20K. Certain
semiconducting materials, such as doped germanium, are also useful as electrical resistance
thermometers for temperatures down to 1K and below, as long as they are calibrated over the
range they are to be used. Such secondary thermometers are calibrated against primary
thermometers that use fundamental laws of physics in which a physical variable changes
in a well-known theoretical way with temperature.
The production of cryogenic temperatures usually uses the compression and expansion of
gases. In typical air liquefaction process, the air is compressed, causing it to heat, and allowed
to cool back to room temperature while still pressurized. The compressed air is further cooled
in a heat exchanger before it is allowed to expand back to atmospheric pressure. The expansion
causes the air to cool and a portion of it to liquefy. The remaining cooled gaseous portion is
returned through the other side of the heat exchanger, where it precools the incoming high-
pressure air before returning to the compressor. The liquid portion is usually, distilled to produce
liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, and liquid argon. Other gases, such as helium, are used in a similar
process to produce even lower temperatures, but several stages of expansion are necessary.
Cryogenics has many applications. Cryogenic liquids, such as oxygen, nitrogen, and argon
are often used in industrial and medical applications. The electrical resistance of most metals
decreases as temperature decreases. Certain metals lose all electrical resistance below some
transition temperature and become superconductors. An electromagnet wound with a wire
of such a metal can produce extremely high magnetic fields with no generation of heat
and no consumption of electric power once the field is established and the metal remains
cold. These metals, typically niobium alloys cooled to 4.2K, are used for the magnets of mag-
netic resonance imaging (MRI) systems in most hospitals. Superconductivity in some metals
4 1. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGIES

was first discovered in 1911 by Kamerlingh Onnes, but since 1986, another class of materials,
known as high temperature superconductors, has been found to be superconducting at much
higher temperatures, currently up to about 145K. They are a type of ceramic, and because of
their brittle nature, they are more difficult to fabricate into wires for magnets.
Other applications of cryogenics include fast freezing of some foods and the preservation
of some biological materials such as livestock semen as well as human blood, tissue, and em-
bryos. The practice of freezing an entire human body after death in the hope of later restoring
life is known as cryonics, but it is not an accepted scientific application of cryogenics. The
freezing of portions of the body to destroy unwanted or malfunctioning tissue is known as
cryosurgery. It is used to treat cancers and abnormalities of the skin, cervix, uterus, prostate
gland, and liver.

1.2 LOW TEMPERATURE IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Cryogenics as it was described in previous section is defined as that branch of physics, which
deals with the production of very low temperatures and their effect on matter,1 a formulation that
addresses both aspects of attaining low temperatures that do not naturally occur on Earth
and of using them for the study of nature or the human industry. In a more operational
way,2 it is also defined as the science and technology of temperatures below 120K. The reason
for this latter definition can be understood by examining characteristic temperatures of cryo-
genic fluids as shown in Table 1.1.
The limit temperature of 120K comprehensively includes the NBPs of the main atmo-
spheric gases, as well as of methane, which constitutes the principal component of natural
gas. Today, liquid natural gas (LNG) represents one of the largest e and fast-growing e
industrial domains of application of cryogenics (see Fig. 1.1), together with the liquefaction
and separation of air gases (see Fig. 1.2). The densification by condensation and separation
by distillation of gases was historically e and remains today - the main driving force for
the cryogenic industry. This is exemplified not only by liquid oxygen, and by nitrogen

FIGURE 1.1 A 130,000 m3 liquid natural gas carrier with integrated invar tank.
 1.2 LOW TEMPERATURE IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 5

FIGURE 1.2 Cryogenic air separation plant with heat exchanger and distillation column towers.

used in chemical as well as metallurgical processes, but also by the cryogenic liquid propel-
lants of rocket engines (see Fig. 1.3), with the proposed use of hydrogen as a “clean” energy
vector in transportation (see Fig. 1.4).
As we have stated, cryogenic technology has the need for smaller cryocoolers because of
the advances in the miniaturization of electrical and optical devices and the need for cooling
and conducting efficiency. Cryogenic technology deals with materials at low temperatures
and the physics of their behavior at these temperatures. In this book, we try to demonstrate
the ongoing new applications are being discovered for cryocooled electrical and optical
sensors and devices, with particular emphasis on high-end commercial applications in med-
ical and scientific fields as well as in the aerospace and military industries.

(A) (B)

FIGURE 1.3 Rockets using cryogenic liquid propellants. (A) Ariane 5 (25 t liquid hydrogen, 130 t liquid oxygen).
(B) Space shuttle (100 t liquid hydrogen, 600 t liquid oxygen).
6 1. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGIES

FIGURE 1.4 Automotive liquid hydrogen fuel tank.

Refrigerators, cryocoolers, and microcoolers are needed by various commercial, industrial,

space, and military systems. Cryogenic cooling plays an important role in unmanned aerial
vehicle systems, infrared search and track sensors, missile warning receivers, satellite
tracking systems, and a host of other commercial and military systems.
Now with new-generation nuclear power plants that are known as GEN-IV, a lot of atten-
tion is focused toward making them more efficient and cost effective3 as well as using cryo-
genic techniques to implement energy storage in nuclear plants.4 Energy storage in nuclear
power plants (NPPs) resides on a novel method of integration of nuclear power generation
with cryogenic energy storage (CES) to achieve an effective time shift of the electrical power
output. CES stores excess electricity in the form of cryogen (liquid air/nitrogen) through an
air liquefaction process at off-peak hours and recovers the stored power by expanding the
cryogen at peak hours.5
The quest for low temperatures, however, finds its origin in early thermodynamics, with
Amontons’s gas pressure thermometer (1703) opening the way for the concept of absolute
zero inferred a century later by Charles and Gay-Lussac and eventually formulated by
Kelvin. It is, however, with the advent of Boltzmann’s statistical thermodynamics in the
late nineteenth century that temperature e a phenomenological quantity - could be explained
in terms of microscopic structure and dynamics. Consider a thermodynamic system in a
macrostate, which can be obtained by a multiplicity of microstates. The entropy S of the
system was postulated by Boltzmann as
S ¼ kB log W (1.1)
with kB x1:38  1023 J/K. This formula, which founded statistical thermodynamics, is
displayed on Boltzmann’s grave in Vienna (see Fig. 1.5).
Adding reversibly heat dQ to the system produces a change of its entropy dS, with a
proportionality factor T that is precisely temperature
dQ
T ¼ (1.2)
dS
Thus, a low-temperature system can be defined as one to which a minute addition of heat
produces a large change in entropy, that is, a large change in its range of possible microscopic
 1.2 LOW TEMPERATURE IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 7

FIGURE 1.5 Lvdwig Boltzmann’s grave in the Zentralfriedh of Vienna, bearing the entropy formula.

configurations. Boltzmann also found that the average thermal energy of a particle in a
system in equilibrium at temperature T is
EwkB T (1.3)

Consequently, a temperature of 1K is equivalent to a thermal energy of 104 eV or 1023 J

per particle.
A temperature is therefore low for a given physical process when kB T is small compared to
the characteristic energy of the process that is considered.
Cryogenic temperatures thus reveal phenomena with low characteristic energy (Table 1.2)
and enable their application when significantly lower than the characteristic energy of the
TABLE 1.2 Characteristic Temperature of Low-Energy
Phenomena
Phenomenon Temperature (K)

Debye temperature of metals Few 100

High-temperature superconductors w100
Low-temperature superconductors w10

Intrinsic transport properties of metals <10

Cryopumping Few
Cosmic microwave background 2.7
Super fluid helium 4 2.2
Bolometers for cosmic radiation <1
Low density atomic Bose-Einstein condensates w10e6
8 1. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGIES

FIGURE 1.6 Helium-cooled superconducting devices. (A) large Hadron collider at CERN, (B) 5 MV HTS ship
propulsion motor (AMS), (C) Iter experimental fusion reactor, (D) whole-body MRI system (Bruker).

phenomenon of interest. From Tables 1.1 and 1.2, it is clear that “low-temperature” supercon-
ductivity requires helium cryogenics: several examples of helium-cooled superconducting
devices are shown in Fig. 1.6. Considering vapor pressures of gases at low temperature
(see Fig. 1.7), it is also clear that helium must be the working cryogen for achieving “clean”
vacuum with cryopumps.

1.3 DEFINING CRYOGENIC FLUIDS OR LIQUIDS

Cryogenic liquids, also known as cryogens, are gases at normal temperatures and pres-
sures. However, at low temperatures, they are in their liquid state. These liquids are
extremely cold and have boiling points less than 150
C (238
F). Even the vapors and gases
released from cryogenic liquids are very cold. They often condense the moisture in air,
creating a highly visible fog. Different cryogens become liquids under different conditions
of temperature and pressure, but all have two properties in common; extremely cold and
small amounts of liquid can expand into very large volumes of gas. Everyone who works
 1.3 DEFINING CRYOGENIC FLUIDS OR LIQUIDS 9

FIGURE 1.7 Vapor pressure of common gases at cryogenic temperature.

with cryogenic liquids must be aware of their hazards and know how to work safely with
them. Fig. 1.8 is a presentation of liquid nitrogen (LN).
The discovery of superconducting materials with critical temperatures significantly above
the boiling point of liquid nitrogen has provided new interest in reliable, low-cost methods of

FIGURE 1.8 Liquid nitrogen.

10 1. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGIES

producing high-temperature cryogenic refrigeration. The term “high temperature cryogenic”

describes temperatures ranging from above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen, 195.79
C
(77.36K; 320.42
F), up to 50
C (223.15K; 58.00
F), the generally defined upper limit of
study referred to as cryogenics.6 Cryogenicists use the Kelvin or Rankine temperature scales
present in nature.

1.3.1 Type of Cryogenic Liquids

Each cryogenic liquid has its own specific properties but most cryogenic liquids can be
placed into one of three groups:
• Inert Gases: Inert gases largely to any extent do not react chemically. They do not burn
or support combustion. Examples of this group are nitrogen, helium, neon, argon, and
krypton.
• Flammable Gases: Some cryogenic liquids produce a gas that can burn in air. The most
common examples are hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, and liquefied natural gas.
• Oxygen: Many materials considered as noncombustible can burn in the presence of
liquid oxygen. Organic materials can react explosively with liquid oxygen. The hazards
and handling precautions of liquid oxygen must therefore be considered separately
from other cryogenic liquids
It is generally agreed that cryogenic fluids are those whose boiling point (bp) at atmo-
spheric pressure are about 120K or lower, although liquid ethylene with its bp of 170K is
often included. A list of the cryogenic fluids, together with some selected properties, is given
in Table 1.3. Detailed properties are available commercially on computer disc.
Perhaps the most important and widely used fluids are LNG (bp ¼ w120K), liquid oxygen
(bp ¼ 90.2K), and liquid nitrogen (bp ¼ 77.3K).
The availability of cryogenic fluids forms an essential part of the infrastructure of a modern
industrialized and civilized society. One of the major reasons for using liquid cryogens is to allow
transport and storage as liquid at atmospheric pressure, rather than as high-pressure gas in thick-
walled vessels, although there is an energy penalty involved in refrigeration. However, the
distillation of liquid air (air separation) enables the production of very high-purity oxygen and
nitrogen. Plants producing up to several hundred tons per day and more of oxygen are common-
place, sometimes connected permanently to a chemical plant or steel works. Liquid nitrogend
formerly a byproduct of the processdis now a product in its own right, being used principally
as a convenient source of refrigeration, especially in the frozen food industry.
The other important byproduct of air separation is liquid argon, which, again, can be pro-
duced at a very high purity. For welding, it is increasingly being stored as liquid at the factory
rather than being delivered in high-pressure cylinders.
All cryogenic fluids except helium and hydrogen behave as “normal” fluids, their common
distinguishing features in general being a low specific heat and enthalpy of vaporization. All
gaseous cryogens are odorless, and all liquid cryogens are colorless apart from oxygen, which
is pale blue, and fluorine, which is pale yellow. They are all diamagnetic except oxygen,
which is quite strongly paramagnetic.
With the exception of oxygen, all the gases are asphyxiates, and even oxygen will not sup-
port human life in concentrations greater than about 60%. Fluorine and oxygen are powerful
 1.3 DEFINING CRYOGENIC FLUIDS OR LIQUIDS 11
TABLE 1.3 Some Properties of Cryogens at Their Normal Boiling Points
He4 n-H2 D2 Ne N2 CO F2 Ar O2 CH4 Kr Xe C2H4

Normal boiling 4.22 20.4 23.7 27.1 77.3 81.7 85.0 87.3 90.2 111.6 120.0 165.0 169.4
point (K)
Liquid density (kg/m3) 125 71.0 163 1205 809 792 1502 1393 1141 423 2400 3040 568

Liquid density/vapor 7.4 53 71 126 175 181 267 241 255 236 270 297 272
density
Enthalpy of vaporization 20.42 446 301 86 199 216 175 161 213 512 108 96 482
(kJ/kg)
Enthalpy of vaporization 80.6 899 1211 2333 5565 6040 6659 6441 6798 8206 9042 12.604 13.534
(kJ/kg-mol)
Volume of liquid 1410 114 74 33 22 21 14 16 15 17 14 13 13
vaporized by energy input
of 1W-hr (cm3)
Dynamic viscosity of 3.3 13.3 28.3 124 152 e 240 260 195 119 404 506 170
liquid (mNsec/m2)
Surface tension (mN/m) 0.10 1.9 w3 4.8 8.9 9.6 14.8 12.5 13.2 13.2 5.5 18.3 16.5
Thermal conductivity of 18.7 100 w100 113 135 e e 128 152 187 94 74 192
liquid (mW/mK)
Volume of gas at 15
C 739 830 830 1412 681 806 905 824 842 613 689 520 475
released from 1 volume of
liquid

Pressure of 1.01,323 bar.

