Modelling Computation and

Optimization in Information Systems

and Management Sciences
Proceedings of the 3rd International
Conference on Modelling Computation
and Optimization in Information
Systems and Management Sciences
MCO 2015 Part I 1st Edition Hoai An Le
Thi
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Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 359

Hoai An Le Thi
Tao Pham Dinh
Ngoc Thanh Nguyen Editors

Modelling,
Computation and
Optimization in
Information Systems
and Management
Sciences
Proceedings of the 3rd International
Conference on Modelling, Computation and
Optimization in Information Systems and
Management Sciences - MCO 2015 - Part I
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing

Volume 359

Series editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
e-mail: kacprzyk@ibspan.waw.pl
About this Series
The series “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” contains publications on theory,
applications, and design methods of Intelligent Systems and Intelligent Computing. Virtually all
disciplines such as engineering, natural sciences, computer and information science, ICT, eco-
nomics, business, e-commerce, environment, healthcare, life science are covered. The list of top-
ics spans all the areas of modern intelligent systems and computing.
The publications within “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” are primarily
textbooks and proceedings of important conferences, symposia and congresses. They cover sig-
nificant recent developments in the field, both of a foundational and applicable character. An
important characteristic feature of the series is the short publication time and world-wide distri-
bution. This permits a rapid and broad dissemination of research results.

Advisory Board
Chairman
Nikhil R. Pal, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
e-mail: nikhil@isical.ac.in
Members
Rafael Bello, Universidad Central “Marta Abreu” de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba
e-mail: rbellop@uclv.edu.cu
Emilio S. Corchado, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
e-mail: escorchado@usal.es
Hani Hagras, University of Essex, Colchester, UK
e-mail: hani@essex.ac.uk
László T. Kóczy, Széchenyi István University, Győr, Hungary
e-mail: koczy@sze.hu
Vladik Kreinovich, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, USA
e-mail: vladik@utep.edu
Chin-Teng Lin, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
e-mail: ctlin@mail.nctu.edu.tw
Jie Lu, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia
e-mail: Jie.Lu@uts.edu.au
Patricia Melin, Tijuana Institute of Technology, Tijuana, Mexico
e-mail: epmelin@hafsamx.org
Nadia Nedjah, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
e-mail: nadia@eng.uerj.br
Ngoc Thanh Nguyen, Wroclaw University of Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
e-mail: Ngoc-Thanh.Nguyen@pwr.edu.pl
Jun Wang, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
e-mail: jwang@mae.cuhk.edu.hk
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11156
Hoai An Le Thi · Tao Pham Dinh
Ngoc Thanh Nguyen
Editors

Modelling, Computation and

Optimization in Information
Systems and Management
Sciences
Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference
on Modelling, Computation and Optimization in
Information Systems and Management Sciences
- MCO 2015 - Part I

ABC
Editors
Hoai An Le Thi Ngoc Thanh Nguyen
Laboratory of Theoretical and Division of Knowledge Management
Applied Computer Science Systems
University of Lorraine-Metz Wroclaw University of Technology
France Poland

Tao Pham Dinh

Laboratory of Mathematics
National Institute for Applied
Sciences-Rouen
France

ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic)

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing
ISBN 978-3-319-18160-8 ISBN 978-3-319-18161-5 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-18161-5
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015937024

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

c Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015
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 Preface

This volume contains 86 selected full papers (from 181 submitted ones) presented at
the MCO 2015 conference, held on May 11–13, 2015 at University of Lorraine, France.
MCO 2015 is the third event in the series of conferences on Modelling, Computation
and Optimization in Information Systems and Management Sciences organized by LITA,
the Laboratory of Theoretical and Applied Computer Science, University of Lorraine.
The first conference, MCO 2004, brought together 100 scientists from 21 countries
and was a great success. It included 8 invited plenary speakers, 70 papers presented
and published in the proceedings, “Modelling, Computation and Optimization in In-
formation Systems and Management Sciences”, edited by Thi Hoai An and Pham Dinh
Tao, Hermes Sciences Publishing, June 2004, 668 pages, and 22 papers published in the
European Journal of Operational Research and in the Journal of Global Optimization.
The second conference, MCO 2008 was jointly organized by LITA and the Computer
Science and Communications Research Unit, University of Luxembourg. MCO 2008
gathered 66 invited plenary speakers and more than 120 scientists from 27 countries.
The scientific program consisted of 6 plenary lectures and of the oral presentation of
68 selected full papers as well as 34 selected abstracts covering all main topic areas.
Its proceedings were edited by Le Thi Hoai An, Pascal Bouvry and Pham Dinh Tao in
Communications in Computer and Information Science 14, Springer. Two special is-
sues were published in Journal of Computational, Optimization & Application (editors:
Le Thi Hoai An, Joaquim Judice) and Advance on Data Analysis and Classification
(editors: Le Thi Hoai An, Pham Dinh Tao and Ritter Guntter).
MCO 2015 covered, traditionally, several fields of Management Science and Infor-
mation Systems: Computer Sciences, Information Technology, Mathematical Program-
ming, Optimization and Operations Research and related areas. It will allow researchers
and practitioners to clarify the recent developments in models and solutions for deci-
sion making in Engineering and Information Systems and to interact and discuss how
to reinforce the role of these fields in potential applications of great impact. It would
be a timely occasion to celebrate the 30th birthday of DC programming and DCA, an
efficient approach in Nonconvex programming framework.
Continuing the success of the first two conferences, MCO 2004 and MCO 2008, MCO
2015 will be attended by more than 130 scientists from 35 countries. The International
VI Preface

Scientific Committee consists of more than 80 members from about 30 countries all the
world over. The scientific program includes 5 plenary lectures and the oral presentation
of 86 selected full papers as well as several selected abstracts covering all main topic ar-
eas. MCO 2015’s proceedings are edited by Le Thi Hoai An, Pham Dinh Tao and Nguyen
Ngoc Thanh in Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing (AISC), Springer. All
submissions have been peer-reviewed and we have selected only those with highest
quality to include in this book.
We would like to thank all those who contributed to the success of the conference
and to this book of proceedings. In particular we would like to express our gratitude
to the authors as well as the members of the International Scientific Committee and
the referees for their efforts and cooperation. Finally, the interest of the sponsors in the
meeting and their assistance are gratefully acknowledged, and we cordially thank Prof.
Janusz Kacprzyk and Dr. Thomas Ditzinger from Springer for their supports.
We hope that MCO 2015 significantly contributes to the fulfilment of the academic
excellence and leads to greater success of MCO events in the future.

March 2015 Hoai An Le Thi

Tao Pham Dinh
Ngoc Thanh Nguyen
 DC Programming and DCA:
Thirty Years of Developments

The year 2015 marks the 30th birthday of DC (Difference of Convex functions)
programming and DCA (DC Algorithm) which were introduced by Pham Dinh Tao
in 1985 as a natural and logical extension of his previous works on convex maximiza-
tion since 1974. They have been widely developed since 1994 by extensive joint works
of Le Thi Hoai An and Pham Dinh Tao to become now classic and increasingly popular.
DC programming and DCA can be viewed as an elegant extension of Convex anal-
ysis/Convex programming, sufficiently broad to cover most real-world nonconvex pro-
grams, but no too in order to be able to use the powerful arsenal of modern Convex
analysis/Convex programming. This philosophy leads to the nice and elegant con-
cept of approximating a nonconvex (DC) program by a sequence of convex ones for
the construction of DCA: each iteration of DCA requires solution of a convex pro-
gram. It turns out that, with appropriate DC decompositions and suitably equivalent DC
reformulations, DCA permits to recover most of standard methods in convex and non-
convex programming. These theoretical and algorithmic tools, constituting the back-
bone of Nonconvex programming and Global optimization, have been enriched from
both a theoretical and an algorithmic point of view, thanks to a lot of their applica-
tions, by researchers and practitioners in the world, to model and solve nonconvex
programs from many fields of Applied Sciences, including Data Mining-Machine
Learning, Communication Systems, Finance, Information Security, Transport Logis-
tics & Production Management, Network Optimization, Computational Biology, Image
Processing, Robotics, Computer Vision, Petrochemicals, Optimal Control and Auto-
matic, Energy Optimization, Mechanics, etc. As a continuous approach, DC program-
ming and DCA were successfully applied to Combinatorial Optimization as well as
many classes of hard nonconvex programs such as Variational Inequalities Problems,
Mathematical Programming with Equilibrium Constraints, Multilevel/Multiobjective
Programming.
DC programming and DCA were extensively developed during the last two decades.
They were the subject of several hundred articles in the high ranked scientific journals
and the high-level international conferences, as well as various international research
projects, and were the methodological basis of more than 50 PhD theses. More than
VIII DC Programming and DCA: Thirty Years of Developments

