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SUSTAINABLE
ENERGY
SECOND EDITION
Richard A. Dunlap
Sustainable
Energy Second Edition
Richard A. Dunlap
Dalhousie University
Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States
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Richard A. Dunlap
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017
In Memory of my Father
Robert Bennett Dunlap
Contents
Preface viii 3.7 Enhanced Oil Recovery 99

About the Author xvi 3.8 Oil Shale 99
3.9 Extra-Heavy Oil and Tar Sands 103
PART I 3.10
Coal Liquefaction and Gasification 106
Summary 109
Background 2 Problems 110
Bibliography 112
Chapter 1 Energy Basics 4
1.1 Introduction 4 Chapter 4 Environmental Consequences
1.2 Work, Energy, and Power 5 of Fossil Fuel Use 113
1.3 Forms of Energy 6 4.1 Introduction 113
1.4 Some Basic Thermodynamics 13 4.2 Thermal Pollution 113
1.5 Heat Engines and Heat Pumps 16 4.3
Chemical and Particulate Matter Pollution 115
1.6 Electricity Generation 19 4.4 The Greenhouse Effect 127
Summary 27 4.5 Climate Change 131
Problems 27 4.6 Carbon Sequestration 142
Bibliography 29 4.7
International Climate Change Initiatives 145
Summary 150
Chapter 2 Past, Present, and Future World
Problems 151
Energy Use 30
Bibliography 153
2.1 Introduction 30
2.2 Past and Present Energy Use 31
PART III
2.3 Exponential Growth 37
2.4
The Hubbert Model of Resource Utilization 43 Nuclear Energy 156
2.5
Challenges for Sustainable Energy Development 46
Summary 67 Chapter 5 Some Basic Nuclear Physics 158
Problems 67 5.1 Introduction 158
Bibliography 69 5.2 The Structure of the Nucleus 158
5.3 Binding Energy 161
PART II 5.4 Nuclear Decays 163
5.5 Nuclear Reactions 168
Fossil Fuels 70 Summary 169
Problems 170
Chapter 3 Fossil Fuel Resources and Use 72
Bibliography 172
3.1 Introduction 72
3.2 Oil 72 Chapter 6 Energy from Nuclear Fission 173
3.3 Refining 78 6.1 Introduction 173
3.4 Natural Gas 82 6.2 The Fission of Uranium 174
3.5 Coal 84 6.3 Nuclear Reactor Design 177
3.6 Overview of Fossil Fuel Resources 87 6.4 Fission Reactor Control 183
iv
Contents v
6.5 Types of Thermal Neutron 9.3 Photovoltaic Devices 305

Reactors 184 9.4
Application of Photovoltaic Devices 314
6.6 Current Use of Fission Energy 191 9.5 Global Use of Photovoltaics 324
6.7 Uranium Resources 197 Summary 326
6.8 Nuclear Safety 200 Problems 327
6.9 Risk Assessment 210 Bibliography 330
6.10 Waste Disposal 216
Chapter 10 Wind Energy 331
6.11 Advanced Reactor Design 221
10.1 Introduction 331
6.12 Fast Breeder Reactors 223
10.2 Wind Turbine Design 331
Summary 230
Problems 232 10.3 Obtaining Energy from the Wind 336
Bibliography 234 10.4 Applications of Wind Power 345
Summary 355
Chapter 7 Energy from Nuclear Fusion 236 Problems 356
7.1 Introduction 236 Bibliography 359
7.2 Fusion Energy 237
7.3 Magnetic Confinement Reactors 240 Chapter 11 Hydroelectric Energy 360
7.4 Inertial Confinement Reactors 244 11.1 Introduction 360
7.5 Progress Toward a Fusion Reactor 248 11.2 Energy from Water 360
Summary 255 11.3 Turbine Design 364
Problems 255 11.4 High Head Systems 368
Bibliography 257 11.5
Low Head and Run-of-the-River Systems 370
11.6 Utilization of Hydroelectric Power 375
PART IV 11.7
Environmental Consequences
of Hydroelectric Energy 380
Renewable Energy 258 Summary 384
Problems 385
Chapter 8 Direct Use of Solar Energy 260 Bibliography 387
8.2 Properties of Sunlight 261 Chapter 12 Wave Energy 388
8.3 Heat Transfer 263 12.1 Introduction 388
8.4 Solar Collector Design 270 12.2 Energy from Waves 389
8.5 Residential Heating Needs 275 12.3 Wave Power Devices 392
8.6 Heat Storage 282 12.4 Wave Energy Resources 402
Summary 402
8.7 Passive Solar Heating 284
Problems 403
8.8 Transpired Solar Collectors 286
Bibliography 406
Summary 290
Problems 290 Chapter 13 Tidal Energy 407
Bibliography 293 13.1 Introduction 407
Chapter 9 Electricity from Solar Energy 294 13.2 Energy from the Tides 408
9.1 Introduction 294 13.3 Barrage Systems 411
9.2 Solar Electric Generation 294 13.4 Nonbarrage Tidal Power Systems 421
vi Contents
Summary 432 PART V

Problems 433
Bibliography 435
Energy Conservation, Energy
Storage, and Transportation 508
Chapter 14 Ocean Thermal Energy
Conversion and Ocean Chapter 17 Energy Conservation 510
Salinity Gradient Energy 436
17.2 Approaches to Energy Conservation 511
14.2
Basic Principles of Ocean Thermal
17.3 Cogeneration 518
Energy Conversion 437
17.4 Smart Grid 523
14.3 OTEC System Design 439
17.5
Energy Conservation in the
14.4 Physics of the Operation of an
Community—LED Streetlights 524
OTEC System 443
17.6 Home Heating and Cooling 530
14.5 Implementation of OTEC Systems 446
17.7 Residential Lighting 548
14.6
Ocean Salinity Gradient Energy:
Basic Principles 449 17.8 Transportation 553
14.7
Applications of Ocean Salinity Summary 565
Gradient Energy 452 Problems 566
Summary 454 Bibliography 569
Problems 455
Chapter 18 Energy Storage 570
Bibliography 458
Chapter 15 Geothermal Energy 459 18.2 Pumped Hydroelectric Power 571
15.1 Introduction 459 18.3 Compressed Air Energy Storage 575
15.2 Basics of Geothermal Energy 459 18.4 Flywheels 578
15.3 Direct Use of Geothermal Energy 465 18.5
Superconducting Magnetic Energy
15.4 Geothermal Electricity 468 Storage (SMES) 582
15.5 Utilization of Geothermal Resources Summary 587
and Environmental Consequences 474 Problems 588
Summary 479 Bibliography 592
Problems 480
Chapter 19 Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) 593
Bibliography 483
Chapter 16 Biomass Energy 484 19.2 Battery Types 594
16.1 Introduction 484 19.3 BEV Requirements and Design 597
16.2 Wood 484 19.4 History of BEVs 605
16.3 Ethanol Production 487 19.5 Supercapacitors 614
16.4 Biodiesel 495 Summary 617
16.5 Biogas 499 Problems 618
16.6 Municipal Solid Waste 500 Bibliography 620
Summary 504
Chapter 20 Hydrogen 621
Problems 504
Bibliography 507
20.2 Properties of Hydrogen 622
Contents vii
20.3 Hydrogen Production Methods 623 21.3 Key Considerations 663

20.4
Storage and Transportation of Hydrogen 627 21.4 Overview of Future Energy Technologies 670
20.5
Hydrogen Internal Combustion Vehicles 634 21.5 Efficient Energy Utilization 676
20.6 Fuel Cells 639 21.6 Conclusions 679
20.7 Fuel Cell Vehicles 643 Bibliography 680
20.8 Hydrogen: Present and Future 646 Appendices
20.9
Efficiency of Different Transportation Appendix I: Powers of Ten A-2
Technologies 648
Appendix II: Physical Constants A-3
Summary 653
Appendix III: Energy Conversion Factors A-4
Problems 654
Bibliography 657 Appendix IV: Miscellaneous Conversion Factors A-5
Appendix V: Energy Content of Fuels A-6
PART VI Appendix VI: R-values in Metric and British Units A-7
Appendix VII: The Elements A-9
The Future 658 Appendix VIII: Table of Acronyms A-11
Chapter 21 Future Prospects and Research Index I-1