Hands BA, editor. Cryogenic Engineering: Academic Press; 1996.

oxidizers even in liquid form. Some cryogens are flammable; hydrogen is especially delicate
to handle.
Hydrogen is an unusual fluid in that the molecule exists in two forms known as ortho and
para, with somewhat different properties. The ratio of ortho to para is determined by conven-
tional thermodynamics and is dependent on temperature. There are also different forms of
isotopes (deuterium and tritium) and these two isotopes are used in driving fusion energy
production via either magnetic confinement fusion7 or inertial confinement fusion.7
An explanation of the behavior of the hydrogen molecule requires knowledge of quantum
mechanics and will not be discussed here. At low temperatures, equilibrium hydrogen (e-H2)
is entirely para. At room temperature, the ortho:para ratio is 3. The equilibrium state at room
temperature is often known as normal hydrogen or n-hydrogen. The transition from the ortho
to the para state involves a heat of conversion dwhich can be greater than the enthalpy of
vaporization dso that the vaporization rates of hydrogen are often much larger than ex-
pected. It is for this reason that a catalyst is often included in a hydrogen liquefier to ensure
that only para hydrogen is present in the liquid.8
Helium is the cryogenic fluid that can be claimed to be unique. Because of its low molec-
ular weight and chemical inertness, quantum mechanical effects are important. There are two
isotopic forms: the natural form He4, which has a nucleus consisting of two protons and two
12 1. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGIES

neutrons; , and the comparatively rare manufactured form He3, with only one neutron. The
two isotopes have markedly different properties due to their different nuclear spins. He3 is
not considered here.
Below 2.2K, He4 becomes “superfluid” and is often known as HeII, the “normal” liquid
being known as “’HeI.”’. The locus of the HeI/HeII transition is,is known as the “’Llambda
line or l line”’ from the shape of the curve of specific heat as a function of temperature. The
phase diagram of He4 is shown in Fig. 1.9, inbib8 which features of particular interest are the
absence of a triple point and the fact that the liquid can be solidified only under pressure
(greater than about 26 bars).
The temperature of the normal/superfluid transition depends somewhat on pressure. One
end of this boundary forms with solid HeI and HeII the “upper lambda point” (at 1.77K and
30.2 bars). The other end of the line (at 2.18K, 0.005 bar), where vapor, HeI, and HeII coexist,
is known as the “lower lambda point.”
HeI behaves as a conventional liquid (except when near the l line) but requires much more
care in handling than do other cryogenic fluids, principally because of its extremely low
latent heat of vaporization. HeII is quite different, having a variety of properties that are
very different from those of any other liquid. It will, for instance, climb up over the edge
of a container and drip off the bottom; it has a small or zero viscosity and a very large thermal
conductivity. Flow velocity through fine capillaries is independent of the pressure head and
is greater in tubes of smaller diameter. Flow may be induced by a temperature gradient in the
absence of any pressure gradient. A consequence of the very high thermal conductivity is that
below the l point, boiling ceases and the liquid becomes “quiescent,” although the rate of
heat transfer remains very high. Vinen has published a brief but useful review of the
properties of superfluid helium.

FIGURE 1.9 From cryogenic engineering by hand.8

 1.3 DEFINING CRYOGENIC FLUIDS OR LIQUIDS 13

1.3.2 Thermophysical Properties

The simplest way of cooling equipment with a cryogenic fluid is to make use of its latent
heat of vaporization (e.g., by immersion in a bath of boiling liquid). Consequently, the useful
temperature range of cryogenic fluids is that in which there exists latent heat of vaporization,
that is, between the triple point and the critical point, with a particular interest in the NBPd
the saturation temperature at atmospheric pressure. These data are given in Table 1.1. In this
introduction to cryogenics, we will concentrate on two cryogens: helium, which is the only
liquid at very low temperature, and nitrogen for its wide availability and ease of use for
precooling equipment and for thermal shielding.
To develop a feeling about properties of these cryogenic fluids, it is instructive to compare
them with those of water (see Table 1.4). In both cases, but particularly with helium, appli-
cations operate much closer to the critical point, that is, in a domain where the difference be-
tween the liquid and vapor phases is much less marked: the ratio of liquid to vapor densities
and the latent heat associated with the change of phase are much smaller. Due to the low
values of its critical pressure and temperature, helium can be used as a cryogenic coolant
beyond the critical point, in the supercritical state. It is also interesting to note that while
liquid nitrogen resembles water as concerns density and viscosity, liquid helium is much
lighter and less viscous.
This latter property makes it a medium of choice for permeating small channels inside
superconducting magnet windings and thus stabilizing the superconductor.

1.3.3 Liquid Boil-Off

The factor of 10 in latent heat of vaporization between helium and nitrogen, combined
with the lower density of the former, induces a large difference in vaporization rates under
the same applied heat load (Table 1.5). This illustrates the need for implementing much better
insulation techniques in liquid helium vessels to achieve comparable holding times.
Boil-off measurements constitute a practical method for measuring the heat load of a cryo-
stat holding a saturated cryogen bath. In steady conditions, that is, provided the liquid level
in the bath is maintained constant, the boil-off m_ vap precisely equals the vapor flow m_ out

TABLE 1.4 Properties of Helium and Nitrogen Compared to Water

Property Helium Nitrogen Water

Normal boiling point (NBP) (K) 4.2 77 373

Critical temperature (K) 5.2 126 647
Critical pressure (bar) 2.3 34 221
3
Liquid density (kg/m ) 125 808 960
a
Liquid density ratio 7.4 175 1600
a
Heat of vaporization (kJ/kg) 20.4 199 2260
a
Liquid viscosity (mP1) 3.3 152 278
a
At NBP.
14 1. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGIES

TABLE 1.5 Vaporization of Liquid Helium and Liquid Nitrogen at

Normal Boiling Point Under 1 W Applied Heat Load
Cryogen (mg/s) (1/h Liquid) (1/min Gas NTP)

Helium 48 1.38 16.4

Nitrogen 5 0.02 0.24

escaping the cryostat, which can be warmed up to room temperature and measured in a
conventional gas flowmeter. On decreasing the liquid level, though, part of the vapor will
take the volume in the cryostat previously occupied by the liquid, which has vaporized,
and the escaping flow will be lower than the boil-off. More precisely, if the boil-off vapor
is taken at saturation in equilibrium with the liquid


rv
_ _
mout ¼ mvap 1  < m_ vap (1.4)
r[

The escaping gas flow measured must, therefore, be corrected upward to obtain the true
boil-off. From values of saturated liquid to vapor density ratios in Table 1.4, this correction
factor is only 1.006 for nitrogen and can therefore be neglected. For helium, though, it
amounts to 1.16 and must clearly be taken into account.

1.3.4 Cryogen Use for Equipment Cool-Down

For both fluids, the sensible heat of the vapor over the temperature range from liquid satu-
ration to ambient is comparable to or larger than the latent heat of vaporization. This pro-
vides a valuable cooling potential at intermediate temperature, which can be used for
thermal shielding or for precooling of equipment from room temperature. The heat balance
equation for cooling a mass of, say, iron mFe of specific heat CFe ðTÞ at temperature T by vapor-
izing a mass dm of cryogenic liquid at saturation temperature Tv , latent heat of vaporization
Lv and vapor specific heat C taken as constant, is assuming perfect heat exchange with the
liquid and the vapor.

mFe CFe ðTÞdT ¼ ½Lv þ CðT  Tv Þdm (1.5)

Hence, the specific liquid cryogen requirement for cool-down from temperature T0 :
Z
m T
CFe ðTÞdT
¼ (1.6)
mFe T0 Lv þ CðT  Tv Þ

The term CðT  Tv Þ adding to Lv in the denominator brings a strong attenuation to the
specific liquid requirement, provided there is good heat exchange between the solid and
the escaping vapor. Calculated values of specific liquid cryogen requirements for iron are
given in Table 1.6, clearly demonstrating the interest of recovering the sensible heat of helium
vapor, as well as that of precooling equipment with liquid nitrogen.
 1.3 DEFINING CRYOGENIC FLUIDS OR LIQUIDS 15
TABLE 1.6 Volume of Liquid Cryogens Required to Cool Down 1 kg of Iron1
Latent Heat and Enthalpy
Using Latent Heat Only of Vapor

Liquid helium from 290K to 4.2K 29.5 0.75

Liquid helium from 77K to 4.2K 1.46 0.12

Liquid nitrogen from 290K to 77K 0.45 0.29

1.3.5 Phase Domains

Typical operating domains with cryogenic helium are shown in Fig. 1.10, superimposed on
the peculiar phase diagram of the substance: the solid phase exists only under pressure and
the normal liquid HeI undergoes a transition to another liquid phase below 2.2K, HeII,
instead of solidifying. There is no latent heat associated with this phase transition but a
peak in the specific heat, the shape of which gave the name “l-line” to the phase boundary.
HeII exhibits superfluidity, a macroscopic quantum behavior entailing very high thermal
conductivity and very low viscosity. While operating in saturated HeI provides fixed (satu-
ration) temperature and high boiling heat transfer at moderate heat flux, it may develop in-
stabilities in two-phase flow and is prone to boiling crisis above the peak nucleate boiling flux
(about 1 W/cm2). The use of monophase supercritical helium in forced-flow systems avoids
the problems of two-phase flow. However, the strongly varying properties of the fluid near
the critical point may create other issues, such as density wave oscillations. More fundamen-
tally, supercritical helium exhibits no latent heat, so that applied heat loads result in temper-
ature increases, which must be contained by high flow rate or periodic recooling in extended
systems. At lower temperature, HeII demonstrates excellent transport properties, which
make it a coolant of choice for advanced superconducting devices.9 Besides the thermody-
namic penalty of lower temperature, the use of HeII imposes that at least part of the cryogenic
circuits operate at subatmospheric pressure, thus requiring efficient compression of low-
pressure vapor and creating risks of dielectric breakdown and contamination by air in-leaks.
Thermophysical properties of cryogenic fluids are available from tables, graphs, and software
running on personal computers, a selection of which is listed in the bibliography (Fig. 1.10).

1.3.6 Personal Protective Equipment to Be Worn

As part of safety requirement to handle any cryogenic liquids, we need to consider the
following personal protective equipment (PPE) and wear them during handling of such
liquids to protect the skin and eyes.
• Be sure to work in a well-ventilated area to prevent oxygen-deficient atmospheres under
19.5% oxygen.
• Wear safety shoes when handling containers along with long-sleeved shirts and trousers
without cuffs.
• ALWAYS wear a full-face shield and splash-resistant safety goggles. Contact lenses
should not be worn.
16 1. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGIES

FIGURE 1.10 Phase diagram of helium showing typical operating domains.