90 invited symposia/sessions dedicated to DC programming & DCA were presented

in numerous international conferences. The ever-growing number of works using DC
programming and DCA proves their power and their key role in Nonconvex program-
ming/Global optimization and many areas of applications.
In celebrating the 30th birthday of DC programming and DCA, we would like to
thank the founder, Professor Pham Dinh Tao, for creating these valuable theoretical
and algorithmic tools, which have such a wonderful scientific impact on many fields of
Applied Sciences.
Hoai An Le Thi
General Chair of MCO 2015
 Organization

MCO 2015 is organized by the Laboratory of Theoretical and Applied Computer

Science, University of Lorraine, France.

Organizing Committee
Conference Chair
Hoai An Le Thi University of Lorraine, France

Members
Lydia Boudjeloud University of Lorraine, France
Conan-Guez Brieu University of Lorraine, France
Alain Gély University of Lorraine, France
Annie Hetet University of Lorraine, France
Vinh Thanh Ho University of Lorraine, France
Hoai Minh Le University of Lorraine, France
Duy Nhat Phan University of Lorraine, France
Minh Thuy Ta University of Lorraine, France
Thi Thuy Tran University of Lorraine, France
Xuan Thanh Vo University of Lorraine, France
Ahmed Zidna University of Lorraine, France

Program Committee
Program Co-chairs
Hoai An Le Thi
Tao Pham Dinh
University of Lorraine, France
National Institute for Applied Sciences-
Rouen, France
X Organization

Members
El-Houssaine Aghezzaf University of Gent, Belgium
Tiru Arthanari University of Auckland, New Zealand
Adil Bagirov University of Ballarat, Australia
Younès Bennani University Paris 13-University Sorbonne Paris
Cité, France
Lyes Benyoucef University of Aix-Marseille, France
Lydia Boudjeloud University of Lorraine, France
Raymond Bisdorff University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg
Pascal Bouvry University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg
Stéphane Canu INSA–Rouen, France
Emilio Carrizosa Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain
Suphamit Chittayasothorn King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology
Ladkraban, Thailand
John Clark University of York, UK
Rafael Correa Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
Van Dat Cung Grenoble INP, France
Frédéric Dambreville DGA, France
Mats Danielson Stockholm University, Sweden
Mohamed Djemai University of Valenciennes, France
Sourour Elloumi National School of Computer Science
for Industry and Business, France
Alexandre Dolgui Mines Saint-Etienne, France
Love Ekenberg Stockholm University, Sweden
Ronan M.T. Fleming University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg
Fabián Flores-Bazán University of Concepción, Chile
Yann Guermeur CNRS, France
Nicolas Hadjisavvas University of the Aegean, Greece
Mounir Haddou INSA-Rennes, France
Jin-Kao Hao University of Angers, France
Duong-Tuan Hoang University of Technology of Sydney, Australia
Van-Ngai Huynh University of Quy Nhon, Vietnam
Fadili Jalal University of Caen-IUF, France
J.Jung Jason Chung-Ang University, South Korea
Joaquim Judice University Coimbra, Portugal
Kang-Hyun Jo University of Ulsan, South Korea
Pang Jong-Shi University of Southern California, USA
Djamel Khadraoui CRP H. Tudor, Luxembourg
Arnaud Lallouet University of Caen, France
Aron Larson Stockholm University, Sweden
Hoai Minh Le University of Lorraine, France
Van Cuong Le University Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, France
Duan Li Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Yufeng Liu University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill,
USA
 Organization XI

Philippe Mahey ISIMA, France

Ali Ridha Mahjoub University Paris-Dauphine, France
Francois Malgouyres University of Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
Tobias Marschall Saarland University, Germany
Shashi-Kant Mishra Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Mehryar Mohri Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences,
New York, USA
Ali Mohammad-Djafari CNRS, Supélec, France
Kazuo Murota University of Tokyo, Japan
Amedeo Napoli CNRS, France
Zuhair Nashed University of Central Florida, USA
Dong Yen Nguyen Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology,
Vietnam
Ngoc Thanh Nguyen Wroclaw University of Technology, Poland
Tri Dung Nguyen University of Southampton, UK
Van Thoai Nguyen Trier University, Germany
Viet Hung Nguyen University Pierre and Marie Curie, France
Stefan Nickel Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany
Yi-Shuai Niu Paristech-SJTU and Shanghai Jiao Tong
University, China
M. Panos Pardalos University of Florida, USA
Vangelis Paschov University Paris-Dauphine, CNRS and IUF,
France
Gabriel Peyre University of Paris Dauphine, France
Duc Truong Pham University of Birmingham, UK
Duc Pham-Hi ECE Paris, France
Hoang Pham Rutgers University, USA
Huyen Pham University Paris Diderot (Paris 7), France
Olivier Pietquin University Lille 1 - IUF, France
Cedric Pradalier Georgiatech Lorraine, France
Christian Prins University of Technology of Troyes, France
Alain Quilliot ISIMA, France
Nidhal Rezg University of Lorraine, France
D. Yaroslav Sergeyev University of Calabria, Italia
Marc Sevaux University Bretagne-Sud, France
Patrick Siarry University Paris 12, France
Charles Soussen University of Lorraine, France
Defeng Sun National University of Singapore
Jie Sun Curtin University, Australia
Q. Bao Truong Northern Michigan University, USA
Truyen Tran Deakin University, Australia
A. Ismael Vaz University of Minho, Portugal
Dieter Weichert University of Technology (RWTH) Aachen,
Germany
XII Organization

Gerhard-Wilhelm Weber Middle East Technical University, Turkey

Adilson Elias Xavier Federal University of Rio de Janeiro,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Jack Xin University of California at Irvine, USA
Adnan Yassine University of Le Havre, France
Daniela Zaharie West University of Timisoara, Romania
Ahmed Zidna University of Lorraine, France

Organizers of Special Sessions/Workshops

Combinatorial Optimization
Viet Hung Nguyen University Pierre and Marie Curie, France

DC Programming and DCA: Thirty Years of Developments

Hoai An Le Thi University of Lorraine, France

Dynamic Optimization
Patrick Siarry University of Paris-Est Créteil, France

Global Optimization and Semi-Infinite Optimization

Mohand Ouanes University of Tizi-Ouzou, Algeria

Maintenance and Production Control Problems

Nidhal Rezg, Hajej Zied University of Lorraine, France
Ali Gharbi ETS Montreal, Canada

Modeling and Optimization in Computational Biology

Tobias Marschall Saarland University, Germany

Modeling and Optimization in Financial Engineering

Duan Li The Chinese University of Hong Kong

Numerical Optimization
Adnan Yassine University of Le Havre, France
 Organization XIII

Optimization Applied to Surveillance and Threat Detection

Frédéric Dambreville ENSTA Bretagne & DGA, France

Post Crises Banking and Eco-finance Modelling

Duc Pham-Hi ECE Paris, France

Spline Approximation & Optimization

Ahmed Zidna University of Lorraine, France

Technologies and Methods for Multi-stakeholder Decision Analysis

in Public Settings
Aron Larsson, Love Ekenberg, Stockholm University, Sweden
Mats Danielson