and Design Projects 660
21.2
Approaches to Future Energy Production 661
Preface
Our society uses substantial quantities of energy. This energy use amounts to about
6.131020 J, or 570 quads (1 quad 5 1015 Btu), per year worldwide, or an average of
8.131010 J (or 7.73107 Btu) per year per person. Between 80 and 85% of the world’s
energy comes from fossil fuels, which are preferred because they are inexpensive (rel-
atively speaking), are readily available (at least at present), and have a high energy
density. As a result, an enormous infrastructure has been established for the location,
production, and use of fossil fuels. The fuel of choice is oil because it is convenient, and
the gasoline and diesel fuel it produces are portable and constitute our major source of
fuel for transportation.
For the purpose of planning for methods to meet our future energy needs, it is
important to begin by asking two questions: How long will our fossil fuel reserves last?
Is it wise, from an environmental perspective, to continue to use fossil fuels?
The answers to both questions are not simple. The answer to the first question
can be several tens of years or several hundreds of years depending on the conditions
that are put on our fossil fuel use. Will fossil fuels continue to supply 80 to 85% of our
energy needs? Will a fossil fuel–derived product be required to fulfill our needs for a
portable transportation fuel? Perhaps most importantly, how much are we willing to pay
for fuel? There is certainly some limit to how much we, as individuals, are willing or
able to pay for the gasoline for our automobiles or for the oil or natural gas to heat our
homes. However, it is important to realize that the cost of fuel is not only a financial
cost. Producing fossil fuels in a form that is suitable for our needs requires energy input
in order to undertake exploration to locate new fuel reserves, the extraction of the fuel
from those reserves, and the subsequent processing of the fuel. If the energy needed
to produce a liter of fuel is greater than the energy we obtain from burning it, then the
process is not only economically unattractive but is ultimately not energy productive. If
only the use of oil in the traditional sense, from known and economically recoverable
reserves, is considered, then the longevity of fossil fuels will certainly be at the low end
of the timescale. If coal and less traditional oil reserves are also considered, then the
answer can be near the upper end of the timescale. This will be especially true if alterna-
tive sources are used to supply a substantial fraction of our energy needs.
The answer to the second question is also not straightforward. There is over-
whelming evidence that the emission of greenhouse gases that results from the burning
of fossil fuels has a severe impact on the environment. The magnitude and the timescale
of this impact are not fully understood. If the use of fossil fuels continues for an ex-
tended period of time, then our willingness or even our ability to take steps to mitigate
the effects on the environment are also unclear.
To ensure an adequate supply of energy in the future and to avoid causing a nega-
tive impact on our environment, it is important to understand how energy is utilized
at present, our future energy needs, and the options for fulfilling these needs. Design-
ing an appropriate energy structure for the future requires, not only a consideration of
appropriate energy sources, but the implementation of suitable strategies to minimize
energy requirements through conservation efforts.
In terms of our reliance on fossil fuels, two extreme approaches can be taken: to
stop using fossil fuels now or to stop using fossil fuels when our supply is exhausted.
The first approach would certainly minimize the environmental impact of fossil fuel
use but would be impossible to implement because of our lack of infrastructure for the
viii
Preface ix
use of other energy sources. The latter approach would maximize the environmental
effects and would best make use of the resources available. Whatever the final course
of events, it is essential that steps toward eliminating our dependence on fossil fuel be
taken immediately by developing and implementing alternative energy sources so that
the environmental impact of our fossil fuel use is minimized. The latter would involve
the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by not only a reduction in fossil fuel use but
also by processes such as carbon sequestration.
To put the magnitude of this task (however it is approached) into perspective, it
is necessary to consider the current world power requirement of about 1.9 3 1013 W. In
50 years (roughly the time scale set by the recent Paris Agreement for a carbon neutral
society), the world power requirement might be more than twice the current amount
(primarily as a result of increased energy needs in developing countries). This is a rough
goal that should be kept in mind when assessing the viability of any energy policy.
These power requirements can be related to the output of a typical large electric gener-
ating station. These stations most commonly use fossil fuels (mostly coal and natural
gas) to produce electricity and might have a typical output of about 109 W. The conver-
sion to a nonfossil fuel energy economy on a timescale of about 50 years will require
the construction of about (4 3 1013 W)/(109 W) 5 40,000 large replacement facilities
(or a corresponding number of smaller facilities). These might be large nuclear power
plants, large hydroelectric stations, or equivalent-capacity facilities utilizing solar en-
ergy, wave energy, wind energy, and other sources. This amounts to the construction of
more than two major nonfossil fuel power stations every day for the next five decades.
Clearly, this task requires a substantial commitment.
Sustainable Energy’s Purpose

The textbook Sustainable Energy considers in detail our present and future energy
needs, options for continued use of fossil fuels, and options for establishing an alterna-
tive energy economy. This text was developed out of a course entitled “Energy and
the Environment” that has been taught in the Department of Physics and Atmospheric
Science at Dalhousie University since 2003. This one-semester introductory course is
aimed at undergraduate science and engineering students and is taught at the sopho-
more level. Most students have taken freshman-level chemistry and physics, and most
have had some introductory calculus. These prior courses make a suitable prerequisite
for a course taught from the present text. The course at Dalhousie is taught as a follow-
up to a course on climate change to give students the overall picture of how humanity
interacts with the environment, although this previous course is not a necessary prereq-
uisite for a course taught from Sustainable Energy. Although such a course is intended
to be introductory, there is enough technical detail that upper-level science or engineer-
ing will find it a useful and informative elective.
The purpose of this textbook is to fill a niche between a significant number of texts
on similar topics at a very descriptive level intended for freshmen survey courses and a
few advanced (and often fairly specialized) texts aimed at senior undergraduate or begin-
ning graduate students in engineering. The textbook is useful for science and engineering
students with an interest in energy-related matters, particularly those looking to pursue
a professional career in a related field, to take an introductory energy course with some
reasonable technical content. In addition to filling a mostly unfilled gap in the field, the
present text also provides an up-to-date introduction to a fairly rapidly changing field.
x Preface
Organization
This text begins with an overview of the basic science needed for the remainder of
the book, as well as a summary of our past, present, and anticipated future energy
needs. The technologies currently in use to meet our energy needs are described,
and the need for the development of new energy technologies on the basis of future
resource availability and environmental concerns is emphasized. The text includes a
separate chapter on every future renewable energy technology that could be viewed
as a viable option for the production of a significant portion of our energy needs. How
these developing technologies can be integrated efficiently with existing technolo-
gies is discussed, as well as approaches to conserving available energy resources.
Finally, the text considers options for perhaps our greatest energy-related challenge:
transportation. The viability of any alternative energy technologies is determined by
its ability to fulfill various criteria. The important criteria are described in this text
by the acronym CURVE, for clean, unlimited, renewable, versatile, and economical.
This acronym makes it easy for students to appreciate how different technologies
may, or may not, play an important role in our future energy production. The final
chapter of the book summarizes the various alternative energy sources that have been
presented and analyzes how these different technologies succeed or fail in satisfying
the various CURVE criteria.
Throughout the text, the complexity of energy issues is emphasized, as is the
need for a multidisciplinary approach to solving our energy problems. This approach
provides students with an appreciation for the real problems that are encountered in
the understanding of how we produce and use energy, as well as the realization that,
while exact calculations are important and necessary, a broadly based analysis is often
most appropriate. The text also stresses the fact that solutions to our energy prob-
lems, both now and in the future, are not straightforward and do not have simple,
well-defined solutions, and that the way ahead is far from certain. The book contains
enough material for a typical one-semester (12- to 14-week) course with about 20%
excess material to allow the instructor some flexibility in course design. This cover-
age of material allows about 2–3 hours of lecture, on average, per chapter. Instructors
may also focus on specific topics to provide a more in-depth picture of certain aspects
of energy. This approach may include a more detailed and probing look at some of
the topics presented in the Energy Extra boxes and may require the omission of other
components of the text. Some chapters from the text can be covered in less detail and/
or even eliminated. Chapters 7, 12, 13, 14, and 20 can be skipped with minimal effect
on continuity. Certain approaches to sustainable energy may be more or less relevant
from some national and/or regional perspectives and may warrant more or less de-
tailed course coverage.
Finally, Chapter 21 acts as a summary of the ideas presented in the text and
shows how they can be integrated into our approach to future energy production. This
chapter includes a number of research and design projects that provide the student
with the challenge of integrating information presented throughout the text to the
solution of practical problem related to energy production and use. These projects
give the student the opportunity to assess information and to make decisions about
the most reasonable approach to energy production and use. Such decisions often
involve a consideration of scientific, technological, environmental, and economic
factors and illustrate not only the complexity but the multidisciplinary nature of sus-
tainable energy.
Preface xi
Chapter Pedagogical Elements

