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Lecture Notes in Logistics
Series Editors: Uwe Clausen · Michael ten Hompel · Robert de Souza
Dirk Mattfeld
Thomas Spengler
Jan Brinkmann
Martin Grunewald Editors
Logistics
Management
Contributions of the Section Logistics of
the German Academic Association for
Business Research, 2015, Braunschweig,
Germany
Series editors
Uwe Clausen, Dortmund, Germany
Michael ten Hompel, Dortmund, Germany
Robert de Souza, Singapore, Singapore
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11220
Dirk Mattfeld Thomas Spengler
•
Jan Brinkmann Martin Grunewald

•
Editors
Logistics Management
Contributions of the Section Logistics
of the German Academic Association
for Business Research, 2015, Braunschweig,
Germany
123
Editors
Dirk Mattfeld Jan Brinkmann
Decision Support Group, Business Decision Support Group, Business
Information Systems Information Systems
University of Braunschweig University of Braunschweig
Braunschweig Braunschweig
Germany Germany
Thomas Spengler Martin Grunewald

Production and Logistics Research Production and Logistics Research
Group, Institute of Automotive Group, Institute of Automotive
Management and Industrial Production Management and Industrial Production
University of Braunschweig University of Braunschweig
Braunschweig Braunschweig
Germany Germany
ISSN 2194-8917 ISSN 2194-8925 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-319-20862-6 ISBN 978-3-319-20863-3 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20863-3
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015943369
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Preface
In the past decades, logistics management turned out to be one of the most
important success factors in managing the tremendous challenges of a more and
more globalized economy. In industry and science, many new methods and tools
for decision support in procurement-, production-, distribution-, resource-, and
supply chain management have been developed and applied successfully. In
September 2015 the conference on logistics management LM2015 took place at the
Technische Universität Braunschweig, Germany, as the ninth event of a biannual
logistics management series that started back in 1999. Founded and supervised by
the special interest group on logistics in the German Academic Association for
Business Research (VHB), this series of conferences focuses on academic
achievements with respect to the management of the logistics function of firms.
LM2015 is held in conjunction with VHB’s special interest group on production,
thus, without loss of variety in the treatment of logistics topics, one can observe a
bias to production logistics, i.e., facility layout, inventory management, line con-
figuration, or production planning and scheduling. This emphasis is underlined by
the invited keynote of Rainer Lasch and Roy Fritzsche, entitled “Condition-Based
Maintenance Planning Within the Aviation Industry.” The contribution aims at the
increase of aircraft availability due to condition-based maintenance planning as well
as the efficient supply of spare parts.
Apart from the aforementioned invited paper the other 19 contributions of this
volume have undergone a thorough review by at least three referees each. The
condition of acceptance has been set to an above average rating of at least two
of the referees involved. Two of these papers address the management of supplies:
“Considering Small and Medium-Sized Suppliers in Public Procurement—The
Case of the German Defence Sector” discusses the practice of lot-wise calls in
German defense procurements. The empirical study “Integration of Cultural
Aspects in Supplier Evaluation” focuses on cultural differences in the cooperation
between buyer and supplier.
The next three papers are devoted to the coordination of supply chains. “RoRA-
SCM—Review of the Integration of Flexibility Planning in Supply Chains”
addresses robust, resilient, and agile planning in the light of uncertainty introducing
v
vi Preface
risk and opportunity. The paper surveys optimization models and their integration
into the supply chain matrix. “Coordination in Multimodal Supply Chains: Drafting
an Agent-Based Exchange” introduces a market place concept for agent-based
freight exchange based on bidding auctions. “Flexibility of 3PL Contracts: Practical
Evidence and Propositions on the Design of Contract Flexibility in 3PL
Relationships” covers flexibility mechanisms in contract design. An analysis is
performed in order to identify areas of prospective research.
A bunch of four papers deals with the integrated management of resources
within a firm. “Integrated Facility Location, Capacity, and Production Planning in a
Multi-Commodity Closed Supply Chain Network” introduces a mixed integer
model for forward and reverse flows of multiple make-to-order products. “An
Extended Model Formulation of the Facility Layout Problem with Aisle Structure”
suggests a mixed integer model capable of handling layout arrangement and aisle
structure simultaneously. “Integrated Make-or-Buy and Facility Layout Problem
with Multiple Products” tackles a simultaneous make-or-buy decision while con-
sidering costs of outsourcing as well as production costs imposed by facility layout.
The paper “Qualification and Competence Related Misfits in Logistics Companies:
Identification and Measurement” is the only one in this volume addressing the
important topic of human resources in a mixed method approach.
Flexible Production Management is considered by three papers. “A Lot
Streaming Model for a Re-entrant Flow Shop Scheduling Problem with Missing
Operations” examines the impact of increasing the number of sublots for this
stochastic scheduling problem. The paper “Identifying Complexity-Inducing
Variety: Adapting ClustalW for Semiconductor Industry” adapts the protein mul-
tiple sequence alignment program ClustalW for complexity measurement in
workflow design. The “Consideration of Redundancies in the Configuration of
Automated Flow Lines” performs a numerical analysis on redundant configurations
aiming at ensuring throughput rates while avoiding costly buffer space.
Another four papers deal with distribution management. “Prepositioning of
Relief Items Under Uncertainty: A Classification of Modeling and Solution
Approaches for Disaster Management” combines facility location and inventory
management under uncertainty. “Forecasting Misused E-Commerce Consumer
Returns” predicts the ratio of returning items already used by customers. This is of
particular importance since used items cannot be directly resold anymore. “A
Rollout Algorithm for Vehicle Routing with Stochastic Customer Requests”
maximizes the number of served requests within the time limit of a work shift. “A
Real-World Cost Function Based on Tariffs for Vehicle Routing in the Food
Retailing Industry” integrates the price structure based on tariffs as they appear for
freight carriers. In particular, compartments of vehicles and time windows for
delivery are considered.
The last three papers of this volume are devoted to transport management. “An
Adaptive Large Neighborhood Search for the Reverse Open Vehicle Routing
Problem with Time Windows” extends the OVRP by time windows and truck
specific starting positions. A metaheuristic generates return trips to the depot for the
case of dynamic vehicle routing problems. “A Two-Stage Iterative Solution
Preface vii
Approach for Solving a Container Transportation Problem” suggests a mixed

integer model for inland container transportation under the assumption that one
trucking company owns depots, a fleet, and a sufficient number of empty containers.
The paper “Vehicle Routing and Break Scheduling by a Distributed Decision
Making Approach” introduces a framework for distributed decision making such
that drivers and planners coactively solve the integrated problem.
Acknowledgments
The editors of this volume express their gratitude to all of the authors and to
everybody who has contributed to this volume. In particular, we thank Springer for
the convenient and seamless collaboration in the editing and publishing process.
We gratefully acknowledge the tremendous work carried out by the referees. In
particular, we want to express our gratitude to:
Bierwirth, Christian, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg,
Buscher, Udo, Technische Universität Dresden,
Corsten, Hans, Universität Kaiserslautern,
Darkow, Inga-Lena, Universität Bremen,
Dethloff, Jan, Hochschule Bremen,
Ehmke, Jan Fabian, Freie Universität Berlin,
Elbert, Ralf, Technische Universität Darmstadt,
Eßig, Michael, Universität der Bundeswehr München,
Fische, Kathrin, Technische Universität Hamburg-Harburg,
Fleischmann, Moritz, Universität Mannheim,
Fröhling, Magnus, Karlsruher Institut für Technologie,
Geiger, Martin, Universität der Bundeswehr Hamburg,
Geldermann, Jutta, Universität Göttingen,
Giesa, Frank, Hochschule Bremen,
Gronalt, Manfred, Universität für Bodenkultur Wien,
Grunewald, Martin, Technische Universität Braunschweig,
Grunow, Martin, Technische Universität München,
Günther, Hans-Otto, Technische Universität Berlin,
Gutenschwager, Kai, Ostfalia Hochschule für angewandte Wissenschaften,
Helber, Stefan, Leibnitz Universität Hannover,
Ivanov, Dmitry, Hochschule für Wirtschaft und Recht Berlin,
Jammernegg, Werner, Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien,
Kiesmüller, Gudrun P., Otto von Guericke Universität Magdeburg,
Kimms, Alf, Universität Duisburg-Essen,
Kliewer, Natalia, Freie Universität Berlin,
ix
x Acknowledgments
Kopfer, Herbert, Universität Bremen,

Kotzab, Herbert, Universität Bremen,
Large, Rudolf O., Universität Stuttgart,
Lasch, Rainer, Technische Universität Dresden,
Meisel, Frank, Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel,
Minner, Stefan, Technische Universität München,
Otto, Andreas, Universität Regensburg,
Pesch, Erwin, Universität Siegen,
Pflaum, Alexander, Universität Bamberg,
Schimmelpfeng, Katja, Universität Hohenheim,
Schönberger, Jörn, Technische Universität Dresden,
Schultmann, Frank, Karlsruher Institut für Technologie,
Schwindt, Christoph, Technische Universität Clausthal,
Seuring, Stefan, Universität Kassel,
Sucky, Eric, Otto-Friedrich-Universität Bamberg,
Volling, Thomas, Fern-Universität Hagen,
Voß, Stefan, Universität Hamburg,
Wallenburg, Carl Marcus, WHU—Otto Beisheim School of Management,
Walther, Grit, Rheinisch Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen,
Wäscher, Gerhard, Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg.
Last but not least we also want to thank our scientific collaborators Tatiana
Deriyenko, Patrick-Oliver Groß, Christoph Johannes, Felix Köster, Christoph
Müller, Viola Ricker, Ninja Söffker, Marlin Ulmer, Katharina Wachter, and
Christian Weckenborg for their support in editing the final version of this book.
Braunschweig Dirk Mattfeld