Variational Principles and Applications

Q. Bao Truong Northern Michigan University, US
Christiane Tammer Faculty of Natural Sciences II,
Institute of Mathematics, Germany
Antoine Soubeyran Aix-Marseille University, France

Sponsoring Institutions
University of Lorraine (UL), France
Laboratory of Theoretical and Applied Computer Science, UL
UFR Mathématique Informatique Mécanique Automatique, UL
Conseil Général de la Moselle, France
Conseil Régional de Lorraine, France
Springer
IEEE France section
Mairie de Metz, France
Metz Métropole, France
 Contents

Part I: Combinatorial Optimization and Applications

A New Variant of the Minimum-Weight Maximum-Cardinality Clique
Problem to Solve Conflicts between Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Thibault Lehouillier, Jérémy Omer, François Soumis, Guy Desaulniers
An Adaptive Neighborhood Search for k-Clustering Minimum Bi-clique
Completion Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Mhand Hifi, Ibrahim Moussa, Toufik Saadi, Sagvan Saleh
An Integer Programming Model for Branching Cable Layouts
in Offshore Wind Farms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Arne Klein, Dag Haugland, Joanna Bauer, Mario Mommer
Belief Propagation for MiniMax Weight Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Mindi Yuan, Shen Li, Wei Shen, Yannis Pavlidis
Decision Support System for the Multi-depot Vehicle Routing Problem . . . . 47
Takwa Tlili, Saoussen Krichen
Iterated Tabu Search for the Mix Fleet Vehicle Routing Problem
with Heterogenous Electric Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Ons Sassi, Wahiba Ramdane Cherif-Khettaf, Ammar Oulamara
Optimal Migration Planning of Telecommunication Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Alain Billionnet, Sourour Elloumi, Aurélie Le Maître
Optimal Ordering of Tests with Extreme Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Daniel Berend, Shimon Cohen, Solomon E. Shimony, Shira Zucker
Optimization of Pumping Energy and Maintenance Costs in Water
Supply Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Pham Duc Dai, Pu Li
XVI Contents

Part II: DC Programming and DCA: Thirty Years of

Developments
A Based-DC Programming Approach for Planning a Multisensor
Multizone Search for a Moving Target . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Hoai An Le Thi, Duc Manh Nguyen, Tao Pham Dinh
A DC Algorithm for Solving Quadratic-linear Bilevel Optimization
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Aicha Anzi, Mohammed Said Radjef
A DC Programming Approach for Sparse Estimation of a Covariance
Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Duy Nhat Phan, Hoai An Le Thi, Tao Pham Dinh
A New Approach for Optimizing Traffic Signals in Networks Considering
Rerouting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Duc Quynh Tran, Ba Thang Phan Nguyen, Quang Thuan Nguyen
Composite Convex Minimization Involving Self-concordant-Like Cost
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Quoc Tran-Dinh, Yen-Huan Li, Volkan Cevher
Computational Aspects of Constrained L1 -L2 Minimization
for Compressive Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Yifei Lou, Stanley Osher, Jack Xin
Continuous Relaxation for Discrete DC Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Takanori Maehara, Naoki Marumo, Kazuo Murota
Solving Relaxation Orienteering Problem Using DCA-CUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Anh Son Ta, Hoai An Le Thi, Trong Sy Ha
Solving the Quadratic Eigenvalue Complementarity Problem by DC
Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Yi-Shuai Niu, Joaquim Júdice, Hoai An Le Thi, Tao Pham Dinh
The Maximum Ratio Clique Problem: A Continuous Optimization
Approach and Some New Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Mahdi Moeini

Part III: Dynamic Optimization

Dynamic Adaptive Large Neighborhood Search for Inventory Routing
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Viacheslav A. Shirokikh, Victor V. Zakharov
Reactive Multiobjective Local Search Schedule Adaptation and Repair
in Flexible Job-Shop Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Hélène Soubaras
 Contents XVII

Part IV: Modelling and Optimization in Financial

Engineering
An Approach to Forming and Managing a Portfolio of Financial
Securities by Small and Medium Price-Taking Traders in a Stock
Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Alexander S. Belenky, Lyudmila G. Egorova
Behavioral Portfolio Optimization with Social Reference Point . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Yun Shi, Duan Li, Xiangyu Cui
Finding Equilibrium in a Financial Model by Solving a Variational
Inequality Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Vyacheslav V. Kalashnikov, Nataliya I. Kalashnykova, Felipe J. Castillo-Pérez
Multiperiod Mean-CVaR Portfolio Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Xiangyu Cui, Yun Shi

Part V: Multiobjective Programming

A Multi Objective Multi Echelon Supply Chain Network Model
for a Household Goods Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Mehmet Alegoz, Zehra Kamisli Ozturk
Conic Scalarization Method in Multiobjective Optimization
and Relations with Other Scalarization Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Refail Kasimbeyli, Zehra Kamisli Ozturk, Nergiz Kasimbeyli,
Gulcin Dinc Yalcin, Banu Icmen

Part VI: Numerical Optimization

A Hybrid Direction Algorithm with Long Step Rule for Linear
Programming: Numerical Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Mohand Bentobache, Mohand Ouamer Bibi
A Monotone Newton-Like Method for the Computation of Fixed Points . . . . 345
Lotfi Mouhadjer, Boubakeur Benahmed
A Numerical Implementation of an Interior Point Methods for Linear
Programming Based on a New Kernel Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Mousaab Bouafia, Djamel Benterki, Adnan Yassine
A Smoothing Method for Sparse Optimization over Polyhedral Sets . . . . . . . 369
Tangi Migot, Mounir Haddou
Bilevel Quadratic Fractional/Quadratic Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Nacéra Maachou, Mustapha Moulaï
Derivative-Free Optimization for Population Dynamic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Ute Schaarschmidt, Trond Steihaug, Sam Subbey
XVIII Contents

New Underestimator for Univariate Global Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

Mohand Ouanes, Hoai An Le Thi, Ahmed Zidna
Semismooth Reformulation and Nonsmooth Newton’s Method
for Solving Nonlinear Semidefinite Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Boubakeur Benahmed, Amina Alloun
The Nonlinear Separation Theorem and a Representation Theorem
for Bishop–Phelps Cones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Refail Kasimbeyli, Nergiz Kasimbeyli

Part VII: Spline Approximation and Optimization

Convergence of the Simplicial Rational Bernstein Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Jihad Titi, Tareq Hamadneh, Jürgen Garloff
Inferring Mean Road Axis from Big Data: Sorted Points Cloud Belonging
to Traces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
F.J. Ariza-López, D. Barrera, J.F. Reinoso, R. Romero-Zaliz
Interval-Krawczyk Approach for Solving Nonlinear Equations Systems
in B-spline Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Dominique Michel, Ahmed Zidna
Solving Nonconvex Optimization Problems in Systems and Control:
A Polynomial B-spline Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Deepak Gawali, Ahmed Zidna, Paluri S.V. Nataraj

Part VIII: Variational Principles and Applications

Approximation of Weak Efficient Solutions in Vector Optimization . . . . . . . . 481
Lidia Huerga, César Gutiérrez, Bienvenido Jiménez, Vicente Novo
Characterization of Set Relations by Means of a Nonlinear Scalarization
Functional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Elisabeth Köbis, Christiane Tammer
Scalarization of Set-Valued Optimization Problems in Normed Spaces . . . . . 505
César Gutiérrez, Bienvenido Jiménez, Enrico Miglierina, Elena Molho

Vectorial Ekeland Variational Principles: A Hybrid Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . 513

Q. Bao Truong

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

 Part I
Combinatorial Optimization
and Applications
 A New Variant of the Minimum-Weight
Maximum-Cardinality Clique Problem to Solve
Conflicts between Aircraft

Thibault Lehouillier, Jérémy Omer, François Soumis, and Guy Desaulniers

Group on Research in Decision Analysis

3000, Côte-Sainte-Catherine Road
Montreal, QC H3T 2A7, Canada
{thibault.lehouillier,jeremy.omer,francois.soumis,
guy.desaulniers}@polymtl.ca

Abstract. In this article, we formulate a new variant of the problem of

finding a maximum clique of minimum weight in a graph applied to the
detection and resolution of conflicts between aircraft. The innovation of
the model relies on the cost structure: the cost of the vertices cannot
be determined a priori, since they depend on the vertices in the clique.
We apply this formulation to the resolution of conflicts between aircraft
by building a graph whose vertices correpond to a set of maneuvers and
whose edges link conflict-free maneuvers. A maximum clique of minimal
weight yields a conflict-free situation involving all aircraft and minimiz-
ing the costs induced. We solve the problem as a mixed integer linear
program. Simulations on a benchmark of complex instances highlight
computational times smaller than 20 seconds for situations involving up
to 20 aircraft.