● Learning Objectives. Each chapter starts with a bulleted list of learning objec-
tives, making it very clear to both instructors and students what is covered in the
chapter.
● Examples: The text includes numerous worked examples to provide the student
with the basic approach to deal with end-of-chapter problems
● Energy Extra Boxes. Energy Extra boxes are included in nearly all chapters.
These boxes provide insight into details of specific aspects of energy and often
emphasize the complex nature of the decisions required to plan for our future
energy needs. They also stress that ostensibly advantageous approaches to en-
ergy are often not as beneficial as they seem and that a critical analysis is neces-
sary to understand all aspects of the topic.
● End-of-chapter Problems. The end-of-chapter problems are predominantly
quantitative in nature. However, most are not straightforward calculations based
on substituting values from the chapter into the appropriate formulas. The prob-
lems are designed to require the students to analyze information, to make use of
material from previous chapters, to correlate data from various sources (not only
from the textbook itself but from library, Internet, or other sources), and in many
cases to estimate quantities based on interpretation of graphical data, interpola-
tion of values, and sometimes just plain common sense.
New to This Edition

●● Updated data tables and graphs with the most current information and
developments.
●● Doubled the number of end-of-chapter exercises for each chapter.
●● Developed more than 30 new examples throughout the text.
●● Added new Energy Extra boxes.
●● Expanded coverage of alternative energy methods and feasibility analysis.
New additions to each chapter include:
Chapter 1: New content on diesel generators.
Chapter 2: Energy Extra box on rare earth elements.
Chapter 3: Added operation of an oil well, transport methods for oil and natural
gas, and expanded application of the Hubbert model.
Chapter 4: Added discussion on acid rain and ocean acidification; added Energy
Extra box on natural vs anthropogenic climate change, added new
sections on methanol production from CO2 and international climate
change initiatives.
Chapter 6: Added Energy Extra boxes on Watts Bar Reactor, and thorium reac-
tors and the Indian reactor program, expanded sections on fast breeder
reactors.
Chapter 7: Expanded section on design of inertial confinement fusion reactors.
Chapter 8: Added Energy Extra box on evacuated tube solar collectors; and
added section on transpired solar collectors.
xii Preface
Chapter 9: Expanded discussion of parabolic trough collectors; expanded section

on central receivers; added section on solar ponds; added Energy Extra
box on solar updraft towers.
Chapter 10: Added Energy Extra box on wind turbine safety.
Chapter 12: Added discussion on integrated wind/wave generation.
Chapter 13: Added discussion on Sihwa Lake Tidal Station.
Chapter 14: Added section on details of physical principles of ocean thermal energy
conversion.
Chapter 16: Added section on biogas.
Chapter 17: Added Energy Extra boxes on cogeneration in Iceland and thermoelec-
tric generators; expanded section on hybrid vehicles.
Chapter 19: Expanded section on commercial availability of battery electric vehicles.
Chapter 20: Added Energy Extra box on hydrogen storage in fullerenes;
Expanded section on commercial availability of fuel cell vehicles.
Ancillaries
A variety of ancillaries are available to accompany this book to supplement your course.
These supplements include:
● An Instructor’s Solution Manual.
● Annotated Lecture Note PowerPoint Slides, which include suggestions for teach-
ing the material in the book.
● Sample test items for instructors.
● Additional practice problems for students.
● Image Bank of figures and tables from the book.
Custom Options for Sustainable Energy

Would you prefer to easily create your own personalized text, choosing the elements
that best serve your course’s unique learning objectives?
Cengage’s Compose platform provides the full range of Cengage content, allow-
ing you to create exactly the textbook you need. The Compose website lets you quickly
review materials to select everything you need for your text. You can even seamlessly
add your own materials, like exercises, notes, and handouts! Easily assemble a new
print or eBook and then preview it on our site.
Cengage offers the easiest and fastest way to create custom learning materials that
are as unique as your course is. To learn more customizing your book with Compose,
visit compose.cengage.com, or contact your Cengage Learning Consultant.
Preface xiii
MindTap Online Course

Sustainable Energy, 2e is also available
with MindTap, Cengage’s digital learn-
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even more effective by an interactive, cus-
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MindTap gives you complete control
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How Does MindTap Benefit Instructors?

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● The Progress App lets you know exactly how your students are doing (and
where they are struggling) with live analytics. You can see overall class
xiv Preface
engagement levels and drill down into individual student performance, enabling
you to identify topics needing extra instruction and instantly communicate with
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How Does MindTap Benefit Your Students?

The MindTap Mobile App includes the entire eBook accompanied by flashcards,
quizzes, and course alerts to help students understand core concepts, achieve better
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● Flashcards are pre-pop-
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students and instructors
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● The Progress App al-
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● The StudyHub is a single-destination studying tool that empowers students to
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● The MindTap Reader includes the abilities to have the content read aloud, to
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For more information about MindTap for Engineering, or to schedule a demonstration,
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Acknowledgments
I am grateful for the assistance of many individuals during the development of this text.
First, I am indebted to the students who have taken courses and whom I have taught at
Dalhousie University on Sustainable Energy. They have served as the inspiration for
this textbook and have provided feedback on the course material. I would also like to
thank Jeff Dahn for numerous discussions over the years on energy related matters and
Harm Rotermund for his continued encouragement and comments during the writing
of the manuscript. I am also grateful to Ewa Dunlap for assistance, support, and advice
throughout this project, and to German Rojas Orozco for checking the accuracy of
the Examples and the Solutions to the Problems. I would like to thank the Global En-
gineering team at Cengage Learning for their dedication to this new edition: Timothy
Anderson, Product Director: Mona Zeftel, Senior Content Developer; Teresa Versaggi,
Preface xv
Product Assistant; and Rose Kernan of RPK Production. Finally, I would like to thank
the following reviewers who provided invaluable comments on the manuscript:
● Julie Albertson, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs
● Prabhakar Bandaru, University of California, San Diego
● Ronald Besser, Stevens Institute of Technology
● Christopher Bull, Brown University
● Larry Caretto, California State University, Northridge
● Kip Carrico, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology
● Gerald Cecil, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
● Chih-hung Chang, Oregon State University
● Timothy J. Cochran, Alfred State College
● Tim Healy, Santa Clara University
● Jin Jiang, University of Western Ontario
● Charles Knisely, Bucknell University
● David Marx, Illinois State University
● Chiang Shih, Florida A&M University and Florida State University
● Robert J. Stevens, Rochester Institute of Technology
● Wencong Su, University of Michigan—Dearborn
● Eric Stuve, University of Washington
● Thomas Ortmeyer, Clarkson University
● Songgang Qiu, Temple University
R. A. Dunlap
Halifax, Nova Scotia
About the Author
Richard A. Dunlap is a research professor in the Department of Physics and Atmo-

spheric Science at Dalhousie University. He received a B.S. in Physics from Worcester
Polytechnic Institute (1974), an A.M. in Physics from Dartmouth College (1976), and
a Ph.D. in Physics from Clark University (1981). Since 1981 he has been on the fac-
ulty at Dalhousie University. From 2001 to 2006 he was Killam Research Professor
of Physics, and since 2009 to 2015 he was the Director of the Dalhousie University
Institute for Research in Materials. Prof. Dunlap is author of three previous textbooks,
Experimental Physics: Modern Methods (Oxford 1988), The Golden Ratio and Fibo-
nacci Numbers (World Scientific 1997), and An Introduction to the Physics of Nuclei
and Particles (Brooks/Cole 2004). Over the years his research interests have included
critical phenomena, magnetic materials, amorphous materials, quasicrystals, hydrogen
storage, superconductivity, and materials for advanced rechargeable batteries. He has
published more than 300 refereed research papers.
xvi
Part I
Background
Energy is an essential component of our daily lives. Throughout human history, our
energy use has increased, and we now depend on a complex energy infrastructure
to meet our needs for heating, lighting, transportation, and the production and
distribution of all manufactured materials. Our increased energy needs have put
increasing demands on the earth’s resources and have had increasingly adverse
effects on our environment. We are now at a stage of human development where our
energy use must be critically analyzed to determine suitable future approaches to the
production and use of this vital component of our lives.
Chapter 1 of this text begins with an overview of the basic scientific principles
related to energy and a description of the quantitative scientific tools needed to
analyze our energy use. This overview includes a summary of the various forms
of energy and a quantitative description of the processes by which energy can
be converted from one form to another. Also included is a survey of fundamental
thermodynamics and a description of the basic principles of electricity distribution.
An overview of energy use throughout history is presented in Chapter 2. The
chapter also provides the mathematical basis needed to assess future energy needs
and a summary of the factors that need to be evaluated when considering possible
future energy production methods.
The photograph at the beginning of this part of the text shows the Gordon Dam
in Tasmania. This high head hydroelectric dam is 192 m long and 140 m high and has a
maximum capacity of 432 MWe. It became operational in 1978 and was one of the last
major hydroelectric facilities to be constructed during an era of hydroelectric power
development in Tasmania that began in the 1950s and continued until the 1980s. This
trend in major hydroelectric development is paralleled in many other parts of the
world. ■
Tim Collins/Shutterstock.com
2
3
Chapter 1
Energy Basics
Learning Objectives: After reading the material in Chapter 1, you should understand:
●● The relationship between energy and power. ●● Heat engines and their Carnot efficiency.
●● The forms of energy. ●● Heat pumps and their coefficient of performance.
●● The laws of thermodynamics. ●● How electricity is generated and distributed.
1.1 Introduction
Energy may be categorized in different ways. One approach is to classify energy as either
kinetic or potential. From a classical point of view, kinetic energy is merely the energy
associated with the motion of a body. Potential energy may be described in terms of the
nature of the interactions in a system. For example, gravitational potential energy arises
from the gravitational interaction between two masses. The potential energy of water in
an elevated reservoir may be converted into kinetic energy, which can be utilized to turn
a turbine.
From a practical standpoint, however, it is convenient to describe the forms of energy
according to how they are produced and utilized. It is also crucial to understand how
one form of energy can be converted into another. In fact, when one says that energy
is “produced” (e.g., by a nuclear reactor), one refers to the conversion of one form of
energy that is not suitable for our needs (i.e., nuclear binding energy) into another form
(e.g., electrical energy) that is more readily utilized. Energy that is extracted from our
environment is primary energy; for example, chemical energy in the form of fossil fuels,
kinetic energy in the wind, potential energy of water in a reservoir, or incident solar energy.
To utilize energy, it is nearly always necessary to convert primary energy into a form that
suits our needs. In this chapter, some of the basic physics of energy are explained, as well
as the characteristics of some forms of energy and their conversions.
Tim Collins/Shutterstock.com
4
1.2 Work, Energy, and Power 5
1.2 Work, Energy, and Power