September 2015 Thomas Spengler
Jan Brinkmann
Martin Grunewald
Contents
Part I Invited Contribution
Condition-Based Maintenance Planning Within the Aviation

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Rainer Lasch and Roy Fritzsche
Part II Procurement
Considering Small and Medium-Sized Suppliers in Public

Procurement—The Case of the German Defence Sector . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Michael Eßig and Andreas H. Glas
Integration of Cultural Aspects in Supplier Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Stefan Winter and Rainer Lasch
Part III Supply Chain Coordination
RoRA-SCM—Review of the Integration of Flexibility Planning

in Supply Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Immanuel Zitzmann
Coordination in Multimodal Supply Chains: Drafting

an Agent-Based Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
René Föhring and Stephan Zelewski
Flexibility of 3PL Contracts: Practical Evidence and Propositions

on the Design of Contract Flexibility in 3PL Relationships . . . . . . . . . 75
Ute David
xi
xii Contents
Part IV Resource Management
Extended Model Formulation of the Facility Layout Problem

with Aisle Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Armin Klausnitzer and Rainer Lasch
Integrated Facility Location, Capacity and Production Planning

in a Multi-Commodity Closed Supply Chain Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Leena Steinke and Kathrin Fischer
Integrated Make-or-Buy and Facility Layout Problem

with Multiple Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Bernd Hillebrand and Grigory Pishchulov
Qualification and Competence Related Misfits in Logistics

Companies: Identification and Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Sebastian Wünsche
Part V Flexible Production Management
A Lot Streaming Model for a Re-entrant Flow Shop Scheduling

Problem with Missing Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Richard Hinze
Identifying Complexity-Inducing Variety: Adapting ClustalW

for Semiconductor Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Jan Müller, André Wenzel and Rainer Lasch
Consideration of Redundancies in the Configuration of Automated

Flow Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Christoph Müller, Christian Weckenborg, Martin Grunewald
and Thomas S. Spengler
Part VI Distribution Management
Prepositioning of Relief Items Under Uncertainty: A Classification

of Modeling and Solution Approaches for Disaster Management . . . . . 189
Emilia Graß and Kathrin Fischer
Forecasting Misused E-Commerce Consumer Returns. . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Stefan Drechsler and Rainer Lasch
Contents xiii
A Rollout Algorithm for Vehicle Routing with Stochastic

Customer Requests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Marlin W. Ulmer, Dirk C. Mattfeld, Marco Hennig
and Justin C. Goodson
A Real-World Cost Function Based on Tariffs for Vehicle

Routing in the Food Retailing Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Felix Tamke
Part VII Transport Management
An Adaptive Large Neighborhood Search for the Reverse

Open Vehicle Routing Problem with Time Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Kristian Schopka and Herbert Kopfer
A Two-Stage Iterative Solution Approach for Solving

a Container Transportation Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Mengqi Wang, Bingjie Liu, Jiewei Quan and Julia Funke
Vehicle Routing and Break Scheduling by a Distributed

Decision Making Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Herbert Kopfer, Christoph Manuel Meyer and Hendrik Braun
Part I
Invited Contribution
Condition-Based Maintenance Planning
Within the Aviation Industry
Rainer Lasch and Roy Fritzsche
Abstract Delays or cancellations of flights are mostly caused by avoidable,

maintenance-related downtime of aircrafts. For a more efficient supply of spare
parts for aircrafts of an airline, we examine options for improving the underlying
logistics network integrated within an existing segment of the aviation industry. The
objective is to guarantee a high supply of spare parts. Moreover, the paper presents
effects of the choice of different maintenance strategies on total maintenance costs.
By applying a condition-based maintenance strategy, unscheduled component
failures can be reduced and an increase in availability and reliability is possible.
A validation of the developed model is provided by means of a simulation study.
1 Introduction
Networks in the aviation industry consist of spare parts warehouses, repair bases,
flight plans, and aircrafts. The major requirements for each airline operator are
aircraft availability and operability, as well as reliability levels and product quality
(Wang et al. 2007; Lee et al. 2008; Papakostas et al. 2009). Therefore, operators and
decision makers are confronted with significant challenges to reduce their equip-
ment maintenance costs as much as possible while providing excellent service
without disruptions. To achieve high reliability of the entire fleet, condition-based
maintenance strategies based on a proactive prediction of a possible failure in the
future are necessary. The increasing interest in optimal maintenance strategies is
influenced by rising costs, improved quality of spare parts, and an increasing
pressure for reduced inventories of spare parts (Wheeler et al. 2010; Ayeni et al.
2011). Especially the penalty costs caused by delays, unnecessary downtime, and
failure of the aircrafts continue to increase. To avoid these idle times, one of the
R. Lasch (&) R. Fritzsche

Lehrstuhl für Betriebswirtschaftslehre, insb. Logistik, Technische Universität Dresden,
Münchner Platz 1/3, 01069 Dresden, Germany
e-mail: rainer.lasch@tu-dresden.de
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 3

D. Mattfeld et al. (eds.), Logistics Management, Lecture Notes in Logistics,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20863-3_1
4 R. Lasch and R. Fritzsche
objectives of the airline network designers is to transfer unscheduled maintenance

actions to scheduled variable actions through a simplified logistics planning.
The objectives of high reliability and availability of spare parts for the entire fleet
can be realized by an improved prediction of failure times of components, i.e. an
increase in the probability that the correct spare part is available at the right place
and at the right time. The basis of good failure prognosis values is a comprehensive
database which consists of a collection of historical failure data and measured
sensor data. Prognostics is now recognized as a key feature in maintenance strat-
egies as it should allow for the avoidance of inopportune maintenance spending.
With the help of better prognosis, the component’s useful lifetime is maximized by
adjusting the failure rate downwards dynamically and extending the component’s
service lifetime significantly (Fritzsche 2012). The developed model uses the
dynamic concept of maintenance-free operating period (MFOP) instead of the older
and static mean time between failures (MTBF) concept to prevent future failures.
MFOP is defined as a measurement for (aircraft) reliability (Kumar 1999). In this
paper we want to present significant effects of chosen maintenance strategies on
downtime, delay, and cancellation costs, and with it, on total maintenance costs in
aviation industry maintenance planning. With the application of an improved
(dynamically adjusted failure rate) condition-based maintenance strategy, total
maintenance cost is minimized by decreasing downtime and delay time.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: In Sect. 2, literature related
to preventive maintenance models is examined with respect to integrated logistics
networks. To show the significant influences of the chosen maintenance policy on
the availability of the entire network, we discuss all related cost functions and their
constraints in Sect. 3. Furthermore, we identify cost influenced variables through
the comparison of three different maintenance strategies. The aspired objective,
continuous availability of spare parts at lowest cost, is examined using a simulation
tool in Sect. 4. A conclusion, limitations of the model, and future research are
presented in Sect. 5.
2 Literature Review
Maintenance is defined as all technical and managerial actions taken during the
usage period to maintain or restore the required functionality of a product or an
asset. Maintenance strategies can be divided into corrective (reactive/unscheduled)
and preventive (scheduled) maintenance (Yardley et al. 2006). In corrective
maintenance, the maintenance action is taken after some problems such as break-
downs in a product are found; in preventive maintenance, the performance of
inspection and/or service activities are pre-planned in order to restore the functions
of operating systems or equipment at a specific point in time. Preventive mainte-
nance can be differentiated into time-based and condition-based maintenance
Condition-Based Maintenance Planning Within the Aviation Industry 5
(CBM). While parts are replaced after a fixed time interval in the time-based
methods, for condition-based methods an optimal replacement time is prognosti-
cated, based on past data and measured sensor-state data or goal programing
(Moghaddam 2013). With emerging technologies such as RFID, various types of
sensors, micro-electro-mechanical systems, wireless telecommunication, and
supervisory control and data acquisition product embedded information devices are
expected to be used in the near future for gathering and monitoring the status data
of products during their usage period (Prajapati et al. 2012). These data enable the
diagnosis of the product’s degradation status in a more exact way. CBM focuses on
the prediction of the degradation process of the product, which is based on the
assumption that most abnormalities do not occur instantaneously, and usually there
are several kinds of degradation processes, from normal states to abnormalities.
CBM provides the ability for the system to continue operating as long as it is
performing within predefined performance limits. Based on condition-based
information, maintenance will be performed only when the system needs mainte-
nance and enables to identify and solve problems in advance before product
damage occurs. In order to reduce downtime, delays, and cancellations of scheduled
flights, a CBM strategy with predictions of installed components’ failure times
using the MFOP approach seems highly promising. In CBM a data-driven,
model-based, or hybrid approach can be used. While the data-driven approach uses
historical data to automatically develop a model of system behavior, the
model-based approach has the ability to incorporate physical understanding of the
target product and relies on the use of an analytical model to represent the behavior
of the system, including degradation (Tobon-Mejia et al. 2012). The CBM can be
done by gathering and monitoring product status data, making a diagnosis of a
product status in a real-time way, estimating the deterioration level of the product
including its repair cost or its replacement cost, predicting the time of the product’s
abnormality, and executing appropriate actions (e.g. repair, replace, left to use).
Integrated logistics models can be classified into (1) location and network
models (Daskin 1995; Candas and Kutanoglu 2007; Snyder et al. 2007; Sourirajan
et al. 2009; Jeet et al. 2009), (2) inventory models (Feeney and Sherbrooke 1966;
Zipkin 2000; Sherbrooke 2004; Muckstadt 2005), and (3) integrated network
models (Barahona and Jensen 1998; Nozick and Turnquist 2001). These existing
models refer only to specific sub-problems, are too inflexible, and do not consider
the overall view of the network. Furthermore, no inclusion of flight plan, location
allocation, and dynamic failure rate adjustment is possible. The model presented in
Sect. 3 fits best for aviation industry requirements to reduce total maintenance cost.
The applied CBM strategy models spare part demand dynamically by adjusting the
component’s failure rate. Furthermore, a single socket is considered, all locations
are regarded as identical, and it is possible to store spare parts at any location.
3 Model Description
Integrated logistics networks can be divided into (1) location selection (discrete,
continuous), (2) objective function (minisum, minimax), (3) variables (binary,
integer, mixed-integer), (4) cost consideration (no cost, variable cost, fixed cost),
and (5) solution method (exact, heuristics, metaheuristics, simulation) (Kaviani
2009). Based on this classification scheme our developed model can be charac-
terized as follows. The location selection is discrete because of the given flight plan.
The objective function is a summation of total cost to be minimized. In the model,
binary and integer variables are possible. Fixed costs are necessary to open a spare
parts depot at a location. We use a heuristic approach for the initial solution and
simulation-based optimizing to solve the problem. The integration of the parameters
in a simulation-based optimization is implemented in the model by adjusting the
MFOP calculated failure rates of the installed components. The adaptation of the
failure rate is possible through the use of the learning effect of the MFOP method.
MFOP guarantees a certain number of periods of operation without any interruption
for unscheduled maintenance. Each MFOP period is followed by a maintenance
recovery period, where the aircraft is repaired and prepared to complete the next
MFOP period. Consequently, the optimization of durability of a working compo-
nent is necessary and is implemented by the MFOP method (Relf 1999). Based on
this concept, unscheduled maintenance is changed to scheduled maintenance.
3.1 Operational Requirements in the Aviation Industry
Necessary conditions for logistics networks are presented in the following (Candas
and Kutanoglu 2007; Lee et al. 2008; Jeet et al. 2009).
1. General logistical requirements:
• Two-echelon model: The model corresponds to a two-level model with