Keywords: Air Traffic Control, Conflict Resolution, Maximum Clique,

Mixed Integer Linear Programming.

1 Introduction
Developing advanced decision algorithms for the air traffic control (ATC) is of
great importance for the overall safety and capacity of the airspace. Resolution
algorithms for the air conflict detection and resolution problem are relevant
especially in a context of growing traffic, where capacity and safety become an
issue. Indeed, a simulation-based study performed by Lehouillier et al. [1] shows
that the controllers in charge of the traffic in 2035, which will have increased by
50%, would have to solve on average 27 conflicts per hour in a busy sector.
Maintaining separation between aircraft is usually referred to as the air con-
flict detection and resolution (CDR) problem. A conflict is a predicted loss of
separation, i.e., when two aircraft are too close to each other regarding predefined
horizontal and vertical separation distances of 5NM and 1000ft respectively. To
solve a conflict, the controllers issue maneuvers that can consist of speed, head-
ing or altitude changes. Given the current position, speed, acceleration and the


c Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 3
H.A. Le Thi et al. (eds.), Model. Comput. & Optim. in Inf. Syst. & Manage. Sci.,
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 359, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-18161-5_1
4 T. Lehouillier et al.

predicted trajectory of a set of aircraft, the CDR problem corresponds to iden-

tifying the maneuvers required to avoid all conflicts while minimizing the costs
induced.
The CDR problem is one of the most widely studied problems in air traffic
management. For a comprehensive coverage of the existing literature, the reader
may refer to the review in Martı̀n-Campo thesis [2]. Exact methods include op-
timal control, which can be associated with nonlinear programming. However,
these methods suffer from the sensitivity to the starting point of the resolution
and the high computational time. Mixed integer linear and nonlinear program-
ming (MILPs and MINLPs) techniques are often considered. Omer and Farges [3]
present a time-discretization of optimal control. Omer [4] also develops a space
discretization using the points of interest for the conflict resolution. Pallottino
et al. [5] develop MILPS solving the problem with speed changes and constant
headings or with heading changes and constant speeds. Alonso-Ayuso et al. [6]
develop a MILP that considers speed and altitude changes. However, MINLPs
suffer from high computational times and do not give any optimality guarantee
in finite time. Besides, the hypotheses made in MILPs to have linear constraints
may not work in all situation. Several heuristics were developed to find a so-
lution rapidly. Examples of techniques developed include ant colony algorithms
like in Durand and Alliot [7], variable neighborhood searches (see Alonso-Ayuso
et al. [8]). Other fast methods include particle swarm optimization, prescribed
sets or neural networks. Heuristics find a solution rapidly, but the hypotheses
can be restrictive and the convergence is not guaranteed. Graph theory is seldom
used in ATC. Generally, conflicts between aircraft are modeled by a graph whose
vertices represent the different aircraft and whose edges link pairs of conflicting
aircraft, like in Vela [9]. Barnier and Brisset [10] assign flight levels to aircraft
with intersecting routes by looking for maximum cliques in a graph where a
proper coloring of the vertices defines an assignment of all aircraft to a set of
flight levels.
The model presented in this article uses the concept of a clique in a graph,
which is a subset of the vertices where each pair of elements is linked by an edge.
Finding a maximum clique in an arbitrary graph is a well-known optimization
problem that is N P-hard. The problem has been thoroughly studied and several
methods, both exact and heuristic, have been developed. For a comprehensive
coverage on the subject, one can refer to Bomze et al. [11] and Hao et al. [12].
We formulate the air conflict detection and resolution problem as a new vari-
ant of the problem of finding a maximum clique of minimum weight in a graph.
To this end, we build a graph whose vertices represent a set of possible maneuvers
and where a clique yields a conflict-free solution involving all the aircraft. On
the one hand, our model is innovative due to the cost structure for the vertices.
With this model, we can maintain a reasonable size for the graph built, hence re-
ducing the computational time. On the other hand, our model significance relies
on its flexibility: a modification of the problem constraintes or objective func-
tion do not jeopardize the validity of the mathematical framework developed.
 Using Maximum Cliques to Solve Conflicts between Aircraft 5

Being flexible is critical in ATC: in addition to being able to cover more ground,
it will allow meaningful comparisons with existing models in the literature.

2 Problem Formulation
2.1 Modeling Aircraft Dynamics
To model the flight dynamics, we use the three-dimensional point-mass model
presented in the BADA user manual [13]. Aircraft follow their planned 4D trajec-
tory, which is a sequence of 4D points requiring time and space accuracy, leaving
the remainder of the trajectory almost unconstrained. The non-compliance with
this contract costs penalty fees to companies. As a consequence, an aicraft needs
to recover its initial 4D trajectory after performing a maneuver. We assume
that the planned speed for an aircraft corresponds to its nominal speed, i.e., the
speed minimizing the fuel burn rate per distance unit traveled using the model
described in [13].
Maneuvers are performed dynamically as described in [14], where the author
states that the typical acceleration during a speed adjustment is in the order
of 0.4kn/s. Heading changes are approximated by a steady turn of constant
rate and radius. The changes of flight level are performed with a vertical speed,
whose computation is detailed in [13], as a function of the thrust, drag, and true
airspeed.

2.2 On Cliques and Stables

Let G = (V, E) be an undirected, simple graph with a vertex set V and an edge
set E ⊆ V × V.
A clique in graph G is a vertex set C with the property that each pair of
vertices in C is linked by an edge:
C ⊆ V is a clique ⇔ ∀(u, v) ∈ C × C, (u, v) ∈ E (1)
A maximum clique in G is a clique that is not a subset of any other clique
in G. The cardinality of a maximum clique of G is called clique number and is
denoted by w(G). Let c : V → R be a vertex-weight function associated with G.
A maximum
 clique of minimum-weight in G is a maximum clique C that mini-
mizes c(v).
v∈C
A stable set S ⊆ V is a subset of vertices no two of which are adjacent.
A bipartite graph is a graph whose vertices can be partitionned into two distinct
stable sets V1 and V2 . Each edge of the graph connects one vertex of one stable
to a vertex in the other stable. This concept is extended to k−partite graphs,
where the vertex set is partitionned into k distinct stable sets.

2.3 Graph Construction

In this subsection, we introduce the graph G = (V, E) used to model the CDR
problem.
6 T. Lehouillier et al.

Defining the Vertices. Let F = 1; n denote the set of the considered aircraft.
We define M = ∪nf=1 Mf as the set of the possible maneuvers, Mf being the
set of maneuvers for aircraft f ∈ F . We consider both horizontal and vertical
maneuvers of the following types:
– NIL refers to the null maneuver, i.e., when no maneuver is performed;
– Hθ corresponds to a heading change by an angle θ ∈ [−π; π];
– Sδ corresponds to a relative speed change of δ%;
– Vδh denotes a change of δh flight levels.
A maneuver m ∈ M is described as a triplet (δχm , δVm , δF Lm ) corresponding
to the heading, speed and flight level changes induced by m. The set of vertices
is defined as V = 1; |M|, where |M| is the cardinality of set M. We note Vf
the set of vertices corresponding to aircraft f .
In emergency scenarios where the feasibility of the problem can be an issue, it
is possible to introduce n vertices corresponding to costly emergency maneuvers
to ensure the feasibility of the problem. However, since the feasibility was not an
issue for the tested instances, those vertices were not considered in this article.
The weight of the vertices correspond to the fuel consumption induced by the
corresponding maneuvers. We give further detail in Subsection 2.3.