Energy, E, is defined as the ability to do work, W. Work is the consequence of the expen-
diture of energy and is defined as the product of a force, F, acting on an object times the
distance, d, that the object moves. This relationship can be written as
W 5 Fd. (1.1)
This expression assumes that the force acting on the object is a constant over the time
during which the object moves a distance, d, and that the force is acting in the same
direction as the displacement. The units of work are the same as the units of energy. In
the metric system, the standard unit of energy is the joule (J) when the force is expressed
in newtons (N) and the displacement in meters (m). In terms of fundamental metric
units, the joule is equal to kg∙m2∙s22. The British unit of energy, which is often used in
engineering in the United States, is the British thermal unit (Btu, 1 Btu 5 1055 J). The
Btu is commonly used to designate thermal energy.
It is perhaps convenient to think of the concept expressed in equation (1.1) in
terms of a mechanical system. An object with a mass, m, lying at rest on the floor
exerts a force (the gravitational force), mg (here g is the gravitational acceleration),
downward on the floor. The floor exerts a force, mg, upward on the mass (the normal
force) that cancels out the gravitational force. The net vertical force on the object is
zero, and, from Newton’s law,
F 5 ma, (1.2)
the acceleration is zero, and the object does not move. The work done is zero because
the distance that the object travels is zero. If an external vertical force that is equal
to (or greater than) mg is exerted on the object, then the object can be lifted from the
floor. If the object is lifted to a height h, then the work done, from equation (1.1), is
the force times the distance, or
W 5 mgh. (1.3)
According to the law of conservation of energy, this work is converted into gravita-
tional potential energy, also equal to mgh. The work done is independent of how long
the process takes or of the path taken to reach height h. Because of this latter property,
the gravitational force is said to be conservative.
It is sometimes convenient to deal with power rather than with energy or work.
Power, P, is the rate at which work is done (or the rate at which energy is expended).
Power is measured in watts (W), and the watt is defined as 1 joule per second. The
British unit of power is horsepower (hp), where 1 hp 5 746 W. Assuming that power
is a constant in time, t, then the total energy utilized is
E 5 Pt. (1.4)
This definition shows that 1 W·s 5 1 J. Total energy is the power integrated over
time so that producing (or using) 1000 W of power for 1 second represents the
same amount of energy as producing (or using) 1 W of power for 1000 seconds.
Equation (1.4) provides the basis for an alternative unit for the measurement of
energy, the kilowatt-hour (kWh). The kWh is defined as the energy correspond-
ing to a power of 1 kilowatt (1000 W) over a period of 1 hour (3600 s) so that
1 kWh 5 (1000 W) 3 (3600 s) 5 3.6 3 106 J.
6 CHAPTER 1: Energy Basics
Example 1.1
If a system produces 1 Btu of energy every minute, what is the power produced
in watts?
Solution
One Btu is equivalent to 1055 J. If a Btu is released over a period of 60 seconds, then
the energy per unit time in joules per second, which is equivalent to watts, is
P 5 Eyt 5 (1055 J)y(60 s) 5 17.6 W.
1.3 Forms of Energy

Energy can take on many forms:
●● Kinetic energy (e.g., of a moving automobile).
●● Gravitational potential energy (e.g., of water in a reservoir).
●● Thermal energy (e.g., in a pot of boiling water).
●● Chemical energy (e.g., stored in a liter of gasoline).
●● Nuclear energy (e.g., stored in a gram of uranium).
●● Electrical energy (e.g., used by a light bulb).
●● Electromagnetic energy (e.g., that associated with a beam of sunlight).
As explained, these categories of energy are merely convenient ways of describing
energy from different sources. They are not necessarily unique or mutually exclusive, nor
is the list necessarily comprehensive. For example, thermal energy might be thought of
as the microscopic kinetic energy of the molecules of a material. Both chemical energy
and nuclear energy can be viewed as manifestations of the mass-energy associated with
bonds in a material. However, these seven categories are a convenient way of defining
the forms of energy from a practical standpoint.
To make use of energy, it is generally necessary to convert energy from the form
in which it is obtained to a form that is compatible with our needs. For example, the
stored chemical energy in a liter of gasoline can be converted to heat and then into
mechanical energy to move a vehicle. Energy conversions are an important aspect of
the utilization of any energy source, and the efficiency of these conversions is crucial to
the viable utilization of the energy source. In any process, energy is always conserved.
(In nuclear physics, the conservation of mass-energy, rather than the conservation of
energy itself, is employed because there is an equivalence between these two quanti-
ties.) However, in any energy conversion process, all of the energy does not end up in
the form needed. Each of these forms will now be discussed briefly.
1.3a Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is most obviously associated with moving objects. For an object of
mass, m, moving at a velocity, v, the kinetic energy is
1
E 5 mv2. (1.5)
2
In the metric system, m is in kilograms (kg), v is in meters per second (m/s), and the
resulting energy is in joules (kg∙m2∙s22).
1.3 Forms of Energy 7
Example 1.2
What is the kinetic energy associated with a 1500-kg automobile traveling at

100 km/h?
Solution
The velocity converted to m/s is (100 km/h) 3 (1000 m/km)y(3600 s/h) 5
27.8 m/s. Using equation (1.5), the energy is given as
1 2
E5 mv 5 (0.5) 3 (1500 kg) 3 (27.8 m/s)2 5 5.8 3 105 kg·m2/s2 5 5.8 3 105 J.
2
Kinetic energy is also associated with the rotational motion of rotating objects.
The energy is given as
1
E 5 Iv2, (1.6)
2
where I is the moment of inertia of the object, and  is its angular velocity. (The moment
of inertia of an object and further details of rotational motion will be discussed in
Chapter 18.) The moment of inertia is given in units of kg∙m2, and the angular velocity
is given in units of s21. As before, the energy is measured in joules. Objects that have
both translational motion and rotational motion have both translational kinetic energy,
as given by equation (1.5), and rotational kinetic energy, as given by equation (1.6).
Example 1.3
A wheel in the form of a solid disk with a mass of m 5 400 kg, a diameter of
d 5 0.85 m and a moment of inertia of I 5 md 2y8 5 mr 2y2 rolls without
slipping. The velocity of its center of mass is 30 m/s. This is a rough approxi-
mation of a wheel on a freight train. Compare the wheel’s translational kinetic
energy to its rotational energy.
Solution
From equation (1.5), its translational kinetic energy is
1
Ekinetic 5 mv2 5 (0.5) 3 (400 kg) 3 (30 m/s)2 5 1.8 3 105 J.
2
If the wheel rolls without slipping, then its angular velocity is related to the
velocity of its center of mass, v, and its radius, r, because v 5 v/r. Substituting
for v and I in equation (1.6) gives
Erotational 5
2 2S DS D
1 mr2 v
r
2
5
1 2
4
mv .
Substituting these values,