• Wear a lab coat and an apron when dispensing liquid nitrogen.

• Wear insulated or leather gloves when handling liquid nitrogen or large, cold objects.

1.3.7 Handling Cryogenic Liquids

Handling the cryogenic liquids requires the following precautions as part of standard
operating procedures:
• Never allow any unprotected part of the body to touch noninsulated pipes or vessels
that contain cryogenic fluids. Tissue damage that results is similar to frostbite or thermal
burns.
• The extremely cold metal will cause flesh to stick fast and tear when one attempts to
withdraw from it.
• Use a suitable hand truck for container movement.
• Do not drop, tip, or roll containers on their sides. Do not remove or interchange connec-
tions. If user experiences any difficulty operating container valve or with container
connections, discontinue use and contact supplier. Use the proper connection. DO NOT
USE ADAPTERS.
• Many substances become brittle and may shatter when cold, sending pieces of the
material flying. Avoid common glass and large, solid plastics.

1.3.8 Storing Cryogenic Liquids

To store the cryogenic liquids, consider the following steps:
• Store and use with adequate ventilation.
 1.3 DEFINING CRYOGENIC FLUIDS OR LIQUIDS 17
• Do not store in a confined space.
• Cryogenic containers are equipped with pressure relief devices to control internal pres-
sure. Under normal conditions, these containers will periodically vent product. Do not
plug, remove, or tamper with pressure relief device as this could cause an explosion.
• Containers shall be handled and stored in an upright position.
• Small quantities of liquid nitrogen can be stored in Dewar bottles. Dewar bottles are
hollow-walled glass-lined containers, which provide excellent insulation.

1.3.9 Hazards of Cryogenic Liquids

Hazards of cryogenic liquids are listed:
• Extreme Cold Hazard: Cryogenic liquids and their associated cold vapors and gases
can produce effects on the skin similar to a thermal burn. Brief exposures that would
not affect skin on the face or hands can damage delicate tissues such as the eyes.
Prolonged exposure of the skin or contact with cold surfaces can cause frostbite. The
skin appears waxy yellow. There is no initial pain, but there is intense pain when frozen
tissue thaws. Unprotected skin can stick to metal that is cooled by cryogenic liquids.
The skin can then tear when pulled away. Even nonmetallic materials are dangerous to
touch at low temperatures. Prolonged breathing of extremely cold air may damage the
lungs.
• Asphyxiation Hazard: When cryogenic liquids form a gas, the gas is very cold and
usually heavier than air. This cold, heavy gas does not disperse very well and can
accumulate near the floor. Even if the gas is nontoxic, it displaces air. When there is not
enough air or oxygen, asphyxiation and death can occur. Oxygen deficiency is a serious
hazard in enclosed or confined spaces. Small amounts of liquid can evaporate into very
large volumes of gas.
• Toxic Hazards: Each gas can cause specific health effects. Refer to the Myelodysplastic
syndromes for information about the toxic hazards of a particular cryogen.

1.3.10 General Hazards of Cryogenic Liquids

The following points are important to bear in mind when it comes to general hazards of
cryogenic liquids:
• Fire Hazard: Flammable gases such as hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, and LNG
can burn or explode. Hydrogen is particularly hazardous. It forms flammable mixtures
with air over a wide range of concentration. It is also very easily ignited.
• Oxygen-Enriched Air: When transferring liquid nitrogen through noninsulated metal
pipes, the air surrounding a cryogen containment system can condense. Nitrogen, which
has a lower boiling point than oxygen, will evaporate first. This evaporation can leave
an oxygen-enriched condensate on the surface that can increase the flammability or
combustibility of materials near the system, creating potentially explosive conditions.
Equipment containing cryogenic fluids must be kept clear of combustible materials to
minimize the fire hazard potential.
18 1. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGIES

• Liquid Oxygen Hazard: Liquid oxygen contains 4000 times more oxygen by volume
than normal air. Materials that are usually considered noncombustible (carbon and
stainless steels, cast iron, aluminum, zinc, Teflon [polytetrafluoroethylene], etc.) may
burn in the presence of liquid oxygen. Many organic materials can react explosively,
especially if a flammable mixture is produced. Clothing splashed or soaked with liquid
oxygen can remain highly flammable for hours.
• Embrittlement: Rubber, plastic, and carbon steel are some examples of materials that
can be can become brittle and break with very little stress applied to them. Try to avoid
using these materials when working with cryogenic. If these materials are used, perform
an inspection before use.

1.4 HEAT TRANSFER AND THERMAL DESIGN

With the exception of superfluid helium, the heat transfer processes at work in cryogenics
are basically the same as for any engineering temperature range. The strong variation of ther-
mal properties of materials and fluids at low temperature, however, has two consequences:
the relative and absolute magnitudes of the processes may be very different from those at
room temperature, and the equations become nonlinear, thus requiring numerical integra-
tion. Cryogenic thermal design is the art of using these processes adequately, either for
achieving thermal insulation (cryostats, transfer lines) or for improving thermal coupling
between equipment and coolant (cool-down and warm-up, thermal stabilization,
thermometry).10

1.4.1 Solid Conduction

Heat conduction in solids is represented by Fourier’s law, as it can be seen in Eq. (1.7), and
expressing proportionality of heat flux with thermal gradient. In one dimension, this reads

dT
Q ¼ kðTÞA (1.7)
dx

This equation also defines the thermal conductivity k(T) of the material, which varies with
temperature. Conduction along a solid rod of length L, cross section A spanning a tempera-
ture range ½T1 ; T2  (e.g., the support strut of a cryogenic vessel, ) is then given by the integral
form as:
Z T2
A
Q ¼ kðTÞdT (1.8)
L T1

R T2
Thermal conductivity integrals T1 kðTÞdT of standard materials are tabulated in the
literature. A few examples are given in Table 1.7, showing the large differences between good
and bad thermal conducting materials, the strong decrease of conductivity at low tempera-
tures, particularly for pure metals, and the interest of thermal interception to reduce
 1.4 HEAT TRANSFER AND THERMAL DESIGN 19
TABLE 1.7 Thermal Conductivity Integrals of Selected Materials (W/m)
From Vanishing Low Temperature up to 20K 30K 290K

OFHC copper 11,000 60,600 152,000

DHP copper 395 5,890 46,100

Aluminum 1100 2,740 23,300 72,100
2024 Aluminum alloy 160 2420 22,900
AISI 304 stainless steel 16.3 349 3,060
G-10 Glass-epoxy composite 2 18 153

conductive heat in-leak in supports. As an example, the thermal conductivity integral of

austenitic stainless steel from 80K to vanishingly low temperature is 9 times smaller than
from 290Kdhence, the benefit of providing a liquid nitrogenecooled heat sink in the support
of a liquid helium vessel. The lower thermal conductivity values of nonmetallic composites,
combined with their good mechanical properties, make them materials of choice for
low-heat in-leak structural supports (Fig. 1.11).

1.4.2 Radiation
Blackbody radiation strongly and solely depends on the temperature of the emitting body,
with the maximum of the power spectrum given by Wien’s law

lmax T ¼ 2898 ½mm K (1.9)

and the total power radiated is given by the StefaneBoltzmann law as:

Q ¼ sAT 4 (1.10)

FIGURE 1.11 Nonmetallic composite support post with heat intercepts for large Hadron collider super-
conducting magnets at CERN.
20 1. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGIES

with the StefaneBoltzmann’ constant s x 5.67  108 W/m2 K4. The dependence of the radi-
ative heat flux on the fourth power of temperature makes a strong plea for radiation shielding
of low-temperature vessels with one or several shields cooled by liquid nitrogen or cold he-
lium vapor. Conversely, it makes it very difficult to cool equipment down to low temperature
by radiation only, despite the 2.7K background temperature of outer space and notwith-
standing the Sun’s radiation and the Earth’s albedo. While they can be avoided by proper
attitude control, satellites or interplanetary probes can make use of passive radiators to
release heat down to only about 100K, and embarked active refrigerators are required to
reach lower temperatures.
Technical radiating surfaces are usually described as “graybodies” and characterized by an
emissivity ε < 1.

Q ¼ εsAT 4 (1.11)

The emissivity ε strictly depends on the material, surface finish, radiation wavelength, and
angle of incidence. For materials of technical interest, measured average values are found in
the literature,5 a subset of which is given in Table 1.8. As a general rule, emissivity decreases
at low temperature for good electrical conductors and for polished surfaces. As Table 1.7
shows, a simple way to obtain this combination of properties is to wrap cold equipment
with aluminum foil. Conversely, radiative thermal coupling requires emissivity as close as
possible to that of a blackbody, which can be achieved in practice by special paint or adequate
surface treatment, such as anodizing of aluminum.
The net heat flux between two “gray” surfaces at temperatures T1 and T2 is similarly given
by
 
Q ¼ EsA T14  T24 (1.12)

TABLE 1.8 Emissivity of Some Technical Materials at Low Temperature

Radiation From 290K Radiation From 77K
Surface at 77K Surface at 4.2K

Stainless steel, as found 0.34 0.12

Stainless steel, mesh polished 01.2 0.07
Stainless, electropolished 0.10 0.07

Stainless steel plus aluminum foil 0.05 0.01

Aluminum, black anodized 0.95 0.75
Aluminum, as found 0.12 0.07
Aluminum, mesh polished 0.10 0.06
Aluminum, electropolished 0.08 0.04
Copper, as found 0.12 0.06

Copper, mesh polished 0.06 0.02

 1.4 HEAT TRANSFER AND THERMAL DESIGN 21
with the emissivity factor E being a function of the emissivities ε1 and ε2 of the surfaces, of the
geometrical configuration, and of the type of reflection (specular or diffuse) between the sur-
faces. Its precise determination can be quite tedious, apart from the few simple geometrical
cases of flat plates, nested cylinders, and nested spheres.
If an uncooled shield with the same emissivity factor E is inserted between the two sur-
faces, it will “float” at temperature Ts given by the energy balance equation
   
Qs ¼ EsA T14  Ts4 ¼ EsA Ts4  T24 (1.13)

Solving for Ts yields the value of Qs ¼ Q=2: the heat flux is halved in presence of the
floating shield. More generally, if n floating shields of equal emissivity factor are inserted be-
tween the two surfaces, the radiative heat flux is divided by n þ 1.

1.4.3 Convection
The diversity and complexity of convection processes cannot be treated here. Fortunately,
in the majority of cases, the correlations established for fluids at higher temperature are fully
applicable to the cryogenic domain,11 and reference is made to the abundant technical liter-
ature on the subject.
In the case of forced convection, one should keep in mind that the high density and low
viscosity of cryogenic fluids often result in flows with a high Reynolds number Re and, hence,
strong convection. The Nüsselt number Ni, which characterizes the efficiency of convective
heat transfer relative to conduction in the fluid, is an increasing function of the Prandtl Pr
and Re, respectively, representing the ratio of mass to heat transport, and the ratio of inertial
to viscous forces

Ni ¼ f ðPr; ReÞ (1.14)

The case of natural convection at low temperature, however, deserves particular mention,
as this mechanism, usually weak at room temperature except on very large scales, becomes
dominant in cryogenic equipment. In this case, the Nüsselt number is an increasing function
of the Prandtl and Grashof number Gr, with the latter representing the ratio of buoyancy to
viscous forces

Ni ¼ f ðPr; GrÞ (1.15)

For gases, while Pr is about constant and independent of temperature, Gr is proportional

to the heated volume, temperature difference, and coefficient of volume thermal expansion,
which scales as 1=T in the ideal case. Consequently, there may exist in helium cryostats strong
natural convection processes with Grashof numbers up to the 1012 range, that is, higher than
those encountered in the general circulation of the Earth’s atmosphere. This has been used by
hydrodynamics specialists to study turbulent convection in extreme conditions. The cryo-
genic engineer sees it as a powerful mechanism for cooling equipment and homogenizing
its temperature.
22 1. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGIES

1.4.4 Gas Conduction

Since J. Dewar’s invention (1898) of the cryogenic vessel that bears his name, evacuated
envelopes provide the best insulation against heat transport in gaseous media. At low pres-
sure, convection becomes negligible and only residual gas conduction is at work. This process
operates in two distinct regimes, depending on the value of the mean free path of gas
molecules [ relative to the typical distance d between the cold and warm surfaces.
When [  d corresponding to higher residual pressure, the probability of interaction of a
given molecules with others before it travels distance d is high viscous regimen, and heat
diffuses as in any continuous medium; we can write:

dT
Q ¼ kðTÞA (1.16)
dx

Note that the thermal conductivity kðTÞ of the gas is independent of pressure.
When [[d at low residual pressure, the molecular regimen prevails and the heat transfer
between two surfaces at temperatures T1 and T2 is given by Kennard’s law

Q ¼ AaðTÞUPðT2  T1 Þ (1.17)

where U is a parameter depending on the gas species, and a is the “accommodation coeffi-
cient” representing the thermalization of molecules on the surfaces; its value depends on
T1 , T2 , the gas species, and the geometry of the facing surfaces. Note that the conductive
heat flux in molecular regimen is proportional to pressure P and independent of the spacing
between the surfaces (and therefore not amenable to the concept of thermal conductivity).
Typical values of heat flux by gas conduction at cryogenic temperature are given in Table 1.9.