Defining the Edges. Let (i, j) ∈ V × V be a pair of vertices representing

maneuvers (mi , mj ) ∈ M × M of aircraft (fi , fj ) ∈ F × F . For i = j, we
write mi 2mj when no conflict occurs if aircraft fi follows maneuver mi while
aircraft fj performs maneuver mj . The set of edges E corresponds to the pairs
of maneuvers performed by two different aircraft without creating conflicts:
E = {(i, j) ∈ V × V, i = j : mi 2mj } (2)
It is important to note that there is no edge between two different maneuvers
of a given aircraft, which yields Proposition 1.
Proposition 1. For all f ∈ F , Vf is a stable set, i.e there is no edge linking
two distinct vertices of Vf . Hence, the graph G is |F |-partite.
Let (i, j) ∈ V × V be a pair of vertices representing maneuvers (mi , mj ) ∈
M × M of aircraft (fi , fj ) ∈ F × F . The methodology used to compute if the
edge (i, j) is added to G is described with the following notations:
– T : time horizon for the conflict resolution;
– pfi (t) ∈ R3 : position vector of aircraft fi at time t. pfi ,x (t) pfi ,y (t) and
pfi ,z (t) denote respectively the abscissa, ordinate and altitude components
of the position vector;
– sfi (t) ∈ R3 : speed vector of aircraft fi at time t. sfi ,x (t) sfi ,y (t) and sfi ,z (t)
denote respectively the abscissa, ordinate and altitude components of the
speed vector;
– afi (t) ∈ R3 : acceleration vector of aircraft fi at time t. afi ,x (t) afi ,y (t) and
afi ,z (t) denote respectively the abscissa, ordinate and altitude components
of the acceleration vector;
– pfj (t), sfj (t) and afj (t) are also defined following the same notations.
 Using Maximum Cliques to Solve Conflicts between Aircraft 7

The definition of the maneuvers mi and mj applied to fi and fj is used

to project the aircraft trajectory over time. Aircraft fi and fj are said to be
separated at time t if and only if at least one of constraints (3) and (4) holds.
In this paper we choose Dh,min = 5NM and Dv,min = 1000ft.

dhfi fj (t)2 = (pfi ,x (t) − pfj ,x (t))2 + (pfi ,y (t) − pfj ,y (t))2 ≥ Dh,min
2
(3)
dvfi fj (t)2 = (pfi ,z (t) − pfj ,z (t)) ≥
2 2
Dv,min (4)

At any time t ∈ T , either none, one or both aircraft are maneuvering. T can
thus be divided into intervals where both fi and fj have a constant acceleration.
For each interval, we compute the time at which the aircraft are the closest
to verify if the separation constraints hold. Let Tk be one of these intervals.
Consider fi and t0 ∈ T be the starting time of maneuver mi . If we assume that
maneuver mi is applied with a constant acceleration, we obtain the position and
the speed vector of fi at time t0 + t with t such that t − t0 ≤ |Tk |:

(t − t0 )2
pfi (t0 + t) = pfi (t0 ) + (t − t0 )sfi (t0 ) + afi (t0 ) (5)
2
sfi (t0 + t) = sfi (t0 ) + (t − t0 )afi (t0 ) (6)

Let phfi fj (respectively shfi fj , ahfi fj ) denote respectively the horizontal position,
the speed and the acceleration of aircraft fj relatively to aircraft fi . We define

dhfi fj (t + τ ) = ||phfi fj (t + τ )||

τ2 h
= ||phfi fj (t) + τ shfi fj (t) + a (t)||
2 fi fj
where τ ≥ 0.
Let τfi fj ∈ argmin dhfi fj (t + τ )2 , and thfi fj ∈ argmin dhfi fj (t)2 .
τ ≥0 ⎧ t∈T
⎪
⎨0 if τfi fj = 0
We have: thfi fj = |T | if τfi fj ≥ |Tk |
⎪
⎩τ
fi fj otherwise
Aircraft fi and fj are horizontally separated during interval T if and only if
(7) holds:
dhfi fj (thfi fj )2 ≥ Dh,min
2
(7)
By a similar reasoning, aircraft fi and fj are vertically separated during in-
terval T if and only if (8) holds:

dvfi fj (tvfi fj )2 ≥ Dv,min

2
(8)

If either (7) or (8) holds when aircraft fi and fj apply maneuvers mi and mj ,
then an edge is created between i and j. As explained in 2.1, it is important that
every aircraft initiates a safe return towards its initial trajectory once the conflict
is avoided. For each edge, we compute the minimum time necessary before one
or both aircraft can recover their initial trajectories. The cost of the recovery of
a trajectory is detailed in Subsection 2.3.
8 T. Lehouillier et al.

Application to the CDR Problem. As mentioned in Section 1, given the cur-

rent position, speed, acceleration and the planned trajectories of a set of aircraft,
solving the CDR problem consists in finding a conflict-free set of maneuvers that
minimizes the costs. Proposition 2 links the cliques in G to the CDR problem:
Proposition 2. Let C be a clique in graph G. Then C represents a set of conflict-
free maneuvers for a subset of F of cardinality |C|.
Proposition 2 shows that finding a set of conflict-free maneuvers for F is
equivalent to finding a clique of G of cardinality |F |. We derive the following
theorem:

Theorem 1. If a conflict-free solution exists, then ω(G) = |F |. Otherwise, ω (G)

is the maximum number of flights involved in a conflict-free situation.

We define the problem CDRM as the restriction of the CDR problem to the
set of maneuvers M. Using both Proposition 2 and Theorem 1, we can state anew
the CDRM problem as follows: solving the CDRM problem consists in finding a
clique of maximum cardinality and minimal cost in graph G. In fact, we consider
a new variant of a clique problem where the weight associated with a vertex is not
known a priori and rather depends on the edges induced by the clique. Indeed,
the cost associated with a maneuver depends on the duration that this maneuver
will be performed before returning towards the planned trajectory. Because this
duration depends on the maneuvers selected for the other aircraft, it cannot be
determined a priori and must be computed as the maximum duration needed to
avoid a loss of separation with all other aircraft given their chosen maneuvers.
To handle such vertex costs, we first define edge costs.

Computing the Cost of the Edges. The cost measure chosen for this article
corresponds to the extra fuel consumption induced by the maneuvers, i.e., the
additional fuel required to return to the 4D trajectory after the maneuver is
performed. We use the model given in [13]. For a jet commercial aircraft f , the
fuel consumption by time and distance unit is given by (9) and (10):
 
Vf (t)
Ct,f (t) = c1,f 1 + FT,f (t) (9)
c2,f
Ct,f (t)
Cd,f (t) = (10)
Vf (t)

where c1,f and c2,f are numerical constants depending on the type of aircraft f .
We compute the cost of an edge e = (i, j) linking two vertices representing
two maneuvers of aircraft fi and fj , denoted mi and mj , as a pair constituted of
(i,j) (i,j)
the extra fuel costs for both fi and fj , denoted Ci and Cj . The additional
consumed fuel corresponds to the performed maneuver along with the fuel re-
quired to recover the inital 4D trajectory. After a change of speed of δ% during a
period δt, the aircraft recovers its 4D trajectory by making the opposite change
of speed during δt. After a change of direction δχ during a period δt, the aircraft
 Using Maximum Cliques to Solve Conflicts between Aircraft 9

performs a turn with an angle θr in order to recover its physical trajectory along
with a change of speed to retrieve the 4D trajectory. The cost induced is the
extra fuel burnt when the aircraft flies at the recovery speed and the fuel burnt
on the extra distance induced by the maneuver. For a flight level change, we
compute the extra cost as the difference of consumption between the different
flight levels, along with the cost of changing twice of flight level. The distance
flown is also longer, and this extra distance is also accounted for.