1
Erotational 5 mv2 5 (0.25)3(400 kg)3(30 m/s)2 5 9.0 3 104 J.
4
Note that the rotational energy is independent of the wheel diameter and is
exactly one-half of the translational kinetic energy. These features are basic
characteristics of a solid disk that rolls without slipping.
1.3b Potential Energy

Potential energy is most conveniently thought of in terms of gravitational potential, as
explained. The concept of potential energy also applies to other situations, such as the
energy contained in a compressed spring. In the case of gravitational potential energy,
an object of mass, m, at a height h has potential energy given by
E 5 mgh. (1.7)
This potential energy can be converted into kinetic energy by allowing the object to fall
through the distance h (assuming there are no drag forces), yielding
1 2
E5 mv 5 mgh. (1.8)
2
The velocity of the object may thus be calculated to be
v 5 Ï2gh. (1.9)
Example 1.4
A 75-kg person walks up a flight of stairs with a vertical height of 3 m. What is

the change in that person’s potential energy?
Solution
From equation (1.7),
E 5 mgh 5 (75 kg) 3 (9.8 m/s2) 3 (3 m) 5 2.2 3 103 J.
1.3c Thermal Energy

The thermal energy of a gas results from the kinetic energy of the microscopic movement
of the molecules. Each molecule of gas has a kinetic energy associated with it that is given
by equation (1.5), where m is the mass of the molecule, and v is its average velocity. It can
be shown by applying ideal gas theory that the right-hand side of equation (1.5) can be
expressed in terms of the temperature of the gas as
1 2 3
mv 5 kBT. (1.10)
2 2
Here kB is Boltzmann’s constant with a value of 1.3806 3 10223 J/K, and T is the abso-
lute temperature in Kelvin (K) (more on this in Section 1.4). The total internal energy
of a collection of gas molecules is obtained from equation (1.10) by multiplying the
right-hand side by the number of gas molecules present. From a practical standpoint,
it is convenient to deal with macroscopic quantities such as the number of moles of
gas. Thus
3
E5 nRT, (1.11)
2
where n is the number of moles of gas, and R is the universal gas constant;
R 5 NAkB 5 8.315 J/(mol∙K). NA is Avogadro’s number (6.022 3 1023 mol21).
It is sometimes convenient (particularly for solids and liquids) to describe changes
in the macroscopic thermal energy of the material in terms of the specific heat, C, of the
material. If a quantity of energy, Q, is supplied to a piece of material of mass, m, then
its temperature will increase by an amount, DT, given by
Q
DT 5 . (1.12)
mC
Materials with a large specific heat require a large amount of energy per unit mass to
raise their temperature by a given amount. On the other hand, these materials are able
to store large amounts of thermal energy per unit mass when its temperature is raised
by a relatively small amount. (The utilization of these principles is discussed in detail
in Chapter 8.) If a solid is heated to its melting point, then additional energy must be
provided to melt it. This energy is used to break the chemical bonds holding the solid
together and is referred to as the latent heat of fusion. The term latent heat is used to
distinguish it from sensible heat because latent heat does not change the temperature of
a solid. When a liquid is heated to its boiling point, then additional energy, the latent
heat of vaporization, is needed to cause the material to undergo a phase transition and
become a gas.
Example 1.5
The specific heat of water is 4180 J/(kg·8C). Calculate the energy required to heat
500 g of water from 208C to 808C.
Solution
Rearranging equation (1.12) to solve for the heat gives
Q 5 mCDT.
Using m 5 0.5 kg, C 5 4180 J/(kg·8C), and DT 5 (808C 2 208C) 5 608C, then
Q 5 (0.5 kg) 3 [4180 J/(kg·8C)] 3 (608C) 5 1.25 3 105 J.
1.3d Chemical Energy

Chemical energy is the energy associated with chemical bonds, that is, the interaction
energy between atomic electrons in a material. Energy can be absorbed or released
during a chemical reaction as a result of changes in the bonds between the atoms. If a
process requires energy to be input for the reaction to occur, then the process is referred
to as endothermic. In general, these types of processes are not useful in the production
of energy, although they can be useful in the storage of it. The dissociation of water
(into hydrogen and oxygen) is of interest in this respect and will be discussed in more
detail in Chapter 20.
Processes that release energy are referred to as exothermic and are of interest in
this discussion. In general, oxidation reactions (i.e., the burning of materials) fall into
this category. Some of the most relevant for the production of energy are reactions
that involve the oxidation of carbon. The simplest of these is the oxidation of pure
carbon (using oxygen from the atmosphere) and the production of carbon dioxide. This
process is given by the formula
C 1 O2 S CO2 1 32.8 MJ/kg. (1.13)
The equation indicates the amount of energy released by the combustion of 1 kg of

pure carbon, that is the heat of combustion (in MJ/kg) of carbon, which corresponds to
a release of 4.09 eV (eV 5 1.6 3 10219 J) of energy from the oxidation of one atom
of carbon. Note that the energy in electron volts (eV) per atom (or molecule) for a
substance of molecular mass, M (given in g/mol), is
s106J/MJd # M # sQ/md
EseVd 5 , (1.14)
s103 g/kgd # s6.022 3 1023 mol21) # (1.602 3 10219J/eVd
where the energy released per unit mass, Q/m, is expressed in MJ/kg. The oxidation of
pure carbon is sometimes a suitable approximation of the burning of coal. The burning
of other fossil fuels [or other organic materials such as wood, ethanol, or municipal
waste (Chapter 16)] generally involves the oxidation of hydrocarbons. Some of the
simple reactions of this type are the burning of methane (the major component of
natural gas),
CH4 1 2O2 S CO2 1 2H2O 1 55.5 MJ/kg; (1.15)
the burning of ethanol (a common biofuel),
C2H6O 1 3O2 S 2CO2 1 3H2O 1 29.8 MJ/kg; (1.16)
and the burning of octane (an important component of gasoline),
2C8H18 1 25O2 S 16CO2 1 18H2O 1 46.8 MJ/kg. (1.17)

Note that combustion reactions of hydrocarbons produce steam (not liquid water) as a
by-product. The energies given above are referred to as higher heating values (HHV)
and include the latent heat of vaporization of the steam. This energy can only be recov-
ered if the steam produced is condensed.
An important reaction for the production of energy by animals is the combustion
of glucose,
C6H12O6 1 6O2 S 6CO2 1 6H2O 1 16.0 MJ/kg. (1.18)

In Chapter 20, the energy released by the oxidation of hydrogen, that is,
2H2 1 O2 S 2H2O 1 142 MJ/kg, (1.19)
will be considered in detail.
1.3e Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy is similar to chemical energy in that it is the energy associated with
the bonds between particles. The relevant energy scale of nuclear energy relates to
the bonds between the neutrons and protons within the nucleus rather than to the
bonds between atoms that involve the atomic electrons. Nuclear bonds represent
much larger amounts of energy than chemical bonds, typically many megaelectron
volts (MeV) compared with a few electron volts. As a result, the amount of energy
that can be released in nuclear reactions is many orders of magnitude larger than the
energy that can be released in chemical reactions. Through the equivalence of mass
and energy as given by Einstein’s relation,
E 5 mc2, (1.20)
where c is the speed of light, nuclear energy can be related to changes in the nuclear
mass (discussed in much more detail in Chapter 5). The energy released in an exother-
mic nuclear reaction is given in terms of the change in nuclear mass as
Eexo 5 Dmc2. (1.21)
Although this is also true for chemical energy, the energy associated with chemical
bonds and hence the changes in mass associated with chemical reactions are very much
smaller than in the nuclear case. As discussed in detail in Chapters 6 and 7, the release
of nuclear energy can accompany the fission (breaking up) of heavy nuclei like those
in uranium and plutonium or the fusion (bonding) of light nuclei like the isotopes of
hydrogen.
1.3f Electrical Energy