depots and demand points
• Potential depots: All airports in the network run potential spare parts depots
• High-value parts: Ostensibly, high inventory costs in networks of the avia-
tion industry are caused by high-quality and less demanded spare parts
• Repair capacity: An infinite repair capacity of the hubs and the manufac-
turers of new parts is assumed
• Repairable items: The considered components belong to serviceable units
and they pass a repair cycle in case of a failure
• Single item model: The proposed model is a single part model, but by
repeated application of the algorithm multiple items could be examined
• Multi-sourcing strategy: Depots can be served from other depots by lateral
transshipments
• (S-1, S) Order policy: Because of low demand the replacement is done by a

one-for-one policy
• Lost-sales case: For non-compliance, an order is considered as lost
2. Failure rate (Demand rate): The failure rate of installed components is initially
assumed to be Poisson distributed with the possibility for adjustment based on
excellent underlying prognosis data.
3. Fill rate: The fill rate is the percentage of all demanded spare parts that can be
covered by the existing stock. It is therefore dependent on the existing stock of
the depot and the associated demand.
4. Warehouse stock and inventory costs: The initial/safety stock will not be allo-
cated deterministically to the depots. It is a decision variable in the model which
can be adjusted during the optimization.
5. Transportation costs: Transportation costs for lateral transshipments of spare
parts are assumed to be fixed.
6. Fixed costs for depot opening: The costs for opening a new depot are assumed
to be fixed and identical for any location.
3.2 Input Parameters
For the comparison of the effects of different maintenance strategies on total

maintenance costs in the airline industry, several input parameters are defined. The
complete maintenance planning process is divided into the areas (1) airport/flight
(departure, flight, and landing of the aircraft), (2) maintenance (repair activities, use
of manpower, replacing defective components), and (3) logistics network (distri-
bution and stock level of spare parts, sourcing non-available parts, cost-efficient
lateral transshipments between warehouses). In the following the input parameters
for the three areas are discussed:
1. Airport/Flight: To reduce extended downtime for components’ replacement, the
flight plan (including departure and arrival time, departure and arrival location)
and the times and ranges of the A, B, C, and D checks should be coordinated.
Based on the manufacturer’s instructions about the lifetime of a component
(later sensor data is used), a degradation of service life of installed components
is performed.
2. Maintenance: To calculate an aircraft’s turnaround time, it is necessary to know
the waiting and transfer times for repair of the aircraft, downtime, and repair
time of spare parts for A, B, C, D checks, and the installation times for parts. To
generate inexpensive spare parts, the exchange repair cost, rental cost for repair
facilities, personnel costs, and costs of opening a location are required.
3. Logistics Network: For optimization of the logistics activities, most input data is
required here. This mainly includes inventory holding costs of the depots. For an
improved spare parts pooling, the transfer times and costs of the components
(from a warehouse to the airport/repair facility, or between two main bases) are
very important. In order to minimize the total maintenance costs of an airline,
downtime, delay, and cancellation costs are required. Furthermore, costs to
balance the fill rates, distribution costs of repaired components, penalty costs for
unscheduled maintenance, and incorrect deliveries and maintenance costs are
important. For a redistribution of spare parts in the network their price as well as
the location’s safety stock (for backfill) are required.
The MFOP concept is based on very high quality information about the com-
ponent failures in order to make optimal decisions on the remaining lifetimes. The
used Weibull distribution is suitable to describe all three phases of life (premature
failures, random failures, and wear failures). In the known CBM strategies, an
age-independent Poisson distributed and constant failure rate (based on MTBF) is
assumed (Kutanoglu 2008). The CBM strategy presented here uses an adjusted
failure rate based on measured sensor data.
3.3 Influences on Total Maintenance Cost
The total maintenance cost can be defined as a function dependent of MFOP. Using
the notation
CTot total maintenance cost
CI total inventory cost
CD total downtime cost
CT total transportation cost
CR cost of scheduled and unscheduled repairs
CP cost of prognosis
the total maintenance cost can be expressed as (Wong et al. 2005):
CTot :¼ CI þ CT þ CD ð1Þ
The objective is to minimize the total maintenance cost CTot using an improved
CBM strategy with dynamic failure rate adjustment by utilizing historical failure
rate data. Whereas the total inventory costs CI include all the investments incurred
due to stock keeping activities at a station, the total transportation costs CT consist
of capital, fuel, lubricants, and operational costs. Under an existing CBM strategy,
inventory is already distributed to the locations. Therefore, costs are calculated for
all previous transportation actions. For this reason, and in order to simplify the
presentation, we assume that the total inventory cost and total transportation cost
are given and constant. The total downtime costs CD consist of CR , including the
costs of downtime, delays, or cancellation of services, and also the cost of prog-
nosis, CP , to realize CBM actions. Therefore, CD can be expressed as an increasing
function f in both values CR and CP :
CD :¼ f ðCR ; CP Þ ð2Þ
CR is a function dependent on MFOP, an incidence probability IP that an event

occurs, repair time tR , and random/external influences X:
CR :¼ gðMFOP; IP; tR ; XÞ ð3Þ
MFOP is the expected period between two successional failures, so that the
function g is decreasing for increasing MFOP. The function g is also decreasing
with increasing IP, because of higher probability that failures occur at the predicted
time of maintenance actions. Due to higher costs associated with longer mainte-
nance intervals, the function g is increasing with increasing tR . CP is a function h
dependent on MFOP and increases with increasing MFOP, because MFOP
extension results in higher failure rate memorizing and analysis cost:
CP :¼ hðMFOPÞ ð4Þ
Using formulas (2), (3), and (4), the total maintenance costs are dependent on the
MFOP value and can be expressed as:
CTot :¼ f ðgðMFOP; IP; tR ; XÞ; hðMFOPÞÞ þ CI þ CT ð5Þ
The objective is to calculate an optimal MFOP value through skillful analysis of

historical and sensor data to minimize the total downtime costs. Depending on the
specific practical situation being considered, if the cost functions in the above
equation are continuous and differentiable, an optimal MFOP value can be found by
differentiating the total cost function in (5) with respect to MFOP and setting it
equal to zero:
dCTot =dMFOP ¼ df ðgðMFOP; IP; tR ; XÞ; hðMFOPÞÞ=dMFOP ¼ 0 ð6Þ
For the determination of the MFOP value, several constraints based on con-
ceptual and practical considerations are necessary. For example, MFOP should not
exceed the time of permanency of the Original Equipment Manufacturer. Also, CP
should not be greater than the difference of the cost for unscheduled repairs and the
cost of scheduled repairs and CP should not exceed a given budget for the dedicated
prognostic cost. If we assume n constraints in our model, expressed by
rk ðMFOP; IP; tR ; XÞ, then the generic mathematical model to find the optimal
MFOP value can be described as follows:
Min f ðgðMFOP; IP; tR ; XÞ; hðMFOPÞÞ þ CI þ CT ð7Þ
s:t: rk ðMFOP; IP; tR ; XÞ 0 8 kn ð8Þ