Computing the Cost of the Vertices. Several techniques can be followed in

order to determine the vertices cost. The basic one would be to discretize the
duration of the maneuver, and to create the vertices accordingly. In this situation,
computing the costs would be straight-forward. However, the drawback of this
method is that the graph built is huge, which could result in a difficult resolution.
We choose to follow another structure of cost because it is more compact in terms
of graph size.
Let us consider a vertex i which corresponds to a maneuver mi for an aicraft
fi . The cost of each edge linking i to one of its neighbors j, associated to a
maneuver mj for aircraft fj , corresponds to fi applying mi during a time tji ,
which depends on mj . Time tji is the minimum time during which fi must apply
mi in order to avoid any conflict if one or both aircraft return to their initial
(i,j)
trajectory. Following maneuver mi for a duration tji induces a cost Ci . If i is
part of the maximum clique C to be determined, we need to establish the time
ti during which maneuver mi is actually applied in order to determine its cost
ci . ti is obtained by:
ti = max tji (11)
j∈V∩C

As a consequence, we have that ci is the cost of aircraft fi applying mi dur-

ing ti . If i is not part of the maximum clique C, then no constraint is imposed
on the cost ci . As detailed in Section 3, the optimization model will automat-
ically⎧force the value of ci to 0. To conclude, we have that for any i ∈ V:
⎨ max C (i,j) if i ∈ C
i
ci = j∈V∩C
⎩0 otherwise

2.4 Illustrative Example

For the sake of clarity, an illustrative example with three aircraft is given in
Figure 1. If each aircraft follows its planned trajectory, conflicts will happen
between the blue aircraft and the two others. For this example, we assume that,
in addition to the null maneuver, only two heading changes (±30◦ ) are allowed.
We build the CDR graph shown in Figure 1(b). The graph is 3-partite, as the
vertex set is partitionned into 3 stable sets of 3 vertices each. Solving the CDR
is then equivalent to searching for a minimum-weight clique of 3 vertices, i.e., a
triangle.
10 T. Lehouillier et al.

30 0 -30

30 -30
0

30 -30
30

-30 0 0
-30
0

30 -30 30

(a) Illustrative example (b) Resulting graph G

Fig. 1. Illustrative example with three aircraft

3 Methodology
Determining the cost of a vertex i is very specific, since it is correlated to whether
or not i belongs to a maximum clique C. As a consequence, the algorithms usually
used in existing librairies dedicated to graph theory cannot be used for our model.
We formulate the problem as a mixed-integer linear program using the following
variables:
1 if vertex i is part of the maximum clique
– xi =
0 otherwise
– ci ∈ R+ is the cost of vertex i.
We describe the clique search by the following linear integer program:

minimize ci (12)
i∈V
subject to xi + xj ≤ 1, ∀(i, j) ∈ E (13)

xi = |F | (14)
i∈V
(i,j)
ci ≥ Ci (xi + xj − 1), ∀(i, j) ∈ E (15)
xi ∈ {0; 1}, ∀i ∈ V (16)
ci ∈ R+ , ∀i ∈ V (17)

The objective function (12) minimizes the cost of the maneuvers. (13) are
clique constraints, and constraint (14) exploits Theorem 1 defining the cardinal-
ity of the maximum clique. Constraints (15) are used to compute the cost of the
vertices: if a vertex is in the maximum clique, then its cost must be greater than
its cost on all edges connecting it to other vertices in the clique.
 Using Maximum Cliques to Solve Conflicts between Aircraft 11

4 Results
All tests were performed on a computer equipped with an Intel Core i7-3770
processor, 3.4 GHz, 8-GB RAM. The algorithms were implemented in C++ and
using CPLEX 12.5.1.01.
The headings of the tables presented in these section are given as follows:
– case: case configuration;
– |F |: number of aircraft;
– |V|: number of vertices;
– |E|: number of edges;
2|E|
– d = |V|(|V|−1) : graph density;
– n: number of variables;
– m: number of constraints;
– zip : optimal value for the problem;
– nodes: number of branch-and-bound nodes;
– tlp : time (in seconds) to continuous relaxation of the MILP;
– tip : time (in seconds) to obtain the zip value;

4.1 Benchmark Description

The benchmark used for this study gathers three types of instances. The first
set is roundabout instances Rn , where n aircraft are distributed on the circum-
ference of a 100NM radius and fly towards the center at the same speed and
altitude. The second set is crossing flow instances Fn,θ,d , where two trails of n
aircraft separated by d nautical miles intersect each other with an angle θ. The
last type of instance is a grid Gn,d constituted of two crossing flow instances
Fn, π2 ,d with a 90◦ angle, one instance being translated 15NM North-East from
the other. An example of these instances is given on Figure 2.

4.2 Computational Results

The first set of simulations considers only horizontal maneuvers, with relative
speed changes of ±3% and ±6% and heading changes of ±5◦ , ±10◦ , ±15◦. The
graph remains small when one considers this set of maneuvers, and their small
magnitude makes them less costly. Nevertheless, if these values were to be ineffi-
cient to solve all the conflicts, we could introduce maneuvers of larger magnitude.
Table 1 gathers information about the graph G, the MILP and the main com-
putational results. The solution time for the continuous relaxation is very small,
but the quality of the relaxation is mediocre. Indeed, the fractional solution of
the linear relaxation chooses two maneuvers for each aircraft with a value of
0.5. Constraints (15) force the cost of each vertex to be 0, yielding an optimal
value of 0 and a gap of 100%. Results also display short solution times: problems
known to be complex with 20 aircraft are solved to optimality in less than 15
seconds. This result is very satisfying since the density of the graph is high.
1
See the IBM-ILOG CPLEX v12.5. User’s manual for CPLEX.
12 T. Lehouillier et al.

(b) Crossing Flow

(a) Roundabout
(c) Grid

Fig. 2. Examples

Table 1. Dimensions of the instances and computational results

Graph G MILP Resolution

Instance type Case |F | |V| |E| d m n zip nodes tlp tip
R2 2 22 90 0.39 44 225 3.71 6 0 0.02
R4 4 44 492 0.52 88 1073 14.98 73 0 0.02
R6 6 66 1194 0.56 132 2521 22.7 0 0.01 0.15
R8 8 88 2184 0.57 176 4545 31.05 47 0.01 0.53
R10 10 110 3430 0.57 220 7081 112.7 208 0.05 1.56
Roundabout
R12 12 132 4944 0.57 264 10153 189.27 581 0.09 3.41
R14 14 154 6720 0.57 308 13749 224.75 183 0.1 6.98
R16 16 176 8896 0.57 352 18145 261.44 162 0.15 9.5
R18 18 198 11358 0.58 396 23113 636.7 257 0.21 12.1
R20 20 220 14027 0.58 440 28461 740.6 210 0.27 3.2
F5,30,10 10 110 4522 0.75 220 9265 49.08 405 0.02 1.5
F5,45,10 10 110 4518 0.75 220 9257 41.29 535 0.02 1.52
Flows F5,60,10 10 110 4478 0.75 220 9177 34.49 238 0.02 1.39
F5,75,10 10 110 4492 0.75 220 9205 30.66 496 0.02 1.34
F5,90,10 10 110 4528 0.76 220 9277 28.28 269 0.02 1.41
G2,3,10 12 132 6645 0.78 264 13555 57.65 564 0.01 3.64
Grids
G2,5,10 20 220 19724 0.82 440 39889 121.92 2740 0.2 12.7