1.4.5 Multilayer Insulation

MLI is based on multiple reflecting shields wrapped around the cryogenic piece of equip-
ment to be insulated, with the aim of benefiting from the n þ 1 reduction factor in radiative

TABLE 1.9 Typical Values of Heat Flux to Vanishingly Low Temperature

Between Flat Plates (W/m2)
Blackbody radiation from 290K 401
Blackbody radiation from 80K 2.3
Gas conduction (100 mPa helium) from 290K 19
Gas conduction (1 mPa helium) from 290K 0.19
Gas conduction (100 mPa helium) from 80K 6.8

Gas conduction (1 mPa helium) from 80K 0.07

Multilayer insulation (MLI) (30 layers) from 290K, pressure < 1 mPa 1e15
MLI (10 layers) from 80K, pressure < 1 mPa 0.05
MLI (10 layers) from 80K, pressure 100 mPa 1e2
 1.4 HEAT TRANSFER AND THERMAL DESIGN 23

FIGURE 1.12 Prefabricated multilayer insulation blankets being installed around an accelerator superconducting
magnet.

heat in-leak. In practice, this is implemented in the form of aluminum or aluminized polymer
films, with low packing density achieved by crinkling or by insertion of a net-type spacer be-
tween layers. The wrapping can be made by winding the layers and spacer in situ or by pre-
fabricated blankets installed and held in place by insulating fasteners (Fig. 1.12). In all cases,
MLI is a complex thermal system, involving the combination of radiation, solid-contact con-
duction, and residual-gas conduction between layers. As a result, increasing the number of
layers, while beneficial for cutting radiation, usually results in increased packing with
more contacts and trapped residual gas between layers, two effects that increase heat transfer.
In view of the nonlinearity of these elementary processes, thermal optimization requires
layer-to-layer modeling and efficient control of the critical parameters. In practice, perfor-
mance is measured on test samples, and measured data are available from an abundant liter-
ature. Typical values for some practical MLI systems are given in Table 1.9.
Of particular interest is the case of operation in degraded vacuum, where the heat in-leak
by molecular conduction is directly proportional to the residual pressure. The presence of a
multilayer system, which segments the insulation space into many cells thermally in series
significantly, contains the increase in heat in-leak to the low-temperature surface (Table 1.8).
In this respect, the multilayer system is no longer used for its radiative properties but for the
reduction of molecular gas conduction.
In the extreme case of complete loss of vacuum in a liquid helium vessel, MLI also
efficiently limits the heat flux, which would otherwise be very high due to condensation of
air on the cold wall, thus alleviating the requirements for emergency discharge systems.

1.4.6 Vapor Cooling of Necks and Supports

The enthalpy of cryogen vapor escaping from a liquid bath can be used to continuously
intercept conduction heat along solid supports and necks connecting the cryogenic bath
with the room temperature environment (Fig. 1.13).
Assuming steady state and perfect heat exchange between the escaping vapor and the
solid, the energy balance equation reads

dT
kðTÞA _
¼ Qv þ mCðT  Tv Þ (1.18)
dx
24 1. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGIES

FIGURE 1.13 Vapor cooling of necks and supports with perfect heat exchange.

where Qv is the heat reaching the liquid bath and m_ is the vapor mass flow rate. In the partic-
ular case of self-sustained vapor cooling, that is, when the vapor mass flow rate m_ precisely
equals the boil-off from the liquid bath,

Qv ¼ Lv m_ (1.19)

Combining Eqs. (1.18) and (1.19) and integrating yields the value of Qv
Z T0
A kðTÞ
Qv ¼ dT (1.20)
L C
Tv
1 þ ðT  Tv Þ
Lv

The denominator of the integrand clearly acts as an attenuation term for the conduction
integral. Numerical results for helium and a few materials of technical interest appear in
Table 1.10. If properly used, the cooling power of the vapor brings an attenuation of 1 to 2
orders of magnitude in the conductive heat in-leak.
Vapor cooling can also be used for continuous interception of heat loads other than solid
conduction. In cryogenic storage and transport vessels with vapor-cooled shields, it lowers
shield temperature and thus reduces radiative heat in-leak to the liquid bath. In vapor-
cooled current leads, a large fraction of the resistive power dissipation by Joule heating is
taken by the vapor flow, to minimize the residual heat reaching the liquid bath.12
A worked-out example of how these diverse thermal insulation techniques are imple-
mented in a real design is given in Lebrun.13
 1.5 REFRIGERATION AND LIQUEFACTION 25
TABLE 1.10 Attenuation of Heat Conduction Between 290K and 4K by Self-sustained
Helium Vapor Cooling (W/cm)
Material Purely Conductive Regime Self-Sustained Vapor Cooling

ETP copper 1620 128

OFHC copper 1520 110

Aluminum 1100 728 39.9

Nickel 99% pure 213 8.65
Constantan 51.6 1.94
AISI 300 stainless steel 30.6 0.92

1.5 REFRIGERATION AND LIQUEFACTION

Refrigeration and liquefaction of gases are historically at the root of cryogenics, as they
constitute the enabling technology, which gave access to the low-temperature domain.
They have developed over the years along several lines to become a specialized subject,
which would deserve a thorough presentation. In the following, we shall briefly describe
the basic thermodynamics, the cooling processes at work, and the corresponding equipment
in the case of helium refrigerators/liquefiers based on the Claude cycle. For a more complete
review, see Wagner.14

1.5.1 Thermodynamics of Refrigeration

A refrigerator is a machine raising heat Qi from a low-temperature source Ti to a higher-
temperature sink (usually room temperature) T0 by absorbing mechanical work Wi ; in doing
so, it rejects heat Q0 (see Fig. 1.14). These quantities are related through the application of the
first (Joule) and second (Clausius) principles of thermodynamics

Q0 ¼ Qi þ Wi (1.21)

Q0 Qi
 (1.22)
T0 Ti

FIGURE 1.14 Thermodynamic scheme of a refrigerator.

26 1. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGIES

In Eq. (1.22), the equality applies to the case of reversible process. From the above

Qi
Wi  T 0  Qi (1.23)
Ti

This expression can be written in three different ways. Introducing the reversible entropy
variation as DSi ¼ Qi =Ti , then we have;

Wi  T0 DSi  Qi (1.24a)

Another form isolates the group ½ðT0 =Ti Þ  1 as the proportionality factor between Qi and
Wi , that is, the minimum specific refrigeration work as:


T0
Wi  Qi 1 (1.24b)
Ti

As Carnot has shown in 1824, this minimum work can be only achieved through a cycle of
two isothermal and two adiabatic transforms (Carnot cycle). All other thermodynamic cycles
entail higher refrigeration work for the same refrigeration duty.
A third form of Eq. (1.23) is:

Wi  DEi (1.24c)

This introduces the variation of exergy DEi ¼ ðT0 =Ti Þ  1, a thermodynamic function rep-
resenting the maximum mechanical work content (Gouy’s “energy utilizable”) of a heat
quantity Qi at temperature Ti , given an environment at temperature T0 .
Eq. (24b) enables to calculate the minimum mechanical power needed to extract 1 W at
4.5K (saturated liquid helium temperature at 1.3 bar pressure, that is, slightly above atmo-
spheric) and reject it at 300K (room temperature), yielding a value of 65.7 W. This is the
power that would be absorbed by a refrigerator operating on a Carnot cycle between
4.5K and 300K. In practice, the best practical cryogenic helium refrigerators have an effi-
ciency of about 30% with respect to a Carnot refrigerator, hence a specific refrigeration
work of about 220.
Cryogenic refrigerators are often required to provide cooling duties at several tempera-
tures or in several temperature ranges, such as for thermal shields or continuous heat inter-
ception. Eq. (24b) can then be applied to the cooling duty at every temperature and every
elementary mechanical power Wi summed or integrated in the case of continuous cooling.
This also allows comparison of different cooling duties in terms of required mechanical work.

1.5.2 Helium Refrigerators versus Liquefiers

A 4.5K helium refrigerator absorbs heat isothermally at this temperature, usually by recon-
densing cold helium vapor at saturation (the saturation pressure is 1.3 bar). In contrast, a
liquefier also eventually condenses cold helium vapor at saturation, but starting from gaseous
 1.5 REFRIGERATION AND LIQUEFACTION 27

FIGURE 1.15 Helium refrigerator (A) versus liquefier (B).

helium at 300K, which it must first precool to 4.5K (Fig. 1.15). From Eq. (1.24a), the minimum
mechanical power for helium liquefaction is

Wliq ¼ Wcondens þ Wprecool (1.25)

Wliq ¼ T0 DScondens  Qcondens þ T0 DSprecool  Qprecool (1.26)

The heat quantities Qcondens and Qprecool exchanged at constant pressure are given by the
enthalpy variations DHcondens and DHprecool . With T0 ¼ 300K and the entropy and enthalpy dif-
ferences taken from thermodynamic tables, one finds Wliq ¼ 6628 W per g/s of helium lique-
fied. Given the minimum specific mechanical work of 65.7 at 4.5K, this yields an approximate
equivalence of about 100 W at 4.5K for 1 g/s liquefaction. More precisely, a liquefier produc-
ing 1 g/s liquid helium at 4.5K will absorb the same power (and thus have similar size) as a
refrigerator extracting about 100 W at 4.5K, provided they both have the same efficiency with
respect to the Carnot cycle. For machines with mixed refrigeration and liquefaction duties,
this equivalence can be approximately verified by trading some liquefaction against refriger-
ation around the design point and vice versa.
Note that for all recent equations, we will explain all thermodynamics roles and laws in the next few
chapters in more detail and at a basic level for readers who need a refreshment in thermodynamic and
heat transfer. However, readers who have a solid background can skip the next few chapters and
continue with the subject of cryogenic physics in later chapters of the book.
28 1. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGIES

1.5.3 Real Cycles and Refrigeration Equipment

So far, we have only addressed cryogenic refrigeration and liquefaction through thermo-
dynamics, that is, through the exchanges of mass, heat, and work at the boundaries of
machines seen as “blackboxes.” We will now consider cycles, cooling methods, and equip-
ment of real refrigerators.
To minimize the specific mechanical work requirement (and hence the size and power con-
sumption), an efficient refrigerator should try to approximate the Carnot cycle, which is rep-
resented by a rectangle on the temperature-entropy diagram: the two isotherms are
horizontal lines, while the two isentropic transforms are vertical lines. To liquefy helium,
the base of the rectangle should intercept the liquidevapor dome (Fig. 1.16).
However, superimposing this cycle on the temperature-entropy diagram of helium shows
that one should operate at a high pressure of about 613 kbar (!), with a first isentropic
compression from 1.3 bar to 82 kbar (!), followed by an isothermal compression. This is
clearly impractical, and real helium cycles are elongated along isobar (or isochoric) lines,
thus involving transforms, which require heat exchange between the high- and low-
pressure streams. This heat exchange can be performed in recuperative or regenerative
heat exchangers, respectively, for continuous or alternating flows. In the following, we focus
on the continuous-flow cycles using recuperative heat exchangers, which constitute the oper-
ating principles of large-capacity helium refrigerators and liquefiers.
Practical elementary cooling processes are shown on the temperature-entropy diagram,
which is depicted in Fig. 1.17. The gas stream can first undergo quasi-isobar cooling in a
counterflow heat exchanger (segment AB1): modern refrigerators make use of brazed
aluminum plate heat exchangers (Fig. 1.18). Refrigeration can be produced by adiabatic
(quasi-isentropic) expansion with extraction of mechanical work (segment AB’2): the expan-
sion engine is a gas turbine, with the extracted power transmitted to a compressor wheel
sharing a common shaft and later dissipated in a brake circuit (Fig. 1.19). A third process
is isoenthalpic JouleeThomson expansion, that is, without extraction of mechanical work,
in a valve or restriction (segment AB3).