MFOP; tR 0 ð9Þ
0 IP 1 ð10Þ
The general functions f ; g; h; rk can be linear or non-linear, continuous or dis-

continuous, and must be specified depending on the specific equipment and the
company being considered. The optimal MFOP value can be found by solving the
mathematical model represented by the objective functions (7) and the constraints
(8), (9), and (10). However, practical considerations may prohibit such an easy
solution to the problem because the discontinuous and irregular cost functions
found in practice do not allow the use of differential calculus to find the derivatives
needed in (6). Therefore, we suggest the following practical procedure to find an
optimal or near optimal MFOP value:
1. Find or estimate all operational and cost parameters, especially those that vary
with the length of MFOP.
2. Perform a simulation study and improve MFOP values to find downtime cost
and total maintenance cost.
3. Identify and state the constraints on the length of the MFOP value.
4. As far as possible, use the data from the simulation study to fit various cost
functions. If such cost functions can be developed, go to step 5; otherwise
proceed to step 6.
5. Use the estimated cost functions to find an optimal MFOP value (either in
closed form or using numerical approximation) and STOP.
6. Simulate with increasing values of MFOP until it is too high and repeated
unscheduled failures occur. Select an appropriate MFOP value that minimizes
total maintenance cost and STOP.
4 Experimental Results
To show significant influences of three maintenance strategies (reactive,

time-based, condition-based) on total maintenance cost, the model described in
Sect. 3 is used within an example from practice. In cooperation with an interna-
tional aviation research company, a simulation study was created using the simu-
lation framework Plant Simulation by Siemens PLM Software. A scenario network
of four airlines (Quantas Airline QF, Virgin Airline VS, Korean Airline KE, and
Thai Airline TG) with 45 aircrafts (20 for QF, 9 for VS, 7 for KE, and 9 for TG) and
four main bases with ten outstations based on a real airline flight plan is simulated.
On the basis of externally supplied software, an initial solution was calculated using
a genetic algorithm. The overall spare parts amount of 22 pieces of one item was
calculated and the parts were distributed in varying quantities to the airports (see
Fig. 1). More spare parts are needed in the heavily frequented main bases than in
the less frequented outstations. We considered a $50,000 component per aircraft,
Bangkok Shanghai Sydney Singapore

Legend:
BKK (4) PVG (0) SYD (9) SIN (0)
Main Base:
(Inventory)
Hong Kong Narita Melbourne
HKG (0) NRT(0) MEL (0)
Outstation:
(Inventory)
Los
Paris Frankfurt New York
Angeles
CDG (0) FRA (0) JFK (0)
LAX (0) Flight Path forQF
Flight Path for VS
San Flight Path for KE

Incheon London
Francisco
ICN (4) LHR(5) Flight Path for TG
SFO(0)
Fig. 1 Airline network information
with a mean time between unscheduled repairs (MTBUR) of 1500 h and a

replacement time of 20 min. For the Weibull scale parameter we selected 63.2 % of
the MTBUR (Stone and Van Heeswijk 1977), and the Weibull shape parameter of
1.7 (bigger than 1 for an increasing failure rate with time) is based on pre-tests.
According to the manufacturer’s data, the time-based exchange interval was set to
750 h. The repair time is 25 days and indicates how long it takes to restore the state
“as good as new”; 60 days are required to replace a damaged component and spare
parts can be replaced within 45 min turnaround time (Fromm 2009). Furthermore,
annual inventory costs of over $10,000 and $2,000 for the logistics transportation of
spare parts are assumed. The penalty cost per minute for unscheduled downtime of
$90 dominates those of the downtime cost for scheduled maintenance of $50. The
maintenance costs of the aircraft are valued at $300 per man-hour. Delay costs are
calculated per seat per minute. Assuming 300 seats per aircraft (Airbus A330-200),
the delay costs amount to $175 per min. For the cancellation of a scheduled flight
due to aircraft damage, the costs amount to $60,000. For basic, middle-rate, and
high-rate sensors the purchasing costs amount to $6,250, $8,500, and $11,000,
respectively. The costs for data connection, linking, and transmission amount to
$0.024 per data point. The investment for basic, middle-rate, and high-rate interface
software and server system amount to $500,000, $650,000, and $1,000,000,
respectively.
4.1 Simulation Process
In an initial solution, 45 aircrafts were distributed randomly to all airports. The

initial use-time for every installed component was uniformly distributed Uð0; 948Þ.
After starting the simulation, aircrafts depart as per their planned flight scheduled
time and fly their given flight time until they arrive at the next airport. After arriving
at the destination, airport reliability of the installed component is calculated using
the following formula:

flight time for the trip b
rel(spare part) ¼ exp
a total flight time
where a and b are the parameters of the Weibull distribution. If the reliability of
a component is less than d multiplied by the calculated reliability, the spare part for
the aircraft is labeled for maintenance. Here d is a B(1, 0:999999Þ binomial dis-
tributed parameter for random unscheduled maintenance. If d ¼ 0, the spare part
failed and unscheduled maintenance has to be done at the current airport. If d [ 0,
scheduled maintenance planning within a planning horizon is started and the air-
craft starts the next scheduled flight. The planning for scheduled maintenance
includes the identification of the best reachable airport within the planning horizon.
The best reachable airport is defined as the cost minimizing airport for spare parts
exchange.
During simulation the next scheduled destinations of an aircraft within the
planning horizon are stored in an Excel spreadsheet. The farthest destination within
the planning horizon storing the spare part is assigned as the exchange airport. If the
spare part is not in stock at any of these following destinations, the last destination
within the planning horizon is assigned as the exchange airport because of maxi-
mum planning time and the latest acceptable delivery time. The needed spare part
from an airport with the shortest transportation time is moved to the exchange
airport and the associated stock level is reduced by one. When the aircraft arrives at
this exchange destination, the installed component is replaced by the delivered
spare part. For a too short planning horizon or an unscheduled maintenance, the
spare part may not be available at the exchange destination and waiting time occurs.
If waiting time is longer than 12 h, the following flight is cancelled and another
aircraft is arranged. To analyze network performance, all information about orders
of spare parts, delivery time, and updated stock levels are recorded in an Excel
spreadsheet. Failed components are committed into a repair cycle. The assumed
repair time for a spare part is 25 days under 90 % scrap rate and 60 days under 10 %
scrap rate, defined as the percentage of failed spare parts that cannot be repaired.
10 % scrap rate means that one out of ten spare parts has to be discarded. After
exchanging the component, all parameters are set to “as good as new”, i.e., used
time/overall flight time is zero and calculated reliability of spare part is one.
4.2 Simulation Results
The described scenario in Fig. 1 was simulated for two years (2011, 2012) and
stopped quarterly to get appropriate values for the parameters. In Fig. 2 the
Fig. 2 Total maintenance 5
cost per quarter in Million $ 4.5
Maintenance costs in Million $

4
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
2011/1 2011/2 2011/3 2011/4 2012/1 2012/2 2012/3 2012/4
Reactive maintenance Time-based maintenance Condition-based maintenance
quarterly calculated total maintenance costs of the given network are presented. The
total maintenance costs include the total downtime costs (cost for
scheduled/unscheduled maintenance downtime, cost for penalty downtime, delay
cost, installed spare part cost and prognosis cost), the total inventory costs, and the
total transportation costs.
It can be seen that total maintenance costs hardly vary using the CBM strategy.
Due to the continuous prognosis of possible failures and the reduction of
unscheduled failures in the CBM strategy, the resulting total maintenance costs are
predictable and projectable. The cost functions of the reactive and time-based
maintenance strategies are more volatile and these maintenance strategies result in
significantly higher total maintenance costs. Considering the two-year period, the
cumulative condition-based total maintenance costs are about 22 % of the cumu-
lative reactive total maintenance costs. The higher costs arise from randomly
occurring failures of components, resulting in delays, or even cancellations, and
therefore in very high penalty costs. The slightly lower costs for the reactive
maintenance compared to the time-based maintenance result from the use of the full
lifetime of the components, resulting in less maintenance actions. Another reason is
that the spare parts are in stock at the highly frequented four main stations (BKK,
ICN, SYD, LHR), and the associated deliveries of spare parts in case of
unscheduled failures are relatively quick.
The downtime for scheduled and unscheduled maintenance actions consists of
the repair time and the waiting time for spare part delivery. Based on optimal
exchange times for spare parts as a result of good prognosis in the CBM strategy,
unnecessary downtimes on the ground can be reduced. Due to continuously per-
formed spare part exchanges resulting in more maintenance actions, the time-based
maintenance strategy results in longer downtimes on the ground compared to
reactive maintenance. Again, reactive and time-based maintenance strategies show
more volatile downtimes (see Fig. 3).
The delay time is defined as the difference between real starting time and
scheduled starting time of an aircraft. Delays result from unscheduled failures or
missing resources not available in time at a station and have negative effects on the
image of an airline. In Fig. 4, the CBM strategy results only in 2012/2 in a positive
delay time. In all other quarters the planning horizon was long enough to determine
Fig. 3 Downtime in hours 300
250
Downtime in hours
200
150
100
50
0
2011/1 2011/2 2011/3 2011/4 2012/1 2012/2 2012/3 2012/4
Fig. 4 Delay time in hours 200