Electrical energy is associated with electrons in a conductor. It is convenient to deal
with the macroscopic representation of electrical energy in terms of voltages and cur-
rents without the need to be concerned with the microscopic description of the elec-
trons. If a current, I, flows through a circuit with a resistance, R, then there is a voltage
decrease, V, across the resistance given by
V 5 IR, (1.22)
where V is given in volts (V) if I is in amperes (A) and R is in ohms (V). The power
dissipated through the resistance is given by
P 5 VI. (1.23)
When V and I are in volts and amperes, respectively, then P is in watts. From equation
(1.22), this may be written as
V2
P 5 I 2R 5 . (1.24)
R
From equation (1.4), electrical energy (in joules) is power (in watts) multiplied by time
(in seconds). This is most often expressed in kilowatt-hours by dividing the energy in
joules by the conversion factor 3.6 3 106 J/kWh. Correspondingly, the conversion fac-
tor between kilowatt-hours and megajoules (MJ) is 0.278 kWh/MJ.
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CHAMBERS'S JOURNAL OF POPULAR LITERATURE, SCIENCE,
AND ART, FIFTH SERIES, NO. 130, VOL. III, JUNE 26, 1886 ***
CHAMBERS’S JOURNAL
OF
POPULAR
LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND
ART
CONTENTS
BLOCKADES AND BLOCKADE-RUNNERS.
IN ALL SHADES.
THE ASCENT OF CLOUDY MOUNTAIN, NEW GUINEA.
TREASURE TROVE.
THE MONTH: SCIENCE AND ARTS.
JACK, THE BUSHRANGER.
THE BIRDS AT SOUTH KENSINGTON.
THE LINDSAY’S BRIDAL.
No. 130.—Vol. III. SATURDAY, JUNE 26, 1886. Price 1½d.
BLOCKADES AND BLOCKADE-
RUNNERS.
For three-quarters of a century, England differed from the other
great maritime states of Europe as to the way in which blockade
should be defined. To begin with, it may be enough to explain that a
territory is said to be blockaded when access to or egress from its
seaports is prevented by the naval forces of another state. When a
state, for purposes of its own, fiscal or hygienic, declares that certain
of its own ports shall be closed against foreign vessels, that decree
must be respected by other states to whose notice it is duly brought,
provided that those ports are really under the control of the executive
of that state. But that is not a blockade; it is a mere closure of ports,
which any government, in virtue of its inherent sovereignty within the
borders of its own territory, is quite entitled to announce. Blockade is
essentially a war measure. When the President of the United States,
in April 1861, proclaimed that a forcible blockade of the Southern
States would be forthwith instituted, England and France
immediately declared their neutrality, and although that meant that
they recognised the Confederates as belligerents, and not as rebels,
their action was unobjectionable, because, whenever the Northern
States issued that proclamation, they by implication admitted that
they were engaged in war, and not merely in the suppression of a
rebellion. In recent times, however, recourse has been had to what
has been termed ‘pacific blockade;’ thus, the coasts of Greece were
blockaded in 1827 by the English, French, and Russian squadrons,
although all three powers professed to be at peace with Turkey
(under whose dominion Greece then was); and from 1845 to 1848,
France and England prevented access to La Plata, although no war
was declared. To admit such procedure as legitimate would simply
mean that one state might put in force against another measures
destructive of the trade of neutral countries, and yet expect those
countries to view the whole operations as pacific. This objection
might not apply to that pacific blockade which we have this year
seen put in force against Greece, for we know that every vessel
flying the flag of any other state than Greece has been unmolested.
But the liberty allowed to other nations did nothing to mitigate the
coercion applied to Greek trading-vessels, and had the object of the
blockaders been merely to divert to their own merchantmen the
carrying trade of the Archipelago, they could scarcely have devised a
measure better fitted to attain that end. Lord Palmerston at least had
a decided opinion as to how far such action was in accordance with
law: his own words are: ‘The French and English blockade of the
Plata has been from first to last illegal.’ In truth, pacific blockade is a
contradiction in terms. In practice, it is enforced by the same
methods as blockade between belligerents; and a recent Dutch
writer has well pointed out that the sole reason why it has not yet
met with the unanimous disapproval of European powers is that
hitherto it has been levelled against only the weakest states.
It had from time out of mind been reckoned a perfectly regular
proceeding to declare a port or a territory under blockade, and to
affix penalties to the violation of that declaration, although, in point of
fact, not a single vessel should be present to enforce its observance.
But gradually this tenet met with less toleration; and in 1780, when
America and France were combined against England, the three
great powers of the North, Russia, Denmark, and Sweden, entered
into a league known as the ‘Armed Neutrality,’ with the object of
evading the severe but ancient method of dealing with neutral
commerce which Great Britain adopted. One of the articles which
this confederacy agreed upon was: ‘A port is blockaded only when
evident danger attends the attempt to run into it’—a principle which
boldly denied the right of any power to close by a mere edict a single
hostile port. But Britain doggedly persisted in the exercise of a right
which had undoubtedly the sanction of custom; and the maritime
powers of Europe were to wrangle and recriminate through still
darker years before agreement could be reached. On the 21st of
November 1806, Napoleon promulgated the famous Berlin Decree,
which announced that every port in Great Britain was blockaded; and
by an Order in Council, issued a year afterwards, the British
government declared France and all the states which owned her
supremacy to be subject to the same embargo. However far short
the English performance might fall of their announced intention, the
egregious pretentiousness of the French decree will be apparent
enough to any one who remembers Macaulay’s saying of the
Emperor: ‘The narrowest strait was to his power what it was of old
believed that a running stream was to the sorceries of a witch.’ Yet,
both governments were only carrying to its logical issue the old
doctrine which neither had renounced—that a valid blockade might
be constituted by mere notification. It was only in 1856 that, with the
express purpose of removing as far as possible the uncertainty
which hung over the rules of naval war, the great powers concurred
in the Declaration of Paris, which has been called ‘a sort of doctrinal
annex’ to the treaty of that year. Important as has been the operation
of all the rules contained in that Declaration, the only one which
concerns us here is the fourth: ‘Blockades in order to be binding
must be effective—that is to say, maintained by a force sufficient
really to prevent access to the coast of the enemy.’ This being
practically an adoption of the principle for which the neutrals of 1780
had so strenuously contended, was an argumentative victory for
them; but it was far more; it was a triumph for those thinkers who
have always maintained that all law must rest upon a basis of fact,
that except in so far as law declares the relation which ought to
subsist between facts which a previous analysis has ascertained, it
is useless, and even mischievous.
The first fifteen years of the present century were marked by all that
turbulence which had characterised the closing years of that which
went before, and there were not wanting in both periods instances of
blockades perseveringly prosecuted and gallantly resisted. In the
beginning of 1800, for example, Genoa was the only city in Italy held
by the French; the Austrian troops invested it by land, and English
war-ships blocked the passage seaward. The beleaguered Genoese
saw the usual incidents of an old-fashioned blockade. From time to
time, one of the light privateers which lay behind the little island of
Capraja, north-east of Corsica, would succeed in eluding all the
vigilance of Admiral Keith’s squadron, and carry in provisions
enough to prolong for a while the desperate resistance of Massena’s
garrison; and now the blockaders would retaliate by ‘cutting out’ a
galley from beneath the very guns of the harbour. One day a gale
might drive the jealous sentinels to sea; but on the next, they were
back at their old stations, there to wait with patience until pestilence
and famine should bring the city to its doom. Sixty years later and in
another hemisphere, the maritime world was to see how far the new
appliances of elaborate science had altered the modes in which
blockades were to be enforced and evaded.
On the 27th of April 1861, President Lincoln issued a proclamation in
which the following announcement appeared: ‘A competent force will
be posted so as to prevent the entrance and exit of vessels from the
ports’ of the Southern States. ‘If, therefore, with a view to violate
such blockade, any vessel shall attempt to leave any of said ports,
she will be duly warned; and if she shall again attempt to enter or
leave a blockaded port, she will be captured.’ All Europe was
prepared to watch and to deride this attempt to lock up a coast-line
of thirty-five hundred miles against the intrusion of traders, whose
appetite for gain would be whetted to the keenest by artificially raised
prices. Already, indeed, the scheme had been ridiculed as a ‘material
impossibility’ by European statesmen, who pointed to the fact that
not one of all the blockades established during the preceding
seventy-five years had succeeded in excluding trade even where the
coast to be watched was comparatively limited. But as a set-off
against the long and broken stretch of coast which lay open to the
operations of the blockade-runners, there were difficulties in their
way which were at the outset of the struggle too lightly esteemed.
Almost the whole extent of the seaboard was protected by a
treacherous fringe of long low islands, scarcely rising above the