613 kbar 82 kbar

T
300k

1.3 bar

4.5K
S
3.89 J/g K 8.07 J/g K

FIGURE 1.16 A hypothetical Carnot cycle for helium liquefaction.

 1.5 REFRIGERATION AND LIQUEFACTION 29

FIGURE 1.17 Elementary cooling processes shown on temperatureeentropy diagram.

FIGURE 1.18 Schematic view of a brazed aluminum plate heat exchanger.

Unfortunately, this latter process does not does work for ideal gases, the enthalpy of which
is a sole function of temperature. For real gases, however, enthalpy depends on both temper-
ature and pressure, so that isoenthalpic expansion can produce warming or cooling, depend-
ing on the slope of the isoenthalps on the diagram. To cool the gas stream, JouleeThomson
expansion must start below a limit called the “inversion temperature.” The values of inver-
sion temperature for cryogenic fluids (Table 1.11) show that while air can be cooled from
30 1. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGIES

FIGURE 1.19 Cryogenic turbo-expander.

TABLE 1.11 Maximum Values of JouleeThomson Inversion Temperature

Cryogen Maximum Inversion Temperature (K)

Helium 43

Hydrogen 202
Neo 260
Air 603
Nitrogen 623
Oxygen 761
 1.5 REFRIGERATION AND LIQUEFACTION 31
room temperature by JouleeThomson expansion (the risk of freezing the pressure reducer on
the air bottle is well known to scuba divers), helium must first be precooled down to below its
inversion temperature of 43K. The moderate downward slope of isoenthalps on the
temperatureeentropy diagram indicates that in any case, JouleeThomson expansion gener-
ates substantial entropy. Its relative inefficiency with respect to adiabatic expansion is, how-
ever, accepted in view of the simplicity of its implementation, particularly when it results in
partial condensation of the stream entailing two-phase flow conditions, which would be diffi-
cult to handle in an expansion turbine. In Chapter 14, we define the inversion temperature.
For better understanding of heat exchanger and compact heat exchanger, readers can refer
to famous book by Kay and London24 and their application of such heat exchanger in the
book books by Zohuri.4,15
These elementary cooling processes are combined in practical cycles; a common example
for helium refrigeration is provided by the Claude cycle and its refinements. A schematic
two-pressure, two-stage Claude cycle is shown in Fig. 1.20: gaseous helium, compressed to
high pressure in a lubricated screw compressor, is recooled to room temperature in water-
coolers, dried, and purified from oil aerosols down to the ppm level, before being sent to
the high-pressure side of the heat exchange line, where it is refrigerated by heat exchange.
This process takes place with the counterflow of cold gas returning on the low-pressure
side. Part of the flow is tapped from the high-pressure line and expanded in the turbines

FIGURE 1.20 Schematic example of two-pressure, two-stage Claude cycle: T-S diagram (left) and flow scheme
(right).
32 1. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGIES

before escaping to the low-pressure line. At the bottom of the heat exchange line, the remain-
ing high-pressure flow is expanded in a JouleeThomson valve and partially liquefied.
Large-capacity helium refrigerators and liquefiers operate under this principle, but with
many refinements aiming at meeting specific cooling duties and improving efficiency and
flexibility of operation, such as three- and sometimes four-pressure cycle processes. In this
case, liquid nitrogen precooling of the helium stream, numerous heat exchangers, many tur-
bines in series, or parallel arrangements, JouleeThomson expansion is replaced by adiabatic
expansion in a “wet” turbine, cold compressors to lower the refrigeration temperature below
4.5K. A view of such a large plant appears in Figs. 1.21Ae1.21C.
The capital cost of these complex machines is high but scales less than linearly with refrig-
eration power, which favors large units. Operating costs are dominated by that of electrical
energy, typically amounting to about 10% of the capital cost per year in the case of quasi-
continuous operation. For overall economy, it is therefore very important to seek high effi-
ciency, which is also easier to achieve on large units. For a review of these aspects, see Ref. 16.

FIGURE 1.21A Image of compressor station at CERN

FIGURE 1.21B Image of a 4.5K cold box for the LHC (Linde) at CERN
 1.6 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS 33

FIGURE 1.21C Front view of 4.5K cold box for the large hadron collider (Linda) at CERN.

1.6 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS

Liquefied gases, such as liquid nitrogen and liquid helium, are used in many cryogenic ap-
plications. Liquid nitrogen is the most commonly used element in cryogenics and is legally
purchasable around the world. Liquid helium is also commonly used and allows the lowest
attainable temperatures to be reached.
These liquids may be stored in Dewar flasks, which are double-walled containers with a
high vacuum between the walls to reduce heat transfer into the liquid. Typical laboratory
Dewar flasks are spherical, made of glass and protected in a metal outer container. Dewar
flasks for extremely cold liquids such as liquid helium have another double-walled container
filled with liquid nitrogen. Dewar flasks are named after their inventor, James Dewar, the
man who first liquefied hydrogen. Thermos bottles are smaller vacuum flasks fitted in a pro-
tective casing.
Cryogenic barcode labels are used to mark Dewar flasks containing these liquids and will
not frost over down to 195
C.
Cryogenic transfer pumps are the pumps used on LNG piers to transfer liquefied natural
gas from LNG carriers to LNG storage tanks, as are cryogenic valves.

1.6.1 Cryogenic Processing for Alloy Hardening

The field of cryogenics advanced during World War II when scientists found that metals
frozen to low temperatures showed more resistance to wear. Based on this theory of
34 1. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGIES

cryogenic hardening, the commercial cryogenic processing industry was founded in 1966 by
Ed Busch. With a background in the heat-treating industry, Busch founded a company in
Detroit called CryoTech in 1966, which merged with 300 Below in 1999 to become the world’s
largest and oldest commercial cryogenic processing company. Busch originally experimented
with the possibility of increasing the life of metal tools to anywhere between 200% and 400%
of the original life expectancy by using cryogenic tempering instead of heat treating. This
evolved in the late 1990s into the treatment of other parts.
Cryogens, such as liquid nitrogen, are further used for specialty chilling and freezing ap-
plications. Some chemical reactions, like those used to produce the active ingredients for the
popular statin drugs, which reduce cardiovascular disease, must occur at low temperatures of
approximately 100
C (148
F). Special cryogenic chemical reactors are used to remove re-
action heat and provide a low temperature environment. The freezing of foods and biotech-
nology products, like vaccines, requires nitrogen in blast freezing or immersion freezing
systems. Certain soft or elastic materials become hard and brittle at very low temperatures,
which make cryogenic milling (cryomilling) an option for some materials that cannot easily
be milled at higher temperatures.
Cryogenic processing is not a substitute for heat treatment but rather an extension of the
heatingequenchingetempering cycle. Normally, when an item is quenched, the final tempera-
ture is ambient. The only reason for this is that most heat treaters do not have cooling equipment.
There is nothing metallurgically significant about ambient temperature. The cryogenic process
continues this action from ambient temperature down to 320
F (140
R; 78K; 196
C). In
most instances, the cryogenic cycle is followed by a heat-tempering procedure. As not all alloys
have the same chemical constituents, the tempering procedure varies according to the material’s
chemical composition and thermal history and/or a tool’s particular service application.
The entire process takes 3 to 4 days.

1.6.2 Cryogenic Fuels

Another use of cryogenics is cryogenic fuels for rockets, with liquid hydrogen as the most
widely used example. Liquid oxygen is even more widely used but as an oxidizer, not a fuel.
NASA’s workhorse space shuttle used cryogenic hydrogen/oxygen propellant as its primary
means of getting into orbit. Liquid oxygen is also widely used with RP-1 kerosene, a noncryo-
genic hydrocarbon, such as in the rockets built for the Soviet space program by Sergei
Korolev.
Russian aircraft manufacturer Tupolev developed a version of its popular design Tu-154
(later known as Tu-155) with a cryogenic fuel system, known as the Tu-155. The plane
uses a fuel referred to as LNG and made its first flight in 1989.

1.6.3 Cryogenic Application in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is one of the most common methods to determine the
physical and chemical properties of atoms by detecting the radiofrequency absorbed and sub-
sequent relaxation of nuclei in a magnetic field. This is one of the most commonly used char-
acterization techniques and has applications in numerous fields. Primarily, the strong
magnetic fields are generated by supercooling electromagnets, although there are
 1.6 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS 35
spectrometers that do not require cryogens. In traditional superconducting solenoids, liquid
helium is used to cool the inner coils because it has a boiling point of around 4K at ambient
pressure. Inexpensive metallic superconductors can be used for the coil wiring. So-called
high-temperature superconducting compounds can be made to superconduct with the use
of liquid nitrogen (LN), which boils at around 77K.

1.6.4 Cryogenic Application in Magnetic Resonance Image

Cryogenics is the study and use of materials at extremely low temperatures. Such low tem-
peratures cause changes in the physical properties of materials that allow them to be used in
unusual engineering, industrial, and medical applications. For example, in the cryogenic tem-
perature range, air becomes a liquiddor even a soliddand living tissue freezes instantly.
Matter behaves strangely at the lowest temperatures of the cryogenic range. Electric currents
never stop flowing, liquids run uphill, and rubber becomes as brittle as glass. In medicine,
cryogenic cooling is used in some diagnostic techniques, such as magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI). Cryosurgery uses liquid nitrogen to kill unhealthy tissue by freezing it. Cryogenics is
expected to play an important role in the development of better procedures for preserving
human organs for transplantation.
MRI is a complex application of NMR where the geometry of the resonances is deconvo-
luted and used to image objects by detecting the relaxation of protons, which have been
perturbed by a radiofrequency pulse in the strong magnetic field. This is mostly used in
healthcare applications.

1.6.5 Cryogenic Application in Electric Power Transmission Within Big Cities

It is difficult to transmit power via overhead cables in big cities, so underground cables are
used (see Fig. 1.22). However, underground cables get heated and the resistance of the wire
increases, leading to waste of power. Superconductors could be used to increase power
throughput, although they would require cryogenic liquids such as nitrogen or helium to
cool special alloy-containing cables to increase power transmission. Several feasibility studies
have been performed, and the field is the subject of an agreement within the International
Energy Agency.

FIGURE 1.22 High-power and high-voltage electricity tower distribution grids.