180
160
Delay time in hours
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2011/1 2011/2 2011/3 2011/4 2012/1 2012/2 2012/3 2012/4
an optimal station at which necessary resources for an exchange of the component

are available. The reactive and time-based maintenance strategies lead to volatile
and longer delays.
The results of the simulation study show clearly that the total maintenance costs
can be significantly reduced using a CBM strategy based on the prediction of the
degradation process of the component. The cost for prognosis should not exceed the
cost difference between CBM strategy and time-based or reactive maintenance
strategies. The simulation also emphasizes that downtime and delay time can be
considerably reduced by applying CBM strategy. Therefore, a CBM strategy also
increases the availability of the entire system. Since more flights under the existing
conditions are possible, revenues are higher.
5 Conclusion
This paper presents effects of the choice of different maintenance strategies on total
maintenance costs while ensuring appropriate quality and customer service. After
developing expressions for various cost components, a mathematical model and a
practical procedure are developed to find the optimal or near optimal MFOP value.
Due to a life cycle of more than 30 years, the profitability in the aviation industry is
dominated by maintenance of aircrafts and not by sales of aircrafts. Analysts expect
a growth of the operating budget for aviation maintenance, repair and overhaul of
more than 54 billion dollars in 2015 (Lee et al. 2008). These costs emphasize the
need for a reduction of total maintenance costs using a CBM strategy.
While the case study in the airline industry illustrates the benefits of a CBM
strategy, it should be noted that the results are quite dependent on the quality of the
available historical and sensor data. Therefore, future research should consider the use
of appropriate information technology to provide better historical and sensor data in
the era of big data. Furthermore, multi-objective optimization and the interdepen-
dencies between different variables should be an essential part of future research.
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commercial intercourse were about to commence, as it was
supposed the Chinese, as of old, would soon begin to form pepper-
plantations, and the expectation was partly fulfilled. A rich
shopkeeper obtained permission from the sultan, and a grant of land
having been made, he set to work to form a garden. He planted
fruits, vegetables, and pepper, the last grew luxuriantly, though the
soil appeared unpromising; but no sooner was it known to be
yielding, than crowds of idlers from the capital flocked there, and
soon stripped it of everything eatable. In despair, he gave up his
project, and no one has had the courage to try again; in fact, it would
be useless as long as the present system of government holds.
Since our colony of Labuan was established in 1848, a few
Chinese have left it to spread along the coast. As yet they have had
little effect, since most of them have married into native families, and
done little else than carry on a petty trade, or manufacture arrack.
Lately, however, a few have commenced pepper-gardens, but the
districts are too unsettled to promise much, yet it is a movement to
be encouraged. When I have asked the Chinese why they did not
emigrate there, the invariable answer has been, “Will you afford us
protection? if not, as soon as our plantations are productive, the
nobles will force the produce from us.”
The sultan, in a moment of enlightenment, determined to
encourage planters, and actually sent for a dozen from Singapore,
paid their expenses to Brunei, and promised a monthly allowance till
the produce of their vegetable-gardens enabled the Chinese to
support themselves. These regular payments, however, soon
became very distasteful to him, and every month be gave them less,
till at last from want of food they all dispersed, and the experiment
has not been tried again.
The Brunei government makes every effort to prevent the Chinese
mixing with the aborigines, as it tends to destroy the monopoly of
trade they seek to establish, and they fear also the teaching of the
Chinese, who would never counsel submission to oppressive rulers,
though when employed by the nobles as agents, they can be more
systematically grinding than the Malays.
It is evident that the intercourse between Borneo and China,
which undoubtedly was once very active, has been decreasing for
above a hundred years, and the cause was doubtless the anarchy
into which the country fell and the consequent want of protection.
Fifty years ago, the junk trade appears entirely to have ceased; and
even in 1775 it had been reduced to about seven a year, although
they continued to build vessels at Brunei.
With regard to the accounts of old travellers, that the north of
Borneo was formerly peopled from Cochin China, I have heard
nothing to support the theory, beyond the tradition that in ancient
days a great trade was carried on between Annam and the north-
west coast, when many Cochin Chinese settled in Borneo. In fact, in
the Champa country, in the southern portion of the Kambodian
peninsula, there is a people whose language contains a
considerable number of Malay words; so that the effect on these two
countries may have been mutual, though Champa, doubtless, was
more influenced by settlers from the Malay peninsula.
I have before alluded to the Chinese wandering from our colony of
Labuan to settle in small numbers in the districts on the coast to the
north of that island. A favourite place was Papar, as the Dusuns
there were wealthy, and, being numerous, cared little for their
nominal ruler, pañgeran Omar; and among the Chinese settlers were
two men, who lived in a small house on the banks of the river. One
day, early in the year 1859, the wife of the chief of a neighbouring
village was passing that way, when one of these men attempted to
pull off her petticoat, which constituted her only covering. Her
screams bringing some friends to the spot, the man let her go and
ran into his house. In the evening, the chief came to demand
satisfaction for this very gross insult, but said, as the offender was a
stranger, and perhaps did not know the customs of the country, he
should only fine him the value of a goat. The two Chinese ordered
him to leave their house, and, to enforce it, took up their carrying-
sticks, with which the one who had insulted the woman struck him.
The Dusun chief, who had his spear in his hand, stabbed the
offender and wounded his companion, who came up to join in the
attack. This affair caused great commotion in the district, and all the
Chinese clamoured for vengeance.
Pañgeran Omar inquired into the case, fined the Dusun, and
ordered the amount to be paid over to the dead man’s friends. They
were not, however, satisfied with the amount of the fine, and
determined to revenge themselves. Collecting a body of about
twenty of their countrymen, on the pretence of a pig hunt, they
marched to attack the chief’s village; upon which the Dusuns,
beating the alarm gong, soon apprised their neighbours that they
were in danger; and the Chinese, as usual, arrogant when there was
no opposition, but cowards in circumstances of peril, immediately on
finding their first volley did not frighten their enemies, fled with
precipitation, and were pursued by the Dusuns, and the larger
portion of them killed.
The case was misrepresented in Labuan, and some demands
were made for satisfaction; but it was evident the Chinese had
brought this disaster on themselves; and I know of no worse policy
than to consider all those, whether British subjects or not, who leave
our colony to settle on the coast as entitled to our protection. If we
can be of service to them, it is as well to use our influence to insure
them the best treatment, but we should never let the Chinese
imagine we intend to give them the protection of the British flag on all
occasions. Yet it is a subject which requires delicate handling, for, if
we entirely abandoned their interests, they would be plundered and
massacred; and without them there will never be any progress on
the coast, or developement of trade and agriculture on a large scale;
and if we claim them as British subjects, which a few are in reality,
their insolence to the natives is often unbearable.
I have generally found that those Chinese who come direct from
their own country are better adapted to succeed with the native
chiefs than those who have resided long in our own settlements,
where they acquired an independence almost amounting to
lawlessness. I once nearly lost my life through the reckless conduct
of one of these Singapore Chinese, who had been accustomed to
treat the Malays there with great contumely. When he arrived in
Brunei, he did the same thing with a crazy man belonging to the
Pablat section of the town, and the Chinese quarter was thrown into
confusion. I sent both men to the sultan, but in the meantime the
report spread among the Malay’s relatives that the Chinese had ill
used him, and 150 men immediately came down, shouting that they
would run amuck among the Chinese. A respectable Bornean trader
came hastily into my room, saying, if I did not immediately go down
to the scene, there would be a massacre. I caught up my sword and
hurried to the Chinese village, to find the Pablat men in the act of
assaulting the strangers; and had one wound been given, there
would have been no stopping the mischief.
I need not dwell on all the particulars, but it was with the greatest
difficulty I turned the Malays back from their purpose. To me they
behaved with great civility, after the first excitement was over; but the
glare their chief gave me, when I put the hilt of my sword to his
breast to prevent him using his spear on an unfortunate Chinese
trader, who had nothing to do with the quarrel, was a very savage
one. His hand in a moment sought his kris; but on my saying, in a
very quiet tone, “Don’t draw your kris on me,” he dropped his
intention at once, and although his followers drew their weapons and
urged him to the attack, he began to explain to me the reason of his
coming with that force at his back. I knew if I could check the rush for
five minutes, things would be safe, as by that time some friends, who
were staying at the house, would be down with all my armed
followers; and so it proved. But the insolence of the Chinese was
effectually checked by this demonstration, and I had no further
trouble with them, as they thought I might not always be there to
stand between them and death.
This is but a meagre account of the results of that extensive
Chinese intercourse with the northern portion of Borneo, which was
carried on for so many hundred years; but in a country so uncivilized
there are no antiquities; and although the tradition exists among the
people that formerly numerous immigrants arrived and settled, still
they can relate few facts concerning them. There can be little doubt,
judging from the character of the two people, that the nobles would
endeavour to squeeze out of the foreign planters as much as
possible; that they would fine them heavily for very slight faults, till
they would drive the Chinese to resistance, and insurrections would
as surely follow among a people who always unite against other
races. They are no match for the Malays and Dayaks in wild warfare;
and it is only their organization which enables them to offer any
resistance to the desultory attacks of their enemies.
It has been said that in the great insurrection of the Chinese the
Muruts joined them, and that the Borneans were compelled to seek
the assistance of the Sulus to repress it, but I did not hear any
mention of the latter statement, and it appears improbable. Internal
dissention is the more likely cause of the failure of the attempt to
throw off the yoke of the Malays, the Muruts being bribed to leave
their allies. At all events, the Bisaya tribes were engaged in its
suppression, as the grandfather of the orang kaya of Blimbing
assisted in taking the fort at the entrance of the Madalam river. The
Chinese insurgents, driven from the lower country, attempted to
make a stand on a rounded hill there, but lost their fort, either by a
panic or by treachery, my informant did not appear certain which.
Between Brunei and Sarawak the Chinese do not appear to have
established themselves; but to the latter country the gold-workers of
Sambas occasionally sent parties of men to try the soil, as auriferous
ore was reported to be plentiful. But during the distractions
consequent on the civil war, they found it impossible to pursue their
peaceful industry, and those who were successful in obtaining gold
were exposed to the attacks of lawless Malays.
One man, who is now a very respected member of society, a haji
of mark, who has for the last twenty years conducted himself in the
most exemplary manner, was once tempted to commit a crime by the
report that a party of Chinese was returning to Sambas with sixty
ounces of gold. He and a few of his relations waylaid the travellers,
and, surprising them in the dark forest, murdered them and obtained
the treasure.
This naturally aroused the anger of their countrymen, and an
expedition was fitted out at Sambas to revenge the deed. They
marched into the Sarawak territory, and advanced nearly as far as
the town of Siniawan, then occupied by Malays, but found a strong
stockade built across the path. The Chinese numbered about seven
hundred men, while their opponents were at first scarcely twenty, but
protected by their position and numerous guns. Confident in their
numbers, the assailants rushed to the attack, almost reaching the
foot of the defences, but receiving a severe fire from the guns in
position, loaded with nails, bits of old iron and shot, they were beaten
back. The Malays acknowledge the Chinese kept up the attacks all
day; but, after their first repulse, they principally confined themselves
to a distant fire, though they occasionally made attempts to turn the
position, but were repulsed by the ever-increasing numbers of the
Malays.
Towards evening the Chinese withdrew to the banks of the river,
and made preparations to pass the night; while the Malays, who had
been reinforced by many of their friends, determined to try the effect
of a surprise. They were commanded by the gallant patinggi Ali,
whose exploits and death are recorded in the Voyage of the Dido;
and just at sunset they started in their light boats with a gun in each,
and pulled with an almost silent stroke towards the Chinese
encampment, where they found their enemies cooking rice, smoking
opium, or shouting or talking, in fact, making so great a noise as to
prevent the possibility of hearing the sound of paddles, cautiously
pulled.
When all were ready, patinggi Ali gave the signal to fire, and the
next moment they yelled and sprang ashore. The startled Chinese
fled, and were pursued relentlessly by the Dayaks, who had come
down from the hills to share in the struggle. It is said half the
invading force was destroyed, and that the old, dried skulls I had
noticed in the Dayak villages were the trophies of the fight.
Being thus exposed to every kind of ill-treatment, it is not
surprising that the Chinese did not care to settle in the country; but,
after Sir James Brooke was established in Sarawak, they began to
increase in numbers, though always inclined to be troublesome.
When I arrived, in the year 1848, it was considered there were about
six hundred living there, mostly engaged in gold-working, and even
these were much inclined to have an imperium in imperio, though too
weak to carry out their views. They had formed themselves into an
association called the Santei Kiu kunsi, or company.
I must notice that these Chinese are not the pure emigrants from
China, but the half-breeds, descendants of the early settlers, who
obtained Malay and Dayak wives, and are more warlike in their
habits than the pure Chinese, and many have much of the activity of
the aborigines. Settled in Sambas before the arrival of the
Europeans in those seas, they gradually formed self-governing
communities among the weak Malay States around, and by
intermarriage with the women of the Dayak tribes in their
neighbourhood, formed both political and social alliances with them.
It was not to be expected that this state of things could long exist
without serious disputes arising with the Malay chiefs; however, they
generally managed to prevent a total estrangement; but when
backed by the Dutch officials, the Sultan of Sambas endeavoured to
coerce them into submission, the Chinese gold-working communities
refused to obey, attacked the small force sent against them,
captured the forts, and drove the Dutch troops to their steamers, and
left in their possession little more than the town of Sambas. This, of
course, roused the officials, and a strong expedition was sent from
Java, which within a year subdued the refractory Chinese, who, in
fact, submitted with very little opposition. But during their success
they managed to give Sarawak a considerable lift.
At the mouth of the Sambas river there is a place called
Pamañgkat, where several thousand Chinese agriculturists were
engaged in raising fine crops of rice. These men had not joined their
countrymen in their resistance to the Sambas Government, and were
therefore marked out for punishment during their brief success. In
their alarm, the Pamañgkat Chinese fled to Sarawak, arriving in
great numbers during the year 1850, whilst I was absent with Sir
James Brooke on his mission to Siam; some came by sea, others
fled overland to Lundu and to the interior.
I found on my return in October, after nearly a year’s absence,
that a great change had taken place in the appearance of the town of