In the second simulation set, we introduce altitude maneuvers: aircraft are

allowed to move to an adjacent flight level. Table 2 reports the main results.
The values of the optimal solutions for the roundabout instances remain the
same, highlighting that it is optimal to make simple turns instead of changing
flight levels. For the crossing flows and the grid instances, it is more efficient
for some aircraft to change their flight level instead of turning or changing their
speed. As a consequence, the solutions are less expensive. Solution times tend to
slightly increase, but the solution can still be computed in a short time. These
results are promising since the instances tested are denser than real-life instances.
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a point which His Majesty's Government can afford to concede.
I think it would have a deplorable effect in Cape Colony and
Natal to obtain peace by such a concession." Mr. Chamberlain
agreed with the High Commissioner, writing in reply: "His
Majesty's Government feel that they cannot promise to ask for
complete amnesty to Cape and Natal rebels who are in totally
different position to burghers without injustice to those who
have remained loyal under great provocation, and they are
prepared substantially to adopt your words, but you must
consider whether your last line is strictly applicable to
Natal." Mr. Chamberlain made numerous other criticisms of Lord
Kitchener's suggested letter, and amended it in many
particulars, the most important of which related to the form
of government under which the late republics would be placed.
Lord Kitchener would have said: "Military law will cease and
be at once replaced by civil administration, which will at
first consist of a Governor and a nominated Executive with or
without an advisory elected Assembly, but it is the desire of
His Majesty's Government, as soon as circumstances permit, to
establish representative Government in the Transvaal and
Orange River Colony." His political superior instructed him to
change the statement as follows: "For 'military law will
cease' say 'military administration will cease.' It is
possible that there may be disturbed districts for some time
after terms have been accepted, and Governor of Colonies
cannot abandon right of proclaiming martial law where
necessary. In the same sentence omit the words 'at the same
time' and 'at once' and substitute at the beginning the words
'at the earliest practicable date.' For 'consist of a
Governor' down to 'Assembly' read 'consist of a Governor and
an Executive Council composed of the principal officials with
a Legislative Council consisting of a certain number of
official members to whom a nominated unofficial element will
from the first be added.' In place of the words 'to establish
representative government' substitute 'to introduce a
representative element, and ultimately to concede to the new
Colonies the privilege of self-government.' It is desirable at
this stage to be quite precise in order to avoid any charge of
breach of faith afterwards."

Out of the instructions he received, Lord Kitchener finally

framed the following letter to Commandant Botha, sent to him
on the 7th of March: "With reference to our conversation at
Middelburg on 28th February, I have the honour to inform you
that in the event of a general and complete cessation of
hostilities and the surrender of all rifles, ammunition,
cannon, and other munitions of war in the hands of the
burghers or in Government depots or elsewhere, His Majesty's
Government is prepared to adopt the following measures:

"His Majesty's Government will at once grant an amnesty in the

Transvaal and Orange River Colonies for all bona fide acts of
war committed during the recent hostilities. British subjects
belonging to Natal and Cape Colony, while they will not be
compelled to return to those Colonies, will, if they do so, be
liable to be dealt with by the law of those Colonies specially
passed to meet the circumstances arising out of the present
war. As you are doubtless aware, the special law in the Cape
Colony has greatly mitigated the ordinary penalties for high
treason in the present cases.

"All prisoners of war now in St. Helena, Ceylon, or elsewhere

will, on the completion of the surrender, be brought back to
their country as quickly as arrangements can be made for their
transport.

"At the earliest practicable date military administration will

cease and will be replaced by civil administration in the form
of Crown Colony Government. There will therefore be, in the
first instance, in each of the new Colonies a Governor and an
Executive Council, consisting of a certain number of official
members, to whom a nominated unofficial element will be added.
But it is the desire of His Majesty's Government, as soon as
circumstances permit, to introduce a representative element
and ultimately to concede to the new Colonies the privilege of
self-government. Moreover, on the cessation of hostilities a High
Court will be established in each of the new Colonies to
administer the law of the land, and this Court will be
independent of the Executive.

"Church property, public trusts, and orphans funds will be

respected.

"Both the English and Dutch languages will be used and taught
in public schools where parents of the children desire it, and
allowed in Courts of Law.

"As regards the debts of the late Republican Governments, His

Majesty's Government cannot undertake any liability. It is,
however, prepared, as an act of grace, to set aside a sum not
exceeding £1,000,000 to repay inhabitants of the Transvaal and
Orange River Colonies for goods requisitioned from them by the
late Republican Governments, or, subsequent to annexation, by
Commandants in the field being in a position to enforce such
requisitions. But such claims will have to be established to
the satisfaction of a Judge or Judicial Commission appointed
by the Government to investigate and assess them, and if
exceeding in the aggregate £1,000,000, they will be liable to
reduction pro rata.

"I also beg to inform your Honour that the new Government will
take into immediate consideration the possibility of assisting
by loan the occupants of farms who will take the oath of
allegiance to repair any injury sustained by destruction of
buildings or loss of stock during the war, and that no special
war tax will be imposed on farmers to defray the expense of
the war.

"When burghers require the protection of fire-arms such will

be allowed to them by licence and on due registration,
provided they take the oath of allegiance. Licences also will
 be issued for sporting rifles, guns, &c., but military
firearms will only be allowed for means of protection.

{513}

"As regards the extension of the franchise to Kaffirs in the

Transvaal and Orange River Colony, it is not the intention of
His Majesty's Government to give such franchise before
representative government is granted to these Colonies, and if
then given it will be so limited as to secure the just
predominance of the white races. The legal position of
coloured persons will, however, be similar to that which they
hold in Cape Colony.

"In conclusion, I must inform your Honour that if the terms

now offered are not accepted after a reasonable delay for
consideration they must be regarded as cancelled."

On the 16th of March the following reply came from the Boer
Commandant: "I have the honour to acknowledge receipt of your
Excellency's letter stating what steps your Excellency's
Government is prepared to take in the event of a general and
total cessation of hostilities. I have advised my Government
of your Excellency's said letter; but, after the mutual
exchange of views at our interview at Middelburg on 28th
February last, it will certainly not surprise your Excellency
to know that I do not feel disposed to recommend that the
terms of the said letter shall have the earnest consideration
of my Government. I may add also that my Government and my
chief officers here entirely agree to my views." This ended
the negotiations.

A discussion of the negotiations in Parliament occurred on the

28th of March, when Mr. Bryce (Liberal) said "they were agreed
that the Government took an onward step when they allowed the
peace negotiations to be entered into, and it was important to
observe that, not only Lord Kitchener, but Sir Alfred Milner
was persuaded that General Botha meant business. It was
possible there were causes at work with which the House were
not acquainted which caused the negotiations to be broken off.
General Botha wrote to Lord Kitchener:—'You will not be
surprised to hear that my answer is in the negative.' One of
two things must have happened—either Lord Kitchener heard from
General Botha something that the House had not heard of, or
else General Botha was so much struck by the difference
between the terms which Lord Kitchener had discussed and the
terms contained in the letter that he conceived a distrust of
us altogether and believed that the Government would not
accept what Lord Kitchener had offered. He thought the
Government were right in asking that the oath of allegiance
should be taken, that they were entitled to insist upon the
provision that all hostilities must cease, and that they could
not pledge themselves as to the precise time when they would
bring back the prisoners. But there were three points on which
there were substantial differences between the terms Lord
Kitchener appeared to have offered and the terms in the final
letter. The first is the question of amnesty for the Cape
rebels. Lord Kitchener and General Botha appeared to have come
to an agreement on that subject. General Botha did not object
to the disfranchisement of the Cape rebels, and Lord Kitchener
did not appear to have conveyed any suggestion whatever of
anything except disfranchisement. He could conceive nothing
more likely to turn back the pacific desires of the Boers than
the fact that they found that, instead of the Cape rebels
having nothing but disfranchisement to fear, they were to be
held subject to the Cape laws as to treason. He was not
arguing whether that was right or wrong. The question was what
the Boers would think, and he put it to the House that it was
the most natural thing that they should be struck by the
contrast between the terms which Lord Kitchener appeared to
offer and the terms which were offered when the final letter
came, and that that was just the point upon which brave men,
feeling for their comrades, would be inclined to stand out.
They would be told that they would displease the loyalists at
the Cape if they did not exact all the penalties for treason.
He hoped they would never in that House consider it any part
of their business to satisfy the vindictive feeling of the
colonists at the Cape."