surface of the water; the channels between and behind these were
winding and intricate; and when these obstacles were passed, there
still remained the crucial bar to imperil the entrance to every harbour.
The conditions of the impending conflict were new, and sagacious
men foresaw that under them the risk of neutral powers being
entangled in disputes with the belligerents was immensely
increased. The agency of steam was to be employed for the first
time to enforce a blockade on a gigantic scale. It was plain that a
blockading squadron was no longer liable to be blown off the port it
was watching by continued gales; but it was not so easy to say how
far this new motive-power would alter the chances of the blockade-
runners. The naval strength of the Northern States was at the
beginning of the war so puny that the blockade when first instituted
was little better than one of those ‘paper blockades’ which the voice
of international law had condemned at Paris seven years before; for
many months, indeed, the trade of the Confederacy with Europe was
but little affected. It was in view of this that the New York Tribune
urged Lincoln’s government to economise their sea-force, and close
entrance channels by means of sunken hulks. This plan was
adopted at Charleston, and carried out under the superintendence of
an officer whose aim was ‘to establish a combination of artificial
interruptions and irregularities resembling on a small scale those of
Hell-gate,’ that rock which so long impeded the navigation to New
York harbour, and which was removed only a few months ago.
In Europe, both military critics and Chambers of Commerce
protested against this barbarous method of making good a blockade;
but the stone-laden whale-ships sunk at Charleston did no
permanent damage to the port, for before the war closed, the hulks
broke up, and the harbour was filled with floating timber. But it was
quickly felt that only an adequate fleet could render the blockade
effective, and in response to the ceaseless activity of the dockyards,
the northern war-ships multiplied with marvellous rapidity. The
blockade grew strict. Gradually, the pressure of diminished imports
began to tell on the resources of the Southern States; iron, liquors,
machinery, articles of domestic use, medicinal drugs and appliances
of all kinds became scarce. In Richmond, a yard of ordinary calico
which was formerly sold for twelve and a half cents, brought thirty
dollars; a pair of French gloves was worth one hundred and fifty
dollars; and the price of salt had risen to a dollar a pound. The export
trade, too, was being slowly strangled; immense stores of cotton and
tobacco lay waiting shipment at every port. A bale of cotton worth
forty dollars at Charleston would have brought two hundred at New
York; and some idea of the price it might have yielded at Liverpool
may be obtained from a consideration of the fact that half a million of
English cotton-workers were subsisting only upon charity.
But the war sent trade into new channels. Nassau, the capital of New
Providence, one of the Bahamas group, became one huge depôt for
the goods which sought a market in the forbidden ports. Articles of
household economy and of field equipment lay piled in
heterogeneous masses on her wharfs, the cotton which had escaped
the grasp of the Federals lay in her warehouses for reshipment to
Europe; her coal-stores overflowed with the mineral which was to
feed the greedy furnaces of the blockade-runners lying at anchor in
the bay, and the patois of every seafaring people in Europe could be
daily heard upon her quays. Hardly less numerous and varied were
the groups of sailors, merchants, adventurers, and spies, who
discussed the fortunes of the war upon the white-glancing terraces of
Hamilton in the Bermudas.
Blockade-running had now become a business speculation. But the
great bulk of the trade was in very few hands, for the risks were
great, and the capital involved was large. The initial cost of a
blockade-runner was heavy; the officers were highly paid; a pilot well
acquainted with the port to be attempted often demanded one
thousand pounds for his services; and besides all this, it is to be
remembered that on a fair calculation not above one trip in four was
successful. It is computed that in three years there were built or
despatched from the Clyde no less than one hundred and eleven
swift steamers specially designed for the adventurous trade with the
Confederate ports. Almost any day in August 1864, one of these
vessels might have been seen cruising about at the Tail of the Bank,
preparing to try her speed against the swiftest passenger steamers
of the river. The Douglas was in those days the fastest boat on the
Mersey; but one of the new blockade-runners, named the Colonel
Lamb, easily beat her, attaining on the trial a speed of sixteen and
three-quarter knots (or about nineteen miles) per hour. A careful
observer might almost have guessed the character of the enterprise
for which a blockade-runner was designed by a scrutiny of her build.
Two taper masts and a couple of short smoke-stacks were all that
appeared above the deck; her object was to glide in the darkness
past her watchers, and the tall spars of a heavily-rigged ship would
have been too conspicuous a mark for eager eyes. Her hull was
painted white, for experience showed that on dark nights or in thick
weather that colour most easily escaped observation. Although she
had considerable stowage-room, her draught was light, and she was
propelled by paddle or side wheels, in order that she might turn
readily in narrow or shallow waters. To aid their war-vessels in
capturing and destroying light-heeled cruisers such as this, the
Federal government built twenty-three small gunboats. They, too,
drew but little water, and rarely exceeded five hundred tons burden.
For armament they carried one eleven-inch pivot-gun and three
howitzers—two of twenty-four pounds, and one of twenty pounds—
well-chosen weapons for the work they had to do. Their weak point
was their rate of speed, which did not amount to more than nine or
ten knots an hour. So deficient were they in this respect, that a
blockade-runner has been known to run out, get damaged, and sail
round a gunboat into port again.
There was so much in blockade-running that was attractive to the
adventurous, that we are hardly surprised to learn that officers of our
navy engaged in the work, wholly forgetful of the neutral position to
which their country’s policy bound them. The remonstrances,
however, which were made to our government on that subject, and
the Gazette Order which they elicited, would probably prevent those
who had an official status from taking their capture so phlegmatically
as the youth who took his passage out in a blockade-runner with the
intention of enjoying a tour through the Southern States, and who,
when the vessel was captured, wrote home saying that he would
now explore the Northern States, ‘which would do quite as well.’ One
can well imagine the tiptoe of expectation to which every one on
board would rise as the Bermudas sank into the distance, and the
time drew near which was to decide the fortune of their enterprise.
How warily they lie off until the evening favours their approach, and
then, with every light but the engine-fires extinguished, speed quietly
but rapidly past the large looming hulls of the outer blockaders. But
they have yet to run the gantlet of the inner cordon of gunboats, and
now comes the real crisis of their venture. Shall they steam with
cunning effrontery slowly and ostentatiously close past a gunboat?
The plan offers a chance of success, for some of their watchers have
once been blockade-runners themselves, and in the darkness the
similarity of build might deceive. No; they perceive what seems to be
a practicable gap in the line, and driving their engines to their utmost
pitch, they rest their fate upon their speed. Yet they are detected:
there goes a heavy swivel gun; the alarm is raised, and now a
perfect fusillade rages round the intruder. But everything is against
good practice; only one shot takes effect in her hull, that going clean
through the bow; and with little other damage, the daring vessel
steams into Wilmington with a valuable cargo of liquors, leather, and
iron.
Blockade-running soon became almost as much an art as a trade,
and there were some grumblers in this country who made it a ground
of complaint that no English officers had been sent to observe the
new development in this branch of naval warfare. The most
ingenious expedients were resorted to on both sides. A system of
signalling by means of blue lights and rockets was in many cases
established between the forts and their friends in the offing. The
steamer Hansa ran into Wilmington while Fort Fisher was being
bombarded, and prevented pursuit by boldly sailing close past the
powder-ship, which shortly afterwards blew up. Occasionally, a
furious cannonade was begun from some adjacent fort, so as to
draw off the blockading squadron, and leave the entrance free, if
only for a few hours. The blockaders had their tricks too. Sometimes
heavy smoke was seen rising as from a ship on fire; but when the
blockade-runner steered to render help, she found out too late that
the supposed burning vessel was a Federal cruiser, which had
resorted to this device in order to bring the swifter craft within range
of her guns. One dark rainy night the Petrel ran out of Charleston,
and shortly afterwards fell in with what appeared to be a large
merchant vessel. Hoping to crown a successful run with the capture
of a valuable prize, she gave chase, and fired a shot to bring the
stranger to. The reply was a single broadside, so well directed that
there was no need for another. The supposed merchantman was the
frigate St Lawrence. A favourite ruse of the privateer Jeff Davis was
to hoist the French flag of distress, and when a ship bore down in
response to this appeal, she would, under pretence of handing in a
letter, send aboard a boat’s crew armed to the teeth.
But of all the remarkable incidents of this remarkable blockade there
was none more noteworthy than the voyage of the British ship Emily
St Pierre. The story rivals the inventions of a sea-romancer. This
vessel left Calcutta with orders to make the coast of South Carolina