Kuching: dozens of fresh houses were built and building, while the
surrounding forest was falling rapidly before the axes of the fugitives.
Many of them had arrived destitute of all property, and I learnt that
three hundred and ten families were entirely supported by the food
and money furnished by the Sarawak government, besides hundreds
of others having received presents of tools and temporary
assistance. It was calculated at the time that about three thousand
had arrived, many of whom immediately joined the gold-workers in
the interior. We found also that the mission school had received a
great addition in the form of about twenty remarkably intelligent-
looking little boys and girls, whose destitute parents had gladly
handed them over to the care of the clergy.
Sir James Brooke, hearing that there was much confusion in the
interior, from the numerous freshly-arrived Chinese, and from the
Dayaks being alarmed by this sudden influx into their
neighbourhood, started with a party to visit it. We soon reached
Siniawan, the little Chinese trading town I have previously described,
which was but now advancing to importance. We continued our
course up the river to Tundong, where there is a ghàt used by the
gold-working company to land their supplies. Nearly all the gold that
is worked in Borneo is done by kunsis, or companies, which
sometimes numbered several thousand men; in fact, they say that at
Montrado nearly the whole of its Chinese population and that of the
neighbourhood, estimated at 50,000 men, were included in one
kunsi. Generally, however, they consisted, as at Sarawak, of a few
hundred members, though they might still be in connexion with the
parent company. The great influx of Chinese had now, however,
swelled the Santei Kiu kunsi to inconvenient dimensions.
At Tundong we found a few store-houses and a very tolerable
path leading over to Bau, the principal Chinese settlement. The
views on either side of us, as we advanced, were sometimes
exceedingly picturesque; for, as we reached the summits of low hills,
a fine undulating country was spread out beneath us. The path led
through shady forests, then open Dayak clearings, along the sides of
hills, and over pretty streams spanned by very primitive bridges.
As we approached the town of Bau we met a band of Chinese
musicians who had come forth to greet us, and gun after gun was
discharged in honour of the rajah’s visit. Our procession was a very
motley one, half a dozen Englishmen, followed by a long line of
Malays, Chinese, and Dayaks, marching in Indian procession, some
carrying spears, others muskets, or flags.
At last we reached the kunsi’s house, prettily situated in the valley
of Bau, which was on two sides flanked by black-looking
perpendicular hills. The house itself was a substantial one, built of
ironwood posts and good planks, and roofed with excellent ironwood
shingles.
I will describe one of their gold-workings. They dammed up the
end of the valley at the back of the kunsi’s house, thus forming a
large reservoir of water, perhaps a quarter of a mile in length. The
dam was very neatly constructed, being completely faced with wood
towards the water, and partially on the outside, to enable it to resist
the very heavy rains which fall in this country. A ditch, about four feet
broad, was cut from the reservoir towards the ground which the
overlooker of the company had selected as a spot likely to produce a
good yield of gold, and a well-made sluice-gate was constructed in
the dam to supply the ditch with as much water as might be required;
minor sluice-gates to the main ditch enabled the smaller ones also to
receive supplies of water. When this was all prepared, the sluice-
gates were opened, and the earth in its neighbourhood thrown into
the ditch, and the rushing water carried off the mud and sand and
allowed the particles of gold to sink to the bottom. After three or four
months they cleaned out the ditch and carefully washed the residue,
which generally yielded them sufficient to make a tolerable division
among the workmen after all the expenses had been paid.
It is a very wasteful system of working gold; in fact, when we were
there, all the women and girls, lately arrived from Sambas, had the
privilege given them of washing the earth which had been swept
away by the rushing water, and I believe they obtained as much in
proportion to the number working as was divided among the men,
who had had all the labour of constructing these extensive works. No
one has yet taught them deep sinking; in fact, it is to be regretted
that none of their countrymen accustomed to the method of
procuring this precious metal in our Australian colonies have yet
visited Sarawak.
That there is an abundance of gold to be found there I verily
believe, and, as an instance, I may notice that in November, 1848, a
great landslip took place, and the face of the Trian mountain was laid
bare. Some Malays, observing small pieces of gold mixed with the
clay, began a strict search, and having great success, the news soon
spread, and several thousand people flocked to the spot, where they
worked till the heap of earth and stone was cleared away. All had fair
success, and we heard of none who got less than an ounce and a
half per month. The work lasted above six weeks. I saw one nugget
picked up, which weighed about seven ounces.
The influx of the Pamangkat Chinese gave great impetus to the
search for the auriferous ore, and new reservoirs, dams, and ditches,
were appearing in every direction; but yet the new-comers, being
only accustomed to agriculture, did not take very kindly to gold
digging. Sir James Brooke was anxious to remove a large body to
some district which they could cultivate; but they were too poor to be
able to support themselves while waiting for their crops. The gold
company was not willing to part with these people, and promised
them every assistance if they would stay at Bau.
Nearly all the early efforts to assist these immigrants in developing
the agricultural resources of the country had but little success. They
commenced rice farms at Si Jinkat on the Muaratabas, and also at
the foot of the Santubong hill; but though they were supplied with
food and tools by the Sarawak government, they abandoned both
attempts, and scattered themselves either among the gold-workers
in the interior, or removed to the district of Lundu, where, as I have
already mentioned, they made beautiful gardens. It was a matter of
regret that they should have abandoned Santubong, as the soil is of
a very fine description. I believe the non-success, however, arose
from defective management and inefficient superintendence.
Everything appeared to go on very quietly till January 1852, when
a fortnight’s continued rain rather injured their reservoirs, and laid the
country under water. Such a flood, they say, never before or since
came upon them. At Kuching it was necessary in the Chinese town
to move from house to house in boats. At Siniawan it rose to so
great a height that the inhabitants had to abandon their houses, and
an unfortunate Chinese, seeking safety in his garret, was drowned,
being unable to force his way through the roof; and up the country
we saw afterwards the dried grass left by the stream at least forty
feet above the usual level of the river.
In 1853, the gold company gave the government considerable
trouble, and had to be curbed by a great display of armed force; but
they submitted without any necessity of proceeding to extremities.
The case was this: the government had issued an order to the
company that they should not make any fresh reservoirs or gold-
workings among the Dayak lands without obtaining permission from
the authorities, as on several occasions quarrels had arisen between
them and the neighbouring tribes, on account of their taking
possession of the best farming ground in the country.
The Pamangkat Chinese were never quite satisfied with their
position as gold-workers, and constantly made applications to the
government for assistance in order to recommence their old style of
living as rice cultivators. At last they fixed on a good spot, and food
and rice were supplied to several hundreds. This well-managed
movement might have been increased to any extent, as all the late
immigrants preferred a quiet rural life; and by the commencement of
1856 nearly five hundred were established at a place called Sungei
Tañgah, about six miles above the town.
I may observe that during the four previous years the Dutch had
kept the Chinese within the boundary of their settlements in very
strict order; but, in 1856, some dispute taking place, a Dutch officer
and a party of troops were cut off by the workmen of the Lumar
kunsi, one of the large gold companies, about three hundred of
whom escaped over the borders into the Sarawak territories, while
the rest were captured, and many suffered condign punishment for
their crime.
I will notice here a regulation which obtains in the Dutch territories
of Sambas and the other border states, which is so illiberal that I can
scarcely believe it to be authorized by any of the superior authorities,
but must be the work of a very narrow-minded local official. No
Chinese, whether man, woman, or child, can leave the Dutch
territories without first paying a fine of 6l.; so that as very few
workmen can save that amount they are practically condemned to
remain there all their lives, unless they can evade the blockade kept
upon them, thus running the risk of the cat-o’nine-tails, a fine, and
imprisonment. The reason for this regulation is that no Chinese in
Borneo would willingly remain under Dutch rule who could possibly
escape from it; and if liberty were given to them to leave the country,
nearly every man would abandon it. Therefore, gunboats watch the
coast, and on the frontiers soldiers, Malays, and Dayaks, are
ordered to stop any Chinese who may attempt to escape from the
Dutch territories.
In the spring of 1856, I made a tour through the Chinese
settlements established in Sarawak, commencing with the rice
plantations and vegetable gardens established at Sungei Tañgah. I
have never seen in Borneo anything more pleasing to my eye than
the extensive cultivated fields which spread out around the scattered
Chinese houses, each closely surrounded by beds of esculent plants
growing in a most luxuriant manner.
Every day appeared to be adding to the area of cultivation;
because, as the agriculturists became more wealthy, they invited the
poorer gold-workers to join them, and were thus enabled to employ
many labourers. Already the effect of this increase of produce was
perceptible on prices, so that vegetables, fowls, and ducks, were
beginning to be bought at reasonable rates. On the other side, the
right-hand bank of the river, near the little mount of Stapok, about
forty Chinese had commenced gardens without any assistance from
Government, and appeared to be very prosperous. To this spot a
road had been cut through the forest from the town, which
afterwards became memorable in Sarawak annals. Altogether, as I
have before observed, there were about five hundred people
assembled here engaged in a war against the jungle.
Continuing our course towards the interior, we met with no
Chinese houses until we reached the village of Siniawan, at that time
governed by the guns of the little fort of Biledah, admirably situated
on a high point jutting into the river, and on the same spot where the
Sarawak Malays during the civil wars had their strongest stockade.
The town was remarkably flourishing, and we here heard a
confirmation of the reports that a great many Chinese were arriving
from Sambas. As we were anxious to be thoroughly acquainted with
the actual condition of the gold-working population, we determined to
walk across from Siniawan to the head-quarters of the gold company
at Bau. The paths were in very good condition, quite suited for riding
over, except when we reached the bridges thrown across the deep
gullies which intersect the country.
From Siniawan all the way to Bau, a distance of ten miles, there
was a constant succession of reservoirs and gold-workings; and
judging from the new houses springing up in every direction, we felt
sure the population was increasing. About a third of the way along
the road, a branch path led to a place called by the Chinese
“Shaksan,” where there was an excellent hot spring, over which Mr.
Ruppell had built a little house. We diverged to this spot to indulge in
the unusual sensation of a hot bath, and found the temperature of
the water so warm that it was almost unbearable; but for any one
suffering from rheumatism it would be excellent. We noticed in the
neighbourhood many limestone rocks water-worn into fantastic
shapes, exactly similar to those I subsequently observed near the
base of the mountain of Molu.
There are near the main path some large reservoirs in which very
fine fish are found, and the road being led along the banks, or over
the broad dams, it was very picturesque, particularly near the
limestone hills of Piat, where we found a large party of Malays
seeking gold in the quartz which lines the crevices and the caves of
these hills. A very pretty specimen was shown us with the particles
of gold sparkling as if imbedded in crystal.
As it was my companion’s duty to inspect all the stations, we
diverged to the right to visit the antimony mines of Busu. We found
there upwards of fifty Chinese apparently working at the rock on the
steep face of a hill, burrowing here and there in the limestone. The
rocks were very much like those of the mountain of Molu, and
climbing over their sharp surface into little out-of-the-way corners, we
found two or three Chinese scattered here and there, picking out
lumps of antimony from the crevices of the limestone, or perfectly
imbedded in it, and requiring much labour to procure.
These are not really mines—no vein is found, but merely lumps of
ore scattered in every direction.
Just at the foot of the hill in the forest we came upon two Malays
who had just discovered a lump of antimony weighing several tons
which was but a few feet below the surface, and having cleared
away the superincumbent earth, were now covering it over with dry
wood, in order to split the metal, by first raising the temperature by
fire, and then suddenly reducing it by water.
Near Bau the reservoirs increased in number and extent, while
the population became more numerous, and as at each Chinese
house there were several ferocious dogs kept, it was necessary to
be perpetually on one’s guard. The town of Bau was much more
extensive than I could have supposed; I counted above one hundred
shops, and there were many houses besides.
Our attention was particularly drawn to one long, enclosed shed,
filled with Chinese, who evidently, from their appearance and
conduct, were strangers. On arriving at the gold company’s house,
we made inquiries respecting these late arrivals, and the principal
people positively denied any had reached Bau, which was evidently
untrue. These kunsis are regular republics, governed by officers
selected by the multitude: a common workman may suddenly be
elevated to be their leader. They generally choose well, and look
chiefly to the business character of the man put up for their selection.
Though, perhaps, gold-working pays on the whole more than
other labour, the men are kept so very hard at work that the ranks
are not easily filled; yet they are allowed five meals a day, with as
much rice as they can eat, a good supply of salt fish and pork, and
tea always ready. At their meals the Chinese are very fond of
drinking their weak arrack, or samshu, raw, but as nearly
approaching a boiling state as the lips can endure.
Our tour then led us to the neighbourhood of the antimony mines
of Bidi, where the Bornean company are at present working that
metal with success.
The country here is very picturesque: fine open valleys bordered
by almost perpendicular limestone hills, and with an admirable soil.
Occasionally the whole length of a precipice is undermined, forming
extensive open caves, with huge stalactites hanging down at the
extreme edge, giving a beautiful yet fantastic appearance to these
natural dwellings.
We spent a night at a village of the Sau Dayaks, whose long
dwelling was built on a steep hill on the banks of the Sarawak river;
and from thence on nearly to the borders of the Sarawak territory,
was an admirable path constructed by the Chinese to facilitate their
intercourse with Sambas, but unfortunately for travellers, they had
not completed it to Bau.
A four hours’ walk brought us to the last Chinese station, which
was evidently more intended as a resting place for wayfarers than
because its inhabitants were actually much engaged in gold-working
there. We ascended the hills to the village of the Gombang Dayaks,
and heard that a continual stream of small parties of Chinese was
constantly passing within sight of their village. So there was little
doubt that the Chinese population was increasing.
From all the inquiries we made as to the numbers engaged
directly and indirectly in gold-working, we considered there were
nearly three thousand living between the town of Siniawan and the
border. There were about five hundred agriculturists in Suñgei
Tuñgah and its neighbourhood, and perhaps eight hundred in the
town of Kuching, the sago manufactories, and the surrounding
gardens; but these were soon after recruited by the three hundred
fugitives from Sambas, to whom I have before referred; so that the
Chinese population of Sarawak amounted to above four thousand
five hundred before they rose in insurrection, and while seeking to
overthrow the government, ruined themselves.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE CHINESE INSURRECTION.
Secret Societies—Extensive Intercourse—Smuggling—The Gold