36 1. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGIES

1.6.6 Cryogenic Application in Frozen Food Transport

Cryogenic gases are used in the transportation of large masses of frozen food. When very
large quantities of food must be transported to regions like war zones, earthquake-hit
regions, etc., they must be stored for a long time, so cryogenic food freezing is used.
Cryogenic food freezing is also helpful for large-scale food-processing industries. See
Fig. 1.23 for transportation of cryogenic gases.
Cryogenic technology gives low-temperature applications in food sector. There is a
tremendous scope for application of cryogenic technology in food processing and preserva-
tion. Cryopreservation is the only viable method available for long-term preservation of both
plant and animal origin species, such as dairy products. Cryogenic preservation of food offers
great promise for the country, both for export and for domestic consumptions, due to assur-
ance of the food quality and safety. Most industries use evaporative air chilling systems; pres-
ervation by cryogenic technology is less familiar in this sector. Product shrinkage, toughening
and loss of tenderness, product shelf-life, microbial products, drip loss, and dehydration los-
ses are the major quality considerations in the freezing of food products, such as meat
products.17
Preservation with the use cryogenic technology will improve the situation. Proper eco-
nomic considerations including payback period and life of the system, as well as others,.
should be taken into account while selecting the cryogenic applications. The availability of
indigenous cryogenic technology for food processing would ensure the production of
better-quality products within the country and allow the export the processed products to
different countries.
In food processing, cryogenics implies the use of very low-temperature materials for chill-
ing and freezing. This type of refrigeration differs from other procedures because it does not
depend on an external low-temperature production systems.
The freezing of foods and biotechnology products, like vaccines, requires nitrogen in blast
freezing or immersion freezing systems. Cryogenic freezing with nitrogen is carried out by
first passing the food through nitrogen vapor at about 50
C and then freezing the food
by spraying the refrigerant directly onto the food. Fish, meat, poultry, fruit, vegetables,
and bakery products can all be frozen in this way. The extremely low-temperature character-
istics of cryogenic food provide the ultimate in chilling and freezing rates.
The physical properties of the cryogenic gases provided an important tool to help the food
industry to improve the plant automation, versatility, efficiency and manufacturing cost.

FIGURE 1.23 Cryogenic gases delivery truck at a supermarket.