and see if the blockade of Charleston was still in force. Now,
although this was a proceeding not in any way illegal, she was
nevertheless captured by a Federal warship; a prize crew of two
officers and thirteen men was put on board; and her own crew, with
the exception of the master, the cook, and the steward, was taken
out of her. Thus manned, she was being steered for a northern port,
when her deposed captain persuaded his cook and steward to assist
him in making one effort to regain possession of the ship. They
caught the mate asleep in his berth, ironed and gagged him; the
prize-master they found on deck, and treated similarly; three seamen
who had the watch on deck were asked to go down into the scuttle—
a storeroom near the helm—for a coil of rigging. The captain gave
them this order as if he had accepted the inevitable, and was aiding
the captors to navigate the ship. As soon as the three leaped down,
the hatch was closed, and they were prisoners. The remainder of the
prize crew, who were in the forecastle, were shut down and liberated
one by one; but those who would give no promise of help to their
new master were confined beside the unfortunates in the scuttle.
Three, indeed, consented, but only one of them was a sailor; and
with this crew of five, a vessel of eight hundred and eighty-four tons
was brought to Liverpool through thirty days of bad weather. It is only
a fitting conclusion to such a tale of daring to record that the intrepid
seaman who conceived and carried out the enterprise was a native
of the stewartry of Kirkcudbright, which had already numbered
among her sons the renowned Paul Jones.
IN ALL SHADES.
CHAPTER XXXII.
‘This is awkward, Tom, awfully awkward,’ Mr Theodore Dupuy said
to his nephew as they rode homeward. ‘We must manage somehow
to get rid of this man as early as possible. Of course, we can’t keep
him in the house any longer with your cousin Nora, now that we
know he’s really nothing more—baronet or no baronet—than a
common mulatto. But at the same time, you see, we can’t get rid of
him anyhow by any possibility before the dinner to-morrow evening.
I’ve asked several of the best people in Trinidad especially to meet
him, and I don’t want to go and stultify myself openly before the eyes
of the whole island. What the dickens can we do about it?’
‘If you’d taken my advice, Uncle Theodore,’ Tom Dupuy answered
sullenly, in spite of his triumph, ‘you’d have got rid of him long ago.
As it is, you’ll have to keep him on now till after Tuesday, and then
we must manage somehow to dismiss him politely.’
They rode on without another word till they reached the house; there,
they found Nora and Harry had arrived before them, and had gone in
to dress for dinner. Mr Dupuy followed their example; but Tom, who
had made up his mind suddenly to stop, loitered about on the lawn
under the big star-apple tree, waiting in the cool till the young
Englishman should make his appearance.
Meanwhile, Nora, in her own dressing-room, attended by Rosina
Fleming and Aunt Clemmy, was thinking over the afternoon’s ride
very much to her own satisfaction. Mr Noel was really after all a very
nice fellow: if he hadn’t been so dreadfully dark—but there, he was
really just one shade too dusky in the face ever to please a West
Indian fancy. And yet, he was certainly very much in love with her!
The very persistence with which he avoided reopening the subject,
while he went on paying her such very marked attention, showed in
itself how thoroughly in earnest he was. ‘He’ll propose to me again
to-morrow—I’m quite sure he will,’ Nora thought to herself, as Rosina
fastened up her hair with a sprig of plumbago and a little delicate
spray of wild maiden-hair. ‘He was almost going to propose to me as
we came along by the mountain-cabbages this afternoon, only I saw
him hesitating, and I turned the current of the conversation. I wonder
why I turned it? I’m sure I don’t know why. I wonder whether it was
because I didn’t know whether I should answer “Yes” or “No,” if he
were really to ask me? I think one ought to decide in one’s own mind
beforehand what one’s going to say in such a case, especially when
a man has asked one already. He’s awfully nice. I wish he was just a
shade or two lighter. I believe Tom really fancies—he’s so dark—it
isn’t quite right with him.’
Isaac Pourtalès, lounging about that minute, watching for Rosina,
whom he had come to talk with, saw Nora flit for a second past the
open window of the passage, in her light and gauze-like evening
dress, with open neck in front, and the flowers twined in her pretty
hair; and he said to himself as he glanced up at her: ‘De word ob de
Lard say right, “Take captive de women!”’
At the same moment, Tom Dupuy, strolling idly on the lawn in the
thickening twilight, caught sight of Pourtalès, and beckoned him
towards him with an imperious finger. ‘Come here,’ he said; ‘I want to
talk with you, you nigger there.—You’re Isaac Pourtalès, aren’t you?
—I thought so. Then come and tell me all you know about this
confounded cousin of yours—this man Noel.’
Isaac Pourtalès, nothing loth, poured forth at once in Tom Dupuy’s
listening ear the whole story, so far as he knew it, of Lady Noel’s
antecedents in Barbadoes. While the two men, the white and the
brown, were still conversing under the shade of the star-apple tree,
Nora, who had come down to the drawing-room meanwhile, strolled
out for a minute, beguiled by the cool air, on to the smoothly kept
lawn in front of the drawing-room window. Tom saw her, and
beckoned her to him with his finger, exactly as he had beckoned the
tall mulatto. Nora gazed at the beckoning hand with the intensest
disdain, and then turned away, as if perfectly unconscious of his
ungainly gesture, to examine the tuberoses and great bell-shaped
brugmansias of the garden border.
Tom walked up to her angrily and rudely. ‘Didn’t you see me calling
you, miss?’ he said in his harsh drawl, with no pretence of
unnecessary politeness. ‘Didn’t you see I wanted to speak to you?’
‘I saw you making signs to somebody with your hand, as if you took
me for a servant,’ Nora answered coldly; ‘and not having been
accustomed in England to be called in that way, I thought you must
have made a mistake as to whom you were dealing with.’
Tom started and muttered an ugly oath. ‘In England,’ he repeated.
‘Oh, ah, in England. West Indian gentlemen, it seems, aren’t good
enough for you, miss, since this fellow Noel has come out to make
up to you. I suppose you don’t happen to know that he’s a West
Indian too, and a precious queer sort of one into the bargain? I know
you mean to marry him, miss; but all I can tell you is, your father and
I are not going to permit it.’
‘I don’t wish to marry him,’ Nora answered, flushing fiery red all over
(‘Him is pretty for true when him blush like dat,’ Isaac Pourtalès said
to himself from the shade of the star-apple tree). ‘But if I did, I
wouldn’t listen to anything you might choose to say against him, Tom
Dupuy; so that’s plain speaking enough for you.’
Tom sneered. ‘O no,’ he said; ‘I always knew you’d end by marrying
a woolly-headed mulatto; and this man’s one, I don’t mind telling
you. He’s a brown man born; his mother, though she is Lady Noel—
fine sort of a Lady, indeed—is nothing better than a Barbadoes
brown girl; and he’s own cousin to Isaac Pourtalès over yonder! He
is, I swear to you.—Isaac, come here, sir!’
Nora gave a little suppressed scream of surprise and horror as the
tall mulatto, in his ragged shirt, leering horribly, emerged
unexpectedly, like a black spectre, from the shadows opposite.
‘Isaac,’ the young planter said with a malicious smile, ‘who is this
young man, I want to know, that calls himself Mister Noel?’
Isaac Pourtalès touched his slouching hat awkwardly as he
answered, under his breath, with an ugly scowl: ‘Him me own cousin,
sah, an’ me mudder cousin. Him an’ me mudder is fam’ly long ago in
ole Barbadoes.’
‘There you are, Nora!’ Tom Dupuy cried out to her triumphantly. ‘You
see what sort of person your fine English friend has turned out to be.’
‘Tom Dupuy,’ Nora cried in her wrath—but in her own heart she knew
it wasn’t true—‘if you tell me this, trying to set me against Mr Noel,
you’ve failed in your purpose, sir: what you say has no effect upon
me. I do not care for him; you are quite mistaken about that; but if I
did, I don’t mind telling you, your wicked scheming would only make
me like him all the better. Tom Dupuy, no real gentleman would ever
try so to undermine another man’s position.’
At that moment, Harry Noel, just descending to the drawing-room,
strolled out to meet them on the lawn, quite unconscious of this little
family altercation. Nora glanced hastily from Tom Dupuy, in his
planter coat and high riding-boots, to Harry Noel, looking so tall and
handsome in his evening dress, and couldn’t help noticing in her own
mind which of the two was the truest gentleman. ‘Mr Noel,’ she said,
accepting his half-proffered arm with a natural and instinctively
gracious movement, ‘will you take me in to dinner? I see it’s ready.’
Tom Dupuy, crest-fallen and astonished, followed after, and muttered
to himself with deeper conviction than ever that he always knew that
girl Nora would end in the longrun by marrying a confounded woolly-
headed mulatto.
(To be continued.)

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Preface viii 3.7 Enhanced Oil Recovery 99

6.5 Types of Thermal Neutron 9.3 Photovoltaic Devices 305

Summary 432 PART V

20.3 Hydrogen Production Methods 623 21.3 Key Considerations 663

Chapter 21 Future Prospects and Research Index I-1

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1.3b Potential Energy

A 75-kg person walks up a flight of stairs with a vertical height of 3 m. What is

1.3c Thermal Energy

1.3d Chemical Energy

C 1 O2 S CO2 1 32.8 MJ/kg. (1.13)

The equation indicates the amount of energy released by the combustion of 1 kg of

C2H6O 1 3O2 S 2CO2 1 3H2O 1 29.8 MJ/kg; (1.16)

and the burning of octane (an important component of gasoline),

2C8H18 1 25O2 S 16CO2 1 18H2O 1 46.8 MJ/kg. (1.17)

C6H12O6 1 6O2 S 6CO2 1 6H2O 1 16.0 MJ/kg. (1.18)

1.3e Nuclear Energy

Eexo 5 Dmc2. (1.21)

1.3f Electrical Energy

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