Company fined—Punishment of three of its Members—Arrogance
of the Kunsi—A Police Case—Real Causes of the Insurrection—
An Emissary from the Tien Ti Secret Society—Reported
Encouragement given by the Sultan of Sambas—Sambas Nobles
speak Chinese—Their Nurses—The Nobles conspiring—An
Emissary arrives in Brunei—Proposal—Knowledge of the
intended Insurrection—Proposed Attack on the Consulate—The
Tumanggong’s Threat—The Emissary before the Court—Letter
from the Tien Ti Hué—Rumours of intended Insurrection—
Preparations and Inquiries—Commencement of the Revolt—
Useless Warnings—Surprise of the Government House—Danger
of the Rajah—Cowardice of the Chinese—Escape—Swims the
River—Death of Mr. Nicholets—Attacks on the other Houses—On
the Stockade—Gallant Conduct of Mr. Crymble and the Malay
Fortmen—Warm Reception of the Rebels—Death of a Madman—
A Brave Corporal—Escape of Mr. Crymble—His last Blow—
Fortmen again behave well—Confusion in the Town—Peaceful
Assurances—Attempt to organize a Defence—Panic-stricken—
Departure—Conduct of the People—Next Morning—Killed and
Wounded—The Chinese in Power—The Court House—A Check
to Joy—Oath of Fidelity—Courage shown by Abang Fatah—A
Blow struck—Second Descent of the Chinese—A Boat Action—
Gallant Attack—Deaths—Anecdote—The Second Retreat—The
Town in Flames—The Steamer—The Capital recovered—Pursuit
of the Chinese—They retire to the Interior—Attacks of the Land
Dayaks—Foray of the Chinese—Their Fort taken by the Datu
Bandhar—Pursuit—Disorderly Retreat—Critical Position—Brave
Girls—Pass the Frontier—The Men of the Kunsi—A Quarrel—
Stripped of Plunder—Results of the Insurrection—Forces at the
Disposal of the Sarawak Government—Conduct of the People—
Disastrous to the Chinese—New System—Arrival of armed
Chinese from Sambas—Dutch and English Assistance—Revisit
Sarawak—Change—Conduct of the Rajah—Its Effect on the
People—Secret Society at Labuan—Dangers from the Secret
Societies and their Defenders—Curious Incident—Thoughtful
Care of the Rajah.
I shall endeavour to tell the story of the Chinese insurrection
which suddenly broke out in Sarawak in the year 1857, as it appears
to me to be fraught with instruction to us, and if carefully studied,
may be of infinite service to those who have to govern colonies
where the Chinese form a considerable portion of the population.
For many years the Chinese had attempted to form secret
societies in Sarawak; but every effort was made to check their
spread among the people, and it appeared as if success had
attended that policy. To a considerable extent it was the case: but up
in the interior, among the gold workers, the kunsi or company stood
in the place of a secret society, and its members carried on an
extensive intercourse with their fellow-countrymen in Sambas and
Pontianak, and with the Tien Ti secret society in Singapore. I have
described in the last chapter a tour which Mr. Fox and I made among
the settlements of the Chinese in the interior of Sarawak, during
which we became convinced that smuggling was carried on to a
great extent, for, however numerous might be the new immigrants,
the opium revenue did not increase.
At last it was discovered that opium was sent from Singapore to
the Natuna islands, and from thence smuggled into Sarawak and the
Dutch territories; it was traced to the kunsi, which was thereupon
fined 150l.: a very trifling amount, considering the thousands they
had gained by defrauding the revenue, and measures were
immediately taken to suppress the traffic, which, together with the
punishment of three of its members for a gross assault on another
Chinese, were the only grounds of complaint they had against the
Sarawak government.
To show their arrogance, I will enter into the details of this case. A
Chinese woman ran away from her husband, a member of the kunsi,
who followed her to Kuching, and obtained an order from the police
magistrate that she should return with him, but on her refusal, she
was ordered to remain within the stockade. As the case was
peculiar, she was not confined to a cell, but suffered to move about
in the inner court; and some of her friends supplying her with men’s
clothes, she managed to slip out unperceived by the sentry, and
obtained a passage on board a Chinese boat bound for one of the
villages on the coast. Her husband hearing of the place to which she
had removed, followed her with a strong party of the members of the
kunsi, and recovered her. Not satisfied with this, they seized all the
boatmen, and flogged them in the most unmerciful manner, and then
placed them in irons. When let go, they of course brought their
complaint before the police magistrate, and three of the party were
punished for taking the law into their own hands.
These trivial cases were not the real cause of the insurrection, as
the Chinese before that date were greatly excited by the news that
the English had retired from before Canton; and it was of course
added, we had been utterly defeated, and their preparations were
made before the smuggling was discovered, or the members of their
company punished. The secret societies were everywhere in great
excitement, and the Tien Ti sent an emissary over from Malacca and
Singapore, to excite the gold workers to rebellion, and used the
subtle, but false argument, that not only were the English crushed
before Canton, but that the British Government were so discontented
with Sir James Brooke, that they would not interfere if the kunsi only
destroyed him and his officers, and did not meddle with the other
Europeans, or obstruct the trade.
It is also currently reported that the Sambas sultan and his nobles
offered every encouragement to the undertaking, and the Chinese
listened much to their advice, as these nobles can speak to them in
their own language, and are imbued greatly with Chinese ideas. To
explain this state of things, I may mention that they are always
nursed by girls chosen from among the healthiest of the daughters of
the gold workers; and I may add, that about that time there was a
very active intercourse carried on between the Malay nobles of
Sambas and Makota, and that the latter was constantly closeted with
an emissary of the Tien Ti Hué, or secret society, to whom I am
about to refer. It behoves the Dutch authorities to look well to the
proceedings of the native governments within their own territories, as
there is very great discontent, and there is not the slightest doubt
that the nobles are conspiring.
To show that it is not a mere imagination that the Tien Ti secret
society sent emissaries around at that time, I may state that on the
14th of February, four days before the insurrection, a Chinese
named Achang, who had arrived in Brunei from Singapore a few
days previously, and had the year before been expelled from
Sarawak for joining that Hué, came to my house to try and induce
my four Chinese servants to enter it; and added as a sufficient
reason that the kunsi of Sarawak would by that time have killed all
the white men in that country. He also said that he was very
successful in enlisting members among the sago washers and other
labourers in the capital, and that they had made up their minds to
attack my house, and destroy me within a few weeks, and if my
servants did not join the society they would share my fate.
I did not believe what was said about Sarawak, and any warning
of mine would not have reached there for a month, but I did not
altogether neglect this information, which was secretly given me by
my butler, a Chinese, who had lived several years in England, and
whose death by cholera in 1859 I much regretted; but sent to the
sultan and ministers intimation of what I had heard, and the stern
remark of the tumanggong, that if such an attack were made, not a
Chinese should, by the following night, be left alive in the whole
country, effectually curbed them. This Achang, though a very
quarrelsome fellow, had soon a case of just complaint against a
British subject, which he brought before my court; when it was over, I
asked him how he would have obtained a settlement of his claims, if
his intention to murder me had been carried out. I never saw a man’s
countenance change more, and thinking he was about to fall on the
ground, and to clasp my knees, either to beg for pardon, or, what is
more probable, to entreat that I would not believe the story, I told my
writer to lead him out of the court.
At Bau the letter from the Tien Ti Hué was shown to nakodah
Jeludin by the writers of the kunsi, whilst he was detained a prisoner
there, and this was not invented by him as a startling incident, but
mentioned casually in the course of conversation; this Malay
afterwards died fighting bravely in the last charge to break the ranks
of the Chinese.
During the month of November, 1856, rumours were abroad that
the Chinese gold company intended to surprise the stockades, which