Another random document with
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brother in a glen near Locheynort, where they had all their cattle a
grazing at that time, and which happened to be very near the rod
they were to pass that night.[498]
When the prince was informed of it, he would needs go to see
her, and tell her of the message he had from her stepfather. When
they were near the little house where she was asleep, for her brother
was not at home, Neil left the prince and O’Neil at a little distance
off,’till he went in and wakened her; she got scarcely on the half of
her close, when the prince, with his baggage upon his back, was at
the door, and saluted her very kindly; after which she brought to him
a part of the best cheer she had, among the rest was a large bowl
full of creme, of which he took two or three hearty go-downs, and his
fellow-travellers swallowed the rest.
He discovered to her her stepfather’s proposal, and ask’t whether
she was willing to run the risque. She joyfully accepted of the offer
without the least hesitation, and that no time might be lost, she was
ordered immediately away to Benbicula to consult with her step-
father and the Lady Clanranald, to get every thing in readiness as
soon as possible, and to send them word back again next day how
all was going on with them. Having taken leave of Miss Flora, they
pursued their journey, and about sunrise they arrived upon the side
of a hill three miles from Corrodale, where they sate down under a
rock in order to take some rest. The prince, as he took no victuals
the night before, complained of hunger, and ask’t of Neil if he had
any thing to eat; Neil gave him a piece of bread-and-cheese that
Miss MacDonald had given him the night before. After he eat of it
very heartily, he laid himself down and slept, while Neil stood sentry
upon him all the time; when he and O’Neil was sufficiently rested, he
ordered Neil to take some rest, and sent O’Neil to mount guard in his
turn.
When it was drawn late, the prince ask’t Neil if there was any
possibility of getting any supper; Neil told him he would find enough,
and leaving the prince and O’Neil under the same rock, he went and
bought abundance of such cheer as the neighbourhood could afford.
The prince was prodigious impatient the whole afternoon for Miss
Flora’s answer, and despairing to hear a word from her that night, he
sent off Neil, at eight o’clock at night, to Benbicula, with strict orders
to be back next day at four in the afternoon, under pain of gaining his
displeasure for ever. Neil, notwithstanding the fatigue and the length
of the journey (which was thirty miles backward and forward),
willingly condescended.
When he arrived at the fourds which seperates Benbicula from
South Wist,[499] he found them all guard’d by the Skay militia, who
had placed sentries within a gun shot of each other from east to
west; their consigne was to let pass no person whatsoever until he
was examined first by the captain of the guard; by this means Neil
was stopped, and was kept prisoner there till next morning, when it
was low water Neil was sent away to the captain of the guard on the
other side, who happened to be Hugh MacDonald; when Neil went in
he found Miss MacDonald, who was stopped in the same manner by
another party of the MacLeods, who had the guard two nights
before, with some other gentlemen at breakfast with Mr. MacDonald.
Neil call’d miss aside, and ask’t if every thing was ready, she told him
as it was put out of her power to go on the length of the Lady
Clanranald, that nothing was as yet done, but that she was going off
within half an hour after to consult with the lady, and designed to go
to Roshiness, both of them, that same afternoon, and carry along
with them whatever clothes or provisions was requisite for the
voyage, and she begg’d of Neil to make all the hast possible to
return to the prince, and, without losing one moment of time, to make
the best of his way to Rosshiness, where he would be sure to find
them without fail.
Neil posted off immediately, and arrived at the prince at the hour
he had appointed, and found him under the same rock where he had
left him; he no sooner saw Neil come in sight than he ran to meet
him, and took him by the hand asking what news he had from Miss
Flora; Neil told him what orders he had from the lady (as he called
Miss Flora), after which they set out for Roshiness. The greatest
difficulty for this journey was to find a boat to go by sea, as it was
impossible to venture by land, because, as I have already told, all
the fourds were guarded by the MacLeods; but God, who always
provided whatever he had occasion for, removed this difficulty also,
for when they arrived at the side of Lochskiport, there they found four
country people who had come there some days before to fish, with a
small yawl.
Neil knew them immediately, and agreed with them for to ferry
him and two other gentlemen that were with him over to Fouay,
where they expected to meet with Ranald MacDonald (called
Walpole);[500] but when they landed upon the island they found no
living soul of either man or beast upon it; being, at this time, clear
daylight, they could not bring the boat no further, for fear to be seen
from the land, wherefore they ordered the boat men to land them on
the nearest rock of Benbicula, that from thence they might go afoot
to Roshiness, which done, Neil payed the boatmen and sent them
away home.
The prince sate down upon the rock where they had land’d, and,
being quite overcome for want of rest, he fell asleep, and so did
O’Neil; during the time they slept Neil thought proper to take a walk
round about for fear that any body should come upon them at any
unawares; but he had not gone ten yards from them, when he
observed an arm of the sea come in betwixt him and the rest of the
land, which formed an island; he returned immediately and informed
the prince, who started up like a mad man and walked to the end of
the island at such a rate as if he had a mind to fly over to the other
side, but his career was soon stopped; whereupon he fell a
scoulding Neil as if it had been his fault, and the curse rascals
(meaning the boatmen) who land’d them upon that desert island
designedly that he might starve with hunger and cold, in short, there
was no pacifying him till, at last, Neil told him to comfort himself, that
he would sweem over to the other side and would bring a boat in half
an hour’s time, from that moment he never gave Neil one minute’s
rest, till, to please him, he began to strip, notwithstanding that it
rained most prodigiously, when luckily Neil observed a rock
appearing in the middle of the sound, and begg’d of the prince to
allow him a little more time, that it seem’d very probable at low water
they could pass over with dry feet without being obliged to hazard his
life by sweeming, which was to be the ultimate resource, which
happened accordingly, for in less than three quarters of an hour’s
time, they passed over without wetting the soles of their shoes.[501]
The prince seem’d as well pleased when he got out of that
labyrinth as if he was landed in France; he was so cold (for the rain
pierced to his very skin) that he trembled, the moor being so plain
that there was not the least bush, eminence, or hill to cover him from
the weather, and he was so hungry that he was not able to walk,
having eaten not a mouthful of any kind since the evening before. In
this deplorable condition it was hard to determine how to behave, but
as there was no time to be lost, despite of rain and weather, he
continued his journey for Roshiness, where he expected to find the
ladies before him that night. When they had walkt about a quarter of
a mile, they lighted accidentally upon two sheelings, where two of
Clanranald’s tennants stay’d, who, seeing them coming, came to
meet them. Neil, to prevent their coming too nigh, stept on and met
them; they enquired what were these other two that came along with
him.
Neil satisfied their curiosity by telling them they were poor Irish
gentlemen, who made their escape from Culloden, and run to the
country for shelter, and that it was an act of charity if they had any
kind of eatables to give them some refreshment, for that they had not
tasted meat for eight-and-forty hours before, whereupon the honest
fellows order’d them to go in; the door of the hut was so low and
narrow, that the prince was obliged to creep upon his belly. There
they feasted splendidly upon such cheer as there was to be had,
which was mostly milk kind; being thus sufficiently refreshed they
went off, and as Neil was not thoroughly acquainted in that rod, he
brought one of the fellows with him for a guide to whom he gave half
a guinea for his pains. When they were within three miles of
Roshiness, being at that time five in the afternoon, they laid down in
a lock side among high heather, which was all the shelter they had
from the rain.
There they past the remaining part of the day, the prince
shivering with cold all the time. When it was late, they set out for
Rosshiness, the night turned so dark that they could not see three
yards before them, and the rain was so vehement, with the wind
blowing directly in their teeth, that they could scarcely look where to
set their foot; besides the rod was so very bad, that the prince,
despite of what care Neil and O’Neil could take of him, fell at almost
every step in some ditch or mire, where, very often, he lost his
shoes, which gave Neil a vast deal of trouble and pains before he
could fish them up again, being sometimes obliged to put his hand to
the very shoulder in the puddle for them.
After having surmounted all these troubles and difficulties, they at
last arrived in the long wished for harbour. When they came near the
house, Neil left the prince and O’Neil about a cannon-shot off, while
he himself went in to see whether the ladies were come; but finding
none but the man who took care of the house in bed with his wife,
who told him that twenty of the Skay militia who landed there two
days before, were in a tent about a quarter of a mile of the house, he
returned to the prince with that dismal news, which so enraged him,
that he was like to tear his clothes in pieces, not knowing where to
run for safety, the enemy being every where.
The guide, though he did not understand the language they
spoke, yet understood the confusion they were in, told them there
was one of Clanranald’s boomen[502] not far off, into whose house
they might go with safety till they came to a further resolution. They
immediately betook themselves thither, and I leave the reader to
judge what a bonny figure they made when they came to examine
themselves before light, all bespattered with dirt and mud, after the
foregoing night’s walk. There he resolved to return Neil to
Nuntown[503] to inform Miss MacDonald that he was arrived, and to
hasten her to come without any longer delay.
Neil, who foresaw clearly the danger he would be exposed to, if
he was left with a man who knew not one step of the country, or
where to retire to in case of necessity, absolutely denied to part with
the prince upon any account, and so Mr. O’Neill was obliged to go
upon that expedition; who was mighty well pleased to be entrusted
with that embassy, not so much to further the prince’s affairs, as to
be in company with Miss Flora, for whom he professed a great deal
of kindness at that time. About break of day, the Booman’s wife told
Neil that it was dangerous for them to stay in the house any longer
because the militia were wont to come every morning to buy milk,
whereupon Neil and his pupil went and lodged under a rock pretty
near the shore, where the Booman sent one of his derry maids to
give them notice from time to time, what was passing among their
neighbour enemies.
It is almost inexpressible what torment the prince suffered under
that unhappy rock which had neither height nor bredth to cover him
from the rain which poured down upon him so thick as if all the
windows of heaven had broke open, and, to compleat his tortures,
there lay such a swarm of mitches upon his face and hands as would
have made any other but himself fall into despair, which,
notwithstanding his incomparable patience, made him utter such
hideous cries and complaints as would have rent the rocks with
compassion.
Neil, who stood all this time aside him, could be of no more
service to him than to let run to the ground the rain which stagnated
in the lurks of the plaid wherein he lay wrapt. In this miserable
condition he continued for about three hours, till their faithful scoote
came for the last time, and told them they might return to the house,
for that the militia was gone; Neil helped him to his feet, and they
marched away to the house, where the good derrymaid took care to
make a roozing fire for their coming. He was no sooner entered but
Neil stripped him of all his clothes from top to toe, and hung rops
round the house to dry them on; he sate down in his shirt at the
fireside as merry and hearty as if he was in the best room at
Whitehall.
After he had warmed himself, he desired Neil to ask the wife if
she had any eatables. She said that she had nothing except a
chapin of milk she kept for her bairns, which Neil desired her to
warm in a pot, and when it was hot to froth it up with the machine
made for that purpose. When all was ready, the wife placed the pot
before the prince and Neil, and gave them two horn spoons as
coarse as ever was made use of, the prince ask’t Neil what it was,
who told it was fresh creme, he not doubting but it was really so, and
at the same time believing it to be solid, pushed his hand to the very
wrist in the scalded milk, which made him draw back his hand in the
greatest hurry, all full of wrath, and dropt his spoon in the pot. Neil
had all the difficulty imaginable to keep his gravity, to hear him curse
the wife and her pot a hundred times, calling her a vile witch for
(says he) she contrived it a purpose that we might burn ourselves.
Neil, seeing him altogether out of humour, in order to pacify him, told
he would take a stick and labour her to an inch of her life with it, and
immediately ran to an oar of the boat that was lying before him to
knock out her brains. The prince, believing him to be serious,
begged of him not to touch her, for, if he came to do her any hurt,
she would certainly run off and bring a party upon them.
After this repas, the prince inclined to sleep a little, as he rested
none the night before; but to get a bed for him was the question—in
short, there was no better shift than to take the leaf of the door, and
lay it down upon the floor, and spread an old ragged sail over it,
which Neil found in the house; there he slept some hours wrapt in his
wet plaid. The guide, who went with O’Neil the night before to
Clanranald’s house, returned towards evening, who brought along
with him a rosted fowl, and a couples of bottles of wine, and a letter
from O’Neil to the prince, the contents of which I could not find out,
though it’s very probable he excused himself for not returning, under
pretence to hasten all matters for leaving the country. The prince
supp’t very heartily upon what the lady had sent him, and afterwards
slept soundly upon a heather bed, which Neil made for him.
Next morning the prince wrote a letter to O’Neil by the same post
that brought the former, desiring him to come to him that night; but
O’Neil contented himself to return him an answer by the same
bearer, telling him he could not come by reason that he waited Miss
McDonald and the Lady Clanranald, who was to come next day
without fail.
The prince waited that day in the house of Roshiness. Next
morning Neil carried him to a hill half way betwixt Roshiness and
Nuntown;[504] there they lay till the evening, when they returned to
their former quarters.
 The prince seemed very uneasie that night that neither Mac
O’Neil nor the ladys did not come according to promise; but the truth
is, thay could not really come sooner, as they were busie night and
day to get his dress made for the prince, and whatever other things
he might have occasion for. The next day Rory McDonald, and one
John McDonald, who were to be two of our crew, arrived in the
morning, and told that both boat and crew were ready whenever he
pleased.
Whereupon Neil carried the prince to the same hill where they
had sculked the day before, and leaving him in the hands of the two
McDonalds before mentioned, posted off himself to hurry the ladys
from Nuntown, and sent off O’Neil directly to the place where he left
the prince when himself went with the Lady Clan, Miss Flora
McDonald, Clanranald’s daughter, and Mr. McDonald of Milltown,
Miss Flora’s brother, about another rod, where they were to have the
conveniency of a boat to Roshiness.
The prince, who arrived first, welcomed them ashore, and
handed the Lady Clan to the house, while O’Neil took care of Miss
Flora. There they passed some hours very hearty and merry till
supper was served, which was scarce began, when one of
Clanranald’s herds came with the news that General Campbell[505]
was landing his men within three miles of them. The supper thus
ended, which was hardly begun—all run to their boat in the greatest
confusion, every one carrying with him whatever part of the baggage
came first to his hand, without either regard to sex or quality, they
crossed Lochisguiway,[506] and, about five in the morning, landed on
the other side, where they ended the supper.
About eight a servant came to the Lady Clanranald to acquaint
her that General Campbell, with a party of his men, were at her
house, and wanted that she should be there before twelve of the
clock otherwise that her house should suffer for all. Here the lady
and her daughter took leave of the prince and went off. Great was
the debate betwixt Miss Flora and O’Neil upon this occasion, who
insisted strongly to leave the country with the prince; but Miss
McDonald would never condescend, because he being a stranger,
and consequently did not speak the language of the country, would
readily be taken notice of by the common sort, and so took leave of
the prince and Miss, made the best of his way to South Wist along
with Milltown.
The company being gone, the prince, stript of his own cloaths,
was dressed by Miss Flora in his new attire, but could not keep his
hands from adjusting his head dress, which he cursed a thousand
times. There they lay till the evening, waiting impatiently for the night
to set off. Here they were alarmed by five wherries, the same, as
they supposed, that landed the Campbells the night before in
Benbicula, supposing, by taking this precaution, to keep the prince
from making his escape. But their fears were soon over; for the
wherries sailed by to the southward without ever stopping. After
sunset they got into their boat, which was managed by the following
persons—Rory McDonald, John McDonald, John McMurich, Duncan
Campbell, and Rory McDonald of Glengary family; the prince passed
for Miss McDonald’s maid, and Neil McDonald in the quality of a
servant.[507]
The weather proving calm in the beginning of the night, they
rowed away at a good rate; but, about twelve, there blew a gale of
westerly wind, which eased the Rowers not little, but at the same
time there came on such thick mist as robbed them of the sight of all
lands; great was the debate among the boatmen upon this occasion,
some asserted that they lost their course, while others maintained
the contrary, till their dispute end’d at last to cease rowing till day
would decide their error. In the morning, the weather being quite
clear, they rowed along the coast of Sky, but the wind, shifting about
to the north, blew at nine o’clock so strong in their teeth, that for an
hour and a half it was impossible to discern whether they made any
way or not.
The prince, who, all this time, was not in the least discouraged,
encouraged them to row still better, saying that he would relieve him
that was most fatigued. The poor men, almost ready to breathe out
their last, at length made the point of Watersay on the north corner of
the Isle of Sky, where, having got into a cliff in a rock, they rested
themselves for an hour, and at the same time revived their drooping
spirits with a plentiful repas of bread and butter, while the water that
fell from the top of the rock furnished them drink.
This gave them fresh vigour for to undertake the remaining part
of their labour, the weather being quite calm again, they rowed round
the point close by the land. They had not gone far on the other side,
when they spyed two centrys upon shore, one of whom approached
nearer, and ordered them to put to, but they rowed the faster; which
he observing, advanced as far as the sea would permitt him, bad
them put to, a second time in a more threatning manner, and seeing
them like not to obey, he cocked his piece, which he thought to fire
upon them, but, as Providence ordered it, she misgave, and so he
was disappointed. The other who look’d on all this time, made to
heels to a neighbouring village, about a cannon shot off, to acquaint
their officer (if there was any) of what had happened.
The boatmen, justly judging what he was going about, made
them now row for dear blood. They very soon saw the event of their
conjectures, for a body of about fifteen men, full armed, marched
straight from the village to the rock, where their centry was post’d,
and if they had the presence of mind to launch out one of their boats
(of which they had two close by them) we must have been inevitably
taken.
The prince by this time was sensible of his error in not allowing
the men at parting from Uist to have any arms in the boat, which if
they had had, were fully resolved to fight it out to the last man,
notwithstanding the inequality of numbers. The enemy seeing it quite
out of their power to execute their design in coming thither, as we got
fairly out of their reach, took a walk along the shore, without giving
the prince or crew any uneasiness, further than to gaze at them till
they landed in Kilbride in Troterniss within a cannon shot of Sir
Alexander McDonald’s house,[508] twelve miles from the place where
we saw the enemy.
In the neighbourhood of this place was another party of the Sky
militia, who was post’d there to examine all boats that came from the
isles, as they were pretty well assured that the prince was there at
that time. Miss and Neil having kept the prince in the boat as well as
they could, went to the house, leaving strict orders with the boatmen
not to stir from it till they came back, or some word from them, and in
case their curiosity led any body thither, who might perhaps take the
liberty to ask who was the person kept in the boat, to answer Miss
McDonald’s maid, and to curse her for a lazy jade, what was she
good for, since she did not attend her Mrs.
When they were come near the house, they were informed by a
servant that Sir Alexander was gone for Fort Augustus some days
before to wait upon Cumberland, and that there was no company
with the lady but two gentlemen, to wit, McDonald of Kingsbourg,[509]
and Lieutenant McLeod,[510] commander of the party before
mentioned, and one Mrs. McDonald who came the day before from
North Wist, and who was so strictly examined by the party upon the
point of Waternish (taking her to be the prince in disguise), that she
was at all the pains imaginable to keep off the soldiers’ hands from
examining her person too closely, which must have been the Prince’s
fate had he fallen into their hands.
Miss Flora having met with one Miss McDonald, Lady
Margarate’s gentlewoman, sent her to acquaint her lady that she
wanted to speak to her, who came back and carried Miss Flora to the
lady’s apartment, where she told all the circumstances of the prince’s
escape from the isles, and that she must harbour him as he came
now under her protection.
The lady, in the greatest perplexity, was at a loss how to behave
upon this occasion, for her hurry and impatience hindred her to fall
upon proper means to get the prince conveyed privately to the
house, especially at such an improper hour as eleven o’clock of the
day. Whereupon she sent for Kingsborough, to whom she disclosed
the whole secret. Kingsborough, without being in the least
discomposed, explained to her the danger the prince and her would
be exposed to if she insisted to have him brought to her house,
where she was to entertain one of the king’s officers that day, who
could not miss to see and take notice of the person in disguise, as
well as every body else about the town.
 Having got the lady at last to yield, though with great reluctancy,
he ordered Neil to return to the prince, and to carry him to the back
of a hill, a long mile from the house of Mungstot, and there to wait till
he came to join them, and ordered that some light clothes should be
packt in the form of a bundle, for the prince to carry on his back, as if
it had been some of Miss Flora’s baggage, which done, they set out
for the hill, but they had not gone far, when tiring of his burden, which
he carried very awkwardly, threw it from him, leaving it for Neil to
carry, or leave, as he should think fit. It was in vain that Neil insisted
he would take it again, but he would never condescend, saying that
he had carried it long enough.
When they came to the place of meeting they sate down upon
the side of a hillock, where they wait’d for Kingsborough. The prince,
who was a long time silent and very pensive, ask’d Neil whether he
had carried his case of knives from the boat; Neil, who did not miss
them till then, answered he had not; ‘Then,’ said the prince, ‘you
must return and look for them.’—‘Shall I for the sakes of all the
knives in the universe leave you here all alone?’ reply’d Neil.
—‘There will be no fears of me,’ said he, ‘do you what you are
ordered, for I must absolutely have it, so no more words.’ Neil still
opposed, but in vain; seeing him at last quite out of humour, and
ready to fly in a passion, went leaving him there within a gun shot of
the high rod, without a soul along with him.
When Neil returned he found Kingsborough with him taking a
glass of wine, which Lady Margarate MacDonald had sent by
Kingsborough, together with some few biscuits of which he ate a
little, and gave the rest to Neil to keep for him till another occasion.
About an hour before sunset they set off for Kingsborough, where
they were to be that night. Miss Flora, who staid for dinner at
Mungstot, that she might not be suspected by Lieut. MacLeod,
followed a horseback at some distance, and was mightily diverted to
hear several of the country people with whom she fell in upon the
road, as they returned from the meeting house at Mungstot, it being
Sunday, make their remarks upon the behaviour of Betty Burk, her
maid, which name the prince borrowed when he left the Isle of Wist.
 Neil, who walked a little behind the prince, and Kingsborough,
hearing the subject the fellows were upon, went slower till they came
up and joined him, but they, notwithstanding, continued to speak with
the same freedom as before, of the impudence and assurance of
Miss Burk, who was not ashamed to walk and keep company with
Kingsborough, and was no less vexed than surprised how he took so
much notice of her, when he never minded her mistress, who was so
near at hand. Betty, very easie of what would be said of her, went on
always at such a rate, that she very often got a piece before her
fellow travellers, which gave occasion to some of the fellows to cry
out, ‘Curse the wretch do you observe, sir (meaning Neil), what
terrible steps she takes, how manly she walks, how carelessly she
carries her dress,’ and a hundred such like expressions, which they
repeated over and over again.
But what they most took notice of all was, when Kingsborough
and his companion was come to a rivulet about knee deep, which
crossed the high rod, to see Burk take up her petty coats so high
when she entred the water. The poor fellows were quite confounded
at this last sight, which made them rail out against Burk, calling her
all the names in the world, and ask’t of Neil if he was acquainted with
her. Neil told them that he knew nothing about her further than to
hear she was an Irish girl who met with Miss MacDonald in Wist, and
uppon a report of her being a famous spinister of lint, engaged her
for her mother’s use.
The honest people soon after departed with Neil and Miss Flora,
and made for their different homes full of astonish——
[Manuscript ends abruptly.]
 A SHORT NARRATIVE OF THE
CONDUCT OF LUDOVICK GRANT OF
GRANT DURING THE REBELLION
Note.—Many of the letters enclosed by Ludovick
Grant as appendixes to his narrative are printed in Sir
William Fraser’s Chiefs of Grant. With a few exceptions
these have not been reprinted here, but a reference is
given to where they may be found in the second volume of
the Chiefs of Grant, and a brief abstract is given of the
more important letters. The letters referred to by Ludovick
Grant which are not given by Sir William Fraser are here
printed in full.
 A SHORT NARRATIVE OF MR.
GRANT’S CONDUCT DURING THE
REBELLION
The first advice that Mr. Grant got that any invasion or
insurrection was intended was by a letter from Mr. Craigie, at that
time his Majesty’s Advocate,[511] of date 5th August 1745 (Appen.
No. 1st),[512] which came to his hands at his House of Grange-Hill in
the low Country of Murray on Saturday 10th, and next day he had an
account, that the young Pretender with some forces had actually
landed and heard various and different Reports of their numbers.
Thereupon Sir James Grant and Mr. Grant went Monday the 12th
to Castle Grant. Their country was all the time disarmed by authority
of an Act of Parliament, nor durst they appear in arms otherwise than
as Directed by the Statute, without Rendering themselves obnoxious
to the Law, and att the Mercy of the proper officers, to whom the
Execution of it was Committed. And they could not but observe, that
his Majesty’s Advocate, however well satisfied he was of their zeal,
yet makes no insinuation of their raising their Friends and Clan in
arms: on the contrary says in Generall that at London they have no
good opinion of this Country, and Desires no more of Mr. Grant, than
to have a sharp look out, and send him Intelligence how matters go.
For these Reasons Mr. Grant contented himself with calling together
the Gentlemen in that country and causing enquire what arms could
be found, should there be occasion for using them—
And he was the more confirmed in this opinion by advices he had
that Lord President was returned to Culloden and had had Interviews
with Severalls of his Friends, Chiefs and other Clans, yet he sent no
message, nor made any insinuation to Mr. Grant that it was proper
for him to appear in arms.
 August 24th Mr. Grant Received another Letter from Lord
Advocate, dated the 20th (App. No. 2)[513] in answer to one that Mr.
Grant wrote the 15th with such Intelligence as he had then got of the
Rebells. In that Letter he acquaints Mr. Grant that the Troops were in
full march from Stirling which he hoped would be soon in Mr. Grant’s
Neighbourhood; but he gives no authority nor advice to Mr. Grant to
arm his Father’s clan unless that was intended by the Dark and
ambiguous words that follow, viz. Which with the Assistance of His
Majesty’s Friends it is hoped will restore quiet to the Country. But Mr.
Grant was and still is persuaded that had such been my Lord
Advocates meaning his Lordship who well knew the Law, and had
reason to know in fact that the country was not half armed, would
have expressed it in very different and plainer Terms.
Next Day after the Receipt of this letter Mr. Grant having got
advice that Sir John Cope with the army under his Command were
already past Tay Bridge[514] wrote to Sir John The Letter (App. No.
3),[515] which he sent by one of his friends Robert Grant, now Ensign
and Adjutant in Loudouns Regiment, whom he also Informed what
number of arms were, according to the Reports made to Mr. Grant,
found in the Country, and what number of men could be raised on
short warning to the end that if Sir John should Demand any
Assistance, that Gentleman might be able to inform him what he
could expect.
This Gentleman instead of finding Sir John about Delnacardoch
or to the southward of it, as Mr. Grant hoped he should, found him at
Ruthven of Badenoch,[516] and Returned to Mr. Grant Monday the
26th at night without any other answer to his Letter than a verball
message that Sir John thanked him for it. He further Informed Mr.
Grant that Sir John, instead of going in quest of the Rebells, was
marching to Inverness to avoid them and that next night he was to
encamp in the head of Strathspey.
About this time Mr. Grant had advice that the Person called Duke
of Perth was in Braemar raising the Highlanders in that country, that
the Mackintoshes and M‘Phersons were all in concert with the
Rebells[517] that their plan was that they, and even the Pretender
and the Highlanders with him, were to march down through
Strathspey, and join Perth, and march through Strathaven, Glenlivet,
and into Aberdeenshire and so Southward before Sir John Cope,
raising all the men in the Country through which they marched. This
obliged Mr. Grant to set about raising his Friends as fast as possible
for Defence of his own country, which upon Sir John’s marching to
Inverness behoved to be quite naked and exposed to them, and
Deprived him of the Honour of waiting on Sir John as he intended to
have done, when he was encamped in the head of Strathspey;
However as Sir John was quite a stranger to the country, and there
were some Dangerous passes in it he sent three of the Gentlemen of
the country to wait on him and with orders to raise 40 or 50 of the
men nearest to these grounds to serve him as Guides and give him
Intelligence and with them to patrole in the Neighbouring Hills, not
only all Nights but till the Army was quite clear of these Passes, and
out of any kind of Danger from the Rebells; While Mr. Grant at the
same time was gathering his Friends and cantoning them in the
proper passes, to prevent if possible the Rebells entering his
country, they having the very next day or second day after Sir John
past made a march with six or seven hundred men, that pointed as if
that had been their Design.
Mr. Grant therefore could not help being greatly surprised with
accounts he had a few days after from Lord Lyon[518] by his letter
without date (App. No. 4),[519] ‘that Sir John Cope complained that
tho’ Mr. Grant in his letter wrote him, that he and his people were
ready to join and assist him, yet by some fatall advice, he woud
neither join him with one man, nor go near him, and that if he had
been joined but with one hundred or two from each of the Highland
Chiftains, that he was told by the ministry would join him, he would
have done their Business; but instead of that not one man has joined
him of which he has acquainted the Ministry.’
Lord Lyon must undoubtedly have misunderstood Sir John. A
Coppy of Mr. Grants Letter to him is subjoined (App. No. 3). He had
no call nor the least Insinuation from Sir John to join him, nor did he
know that the Ministry expected, or had authorised either him or any
other Chiftain of a Clan to raise men in arms to join him.
 But it seemed still more surprising that tho’ Sir John had not
called for any assistance from Mr. Grant when he was on his march
north, yet after the Army was at Inverness, and out of all Danger
from the Rebells, Lord Lyon still prest Mr. Grants marching his men
to join Sir John at Inverness, and which advice was enforced by
Major Grant,[520] Governour of Fort George, who came on purpose
on that account to Castle Grant: But as the M‘Phersons and
M‘Intoshes were then Rising and Glenbucket was in Strathaven and
Glenlivet committing the Greatest outrages, even burning Houses to
force out the Men, such a measure must, without doing the smallest
service to the Government, have Involved his own Country of
Strathspey in absolute ruin. Yet Mr. Grant agreed with Major Grant,
that if Sir John was to march directly in quest of the Rebells, he
would join him with all the men he could possibly raise, tho’ he could
not agree to leave his own Country Exposed, to join Sir John if he
was to march where there were no Rebells to be attacked.
Upon the Intelligence that Mr. Grant had of Glenbucket levying
men in Strathaven, and the outrages committed there, particularly a
letter from his sister Mrs. Grant of Ballindalloch, dated September 5
(App. No. 5),[521] He sent about two or three hundred men to
Strathaven and upon their approach Glenbucket retired from that
country whereof Mr. Grant acquainted Sir John Cope, then on his
way to Aberdeen by a letter about the 10th September (App. No. 6).
[522]