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Logistics Management: Contributions

of the Section Logistics of the German

Biota Grow 2C gather 2C cook Loucas

Logistics Management: Strategies and Instruments for

AeroStruct Enable and Learn How to Integrate

Logistics Supply Chain Management Martin Christopher

Global Logistics and Supply Chain Management Lalwani

Commercial Transport: Proceedings of the 2nd

New Models for Sustainable Logistics: Internalization

Risk Management in Finance and Logistics Chunhui Xu

Jan Brinkmann Martin Grunewald

Thomas Spengler Martin Grunewald

ISSN 2194-8917 ISSN 2194-8925 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015943369

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland is part of Springer Science+Business Media

Approach for Solving a Container Transportation Problem” suggests a mixed

Kopfer, Herbert, Universität Bremen,

Braunschweig Dirk Mattfeld

Part I Invited Contribution

Condition-Based Maintenance Planning Within the Aviation

Considering Small and Medium-Sized Suppliers in Public

Integration of Cultural Aspects in Supplier Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Part III Supply Chain Coordination

RoRA-SCM—Review of the Integration of Flexibility Planning

Coordination in Multimodal Supply Chains: Drafting

Flexibility of 3PL Contracts: Practical Evidence and Propositions

Part IV Resource Management

Extended Model Formulation of the Facility Layout Problem

Integrated Facility Location, Capacity and Production Planning

Integrated Make-or-Buy and Facility Layout Problem

Qualification and Competence Related Misfits in Logistics

Part V Flexible Production Management

A Lot Streaming Model for a Re-entrant Flow Shop Scheduling

Identifying Complexity-Inducing Variety: Adapting ClustalW

Consideration of Redundancies in the Configuration of Automated

Part VI Distribution Management

Prepositioning of Relief Items Under Uncertainty: A Classification

Forecasting Misused E-Commerce Consumer Returns. . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

A Rollout Algorithm for Vehicle Routing with Stochastic

A Real-World Cost Function Based on Tariffs for Vehicle

Part VII Transport Management

An Adaptive Large Neighborhood Search for the Reverse

A Two-Stage Iterative Solution Approach for Solving

Vehicle Routing and Break Scheduling by a Distributed

Rainer Lasch and Roy Fritzsche

Abstract Delays or cancellations of flights are mostly caused by avoidable,

R. Lasch (&) R. Fritzsche

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 3

objectives of the airline network designers is to transfer unscheduled maintenance

3.1 Operational Requirements in the Aviation Industry

• Two-echelon model: The model corresponds to a two-level model with

• (S-1, S) Order policy: Because of low demand the replacement is done by a

3.2 Input Parameters

For the comparison of the effects of different maintenance strategies on total

3.3 Influences on Total Maintenance Cost

the total maintenance cost can be expressed as (Wong et al. 2005):

CR is a function dependent on MFOP, an incidence probability IP that an event

CR :¼ gðMFOP; IP; tR ; XÞ ð3Þ

CTot :¼ f ðgðMFOP; IP; tR ; XÞ; hðMFOPÞÞ þ CI þ CT ð5Þ

The objective is to calculate an optimal MFOP value through skillful analysis of

dCTot =dMFOP ¼ df ðgðMFOP; IP; tR ; XÞ; hðMFOPÞÞ=dMFOP ¼ 0 ð6Þ