Mr. Grant got a Message from Lord President, Sept. 14th,

Desiring an Interview, and as neither of them in the then situation of
the Country could be absent a night from his own House, Mr. Grant
met him Monday 17th at a place apointed, when the Lord President
acquainted him, that he the Lord President was impowered by the
Government to raise some Company’s, That therefore he made offer
of the first of them to him, and that he Mr. Grant should have the
naming of all the Oficiers of that Company. Mr. Grant answered, that
since he the Lord President proposed it, he would take the Company
but could not name the Officers till he returned home, least by
naming some, he might Disoblige others, but at the same time, gave
his opinion that the raising some Companys would not do the
service, and that it would be necessary to raise the whole of the
Clans, that were Friends to the Government.
Upon Mr. Grants return to his own House, He and all the
Gentlemen in the Country had got Information that the Lord
President got the Disposall of Twenty Companys, he found them
greatly Disobliged that only one of them was to be given to their
Clan, which they thought very far short of the proportion they bore to
the other Northern Clans, that were the avowed and constant
Friends of his Majestys Government, and looked on it as a slight
intended to them and that either it was intended, that no more of
them but that company should be employed in the service, or if they
were that it must be att their own expense while the other Favourite
Clanns were to be payed by the Government. And for these Reasons
Mr. Grant found greater Difficulty in naming the officers than he could
foresee before he knew the number of the Companys to be raised.
That if the measure of raising Companys were still insisted on that
Mr. Grant rather than hurt the service would accept of four or even of
three of them; But a smaller number would not employ the principal
Gentlemen of the Clan nor satisfy any of them where so many
companys were to be Disposed of.
Lord Deskfoord[523] was therefore prevailed with to go to
Culloden to explain these things to Lord President and at the same
time to assure him, that the whole Clan should on all occasions be
ready to act in the Governments service, only that it would be
necessary to give them pay during the Time that they should be
employed, because Mr. Grant’s private Fortune could not bear so
great an expence.
Lord Deskfoord at his return reported the Lord President’s
answer, That he was trusted with the Disposal of Twenty Companys,
yet at the same time all possible economy was enjoined, That he
could not therefore at first exceed one Company to any one Clan,
That he knew the value and Importance in that country of the Family
of Grant, and had for that reason offered the first to Mr. Grant, and
should he refuse it others might follow his Example, and thereby the
whole sceme miscarry. And whether it was the best measure that
might have been proposed yet it being the only one that the
Government had yet proposed for employing their friends in the
north, a miscarriage might be of bade consequence. That he
therefore hoped that where so much was at stake Mr. Grant would
come over small Difficultys, and if in the future Distribution of these
Companys due regard was not had to the Family of Grant That Mr.
Grant would have reason to Complain.
Upon Consideration of this answer Mr. Grant satisfied his
Friends, and with their approbation accepted of the Company
offered, whereof he acquainted Lord President by his letter
September 22d (App. No. 7),[524] and therein named the officers.
And Lord President by his answer, Sept 24th, (App. No. 8),[525]
Confirmed what Lord Deskfoord had reported of the Communing
Between them, Approved the nomination Mr. Grant had made of
Officers, and desired that the men might be ready at a call, because
he Daily expected arms and money.
September 28th Lord President wrote to Mr. Grant, (App. No. 9),
[526] the Different accounts he had got of the Battle of Preston, and
after Expressing his apprehension of the effects it might have in that
country ‘Suggests That Mr. Grant should have all his people Alert
that they might be able to do such service as the exegence might
require, which would help to cause their Neighbours Consider.’
This was the first letter that Mr. Grant received from any Person
intrusted by the Government that Directly proposed the raising his
Men, other than the Company already mentioned and having
received advices about the same time that the Farquharsons in
Aberdeenshire were rising, and that the M‘Phersons were to march
through Strathspey to join them, he furthwith rised all the men that
he could Find any Kind of Arms for, and got together about seven
hundred. The M‘Phersons did accordingly about two days after
march near the Borders between Badenoch and Strathspey; but
upon Mr. Grants marching up to meet them, they retired to Ruthven,
and from thence to Cluny M‘Phersons house. But Mr. Grant having
got Intelligence, that the M‘Intoshes were in Motion, he keeped his
Men together for eight Days ’till he had certain notice that they had
not moved.[527]