As to the difference between the terms of future government

for the inhabitants of the late republics proposed by Lord
Kitchener and those laid down by the Colonial Secretary, Mr.
Bryce said: "He should like to have known what the proposals
were that General Botha made with regard to a modified
independence, for he thought it was quite possible that it
might turn out in the long run that some kind of what was
called modified independence, protection, would be a great
deal easier for this country to work than a system of Crown
colony government. He thought the contrast between the
elective assembly which Lord Kitchener offered and the purely
arbitrary and despotic system which the final letter conveyed
must at once have struck the Boers as indicating the
difference between the views which the military man on the
spot entertained and the proposal which they might expect from
the Government. Of course there were objections to the
immediate grant of self-government. So also there were
objections to any course, and that course should be chosen
which was open to the fewest objections. But the proposal of
Crown colony government was, of all courses, the worst that
could be suggested. It had been suggested that members of the
Liberal party had asked for full-grown representative and
responsible government, but they never had suggested that.
What they had objected to was Crown colony government. They
admitted that when the war ended there must be an intermediate
period of administration, military or civil, but there was all
the difference in the world between an admittedly provisional
administration understood to be provisional and the creation
of the whole apparatus of Crown colony government. The Boer
population had an aversion to Crown colony administration,
associated in their minds with the days of Sir Owen Lanyon,
and an arbitrary form of government it was known to be. Of
 course it was arbitrary; honourable members who questioned
that could not know what Crown colony administration was. The
existence of a nominated council did not prevent it being
arbitrary inasmuch as the members were obliged to vote as they
were directed by the Governor. He could not help thinking that
Lord Kitchener might, if he were asked to do so, throw some
light on a remarkable expression in the letter from General
Botha in which he said, after the mutual interchange of views
at their meeting, Lord Kitchener would not be surprised to
learn that he was not disposed to recommend the terms
proposed."

{514}

The radical Mr. Labouchere was sharper in his criticism: "He

held that it was nonsense to call the terms offered to the
Boers liberal and lenient; they were neither. We had burnt
their farms and desolated their country, and then we offered
them a small gift of money to put them back on their farms
while we took away their independence and their flag. He
honoured the men who resisted, no matter at what cost, when
the question was the independence of their native land. How
right General Botha was in distrusting the alterations made by
the Secretary for the Colonies in the matter of the gift was
shown by the right honourable gentleman himself, when he said
that, whereas the gift was to be limited to a certain sum, the
loyalists were to be paid first. In that case what would
remain to the burghers of the two colonies? The position of
the Boers in the Empire under the terms of the Colonial
Secretary would be little better than that of Kaffirs. As far
as ultimate self-government was concerned, they were to put
their faith in the Colonial Secretary. If he might offer them
a word of advice it would be—Put no faith in the Colonial
Secretary; get it in black and white. We had lost a great
opportunity of ending the war and settling South Africa. Peace
won by the sword would create a dependency in which racial
feuds would go on and the minority would be maintained over
the majority by a huge British garrison. The Dutch majority
was certain to increase every decade. The Transvaal farmers
lived in a poor, rude manner which English people would not
accept. …

"He did not particularly admire the Boers. To his mind they
had too much of the conservative element in them; but, judging
between the Afrikanders and the English who went to South
Africa, whilst fully recognizing that among the latter there
were many respectable men, he thought, taking them
collectively, the Boers were the better men. If we wanted to
maintain our rule in South Africa the Boers were the safest
men with whom to be on good terms. What were the Boers ready
to do? As he read the correspondence, they were ready to enter
the area of the British Empire, but only upon terms. Surely
our problem was to find terms honourable to us and to them,
which would lead to South Africa becoming one of those great
commonwealths connected with the Empire such as existed in
Australia and Canada. He suggested that, in the first place,
we should offer a full and absolute amnesty. He urged that the
Orange State and the Transvaal should as soon as possible be
made self-governing colonies. The Orange State was regarded by
every Englishman who had written about it as a model State. As
to the Transvaal, he admitted there was a difficulty, but he
would suggest that the main area of the country should be
separated from the Rand. The Rand might be administered by a
governor, a military governor if they liked, while in the rest
of the country the Dutch would have a majority. If this course
were adopted, instead of our giving some sort of pecuniary aid
to the Transvaalers, they might be paid a reasonable rent for
the Rand district, of which they would be deprived. … They on
that side of the House would be perfectly ready to agree to
the establishment of a provisional government, military or
civil—he should himself prefer Lord Kitchener to Sir Alfred
Milner—to carry on the country while they were arranging for
the colony to be self-governing. They were accustomed to be
told that Sir Alfred Milner was a sort of divine pro-consul.
 He believed Sir Alfred Milner to be a most honourable man, and
very intelligent in many walks of life; but the truth was that
he began life as an Oxford don and then became an official in
the Treasury, facts which militated against his success in
practical politics. He believed that a man like Lord Dufferin
would do more for the cause of peace in South Africa than all
our soldiers."

SOUTH AFRICA: The Field of War: A. D. 1901 (February-April).

The High Commissioner, Sir Alfred Milner, on the situation
and prospects.
Leave of absence obtained by Sir Alfred.

A British Blue Book, made public in London on the 18th of

April, contains an interesting despatch from Sir Alfred
Milner, frankly reviewing the general situation in South
Africa, as it appeared to him on the 6th of February, when he
wrote, from Cape Town, and giving his forecast of future
prospects. The following are the more important passages of
the communication:

"A long time has elapsed since I have attempted to send to you
any general review of South African affairs. The reason is
twofold. In the first place, I am occupied every day that
passes from morning till night by business, all of which is
urgent, and the amount and variety of which you are doubtless
able to judge from the communications on a great variety of
subjects, which are constantly passing between us. In the next
place, I have always hoped that some definite point would be
reached at which it might be possible to sum up that chapter
of our history which contained the war, and to forecast the
work of administrative reconstruction which must succeed it.
But I am reluctantly forced to the conclusion that there will
be no such dividing line. I have not the slightest doubt of
the ultimate result, but I foresee that the work will be
slower, more difficult, more harassing, and more expensive
than was at one time anticipated. At any rate, it is idle to
 wait much longer in the hope of being able to describe a clear
and clean-cut situation. Despite the many other calls upon my
time, and despite the confused character of the present
position, I think it better to attempt to describe, however
roughly and inadequately, the state of things as it exists
to-day.

"It is no use denying that the last half-year has been one of
retrogression. Seven months ago this Colony was perfectly
quiet, at least as far as the Orange River. The southern half
of the Orange River Colony was rapidly settling down, and even
a considerable portion of the Transvaal, notably the
south-western districts, seemed to have definitely accepted
British authority, and to rejoice at the opportunity of a
return to orderly government, and the pursuits of peace.
To-day the scene is completely altered. It would be
superfluous to dwell on the increased losses to the country
caused by the prolongation of the struggle, and by the form
which it has recently assumed. The fact that the enemy are now
broken up into a great number of small forces, raiding in
every direction, and that our troops are similarly broken up
in pursuit of them, makes the area of actual fighting, and
consequently of destruction, much wider than it would be in
the case of a conflict between equal numbers operating in
large masses.
{515}
Moreover, the fight is now mainly over supplies. The Boers
live entirely on the country through which they pass, not only
taking all the food they can lay hands upon on the farms,
grain, forage, horses, cattle, &c., but looting the small
village stores for clothes, boots, coffee, sugar, &c., of all
which they are in great need. Our forces, on their side, are
compelled to denude the country of everything moveable, in
order to frustrate these tactics of the enemy. No doubt a
considerable amount of the stock taken by us is not wholly
lost, but simply removed to the refugee camps, which are now
being established at many points along the railway lines. But
even under these circumstances, the loss is great, through
animals dying on the route, or failing to find sufficient
grass to live upon when collected in large numbers at the
camps. Indeed, the loss of crops and stock is a far more
serious matter than the destruction of farm buildings, of
which so much has been heard. I say this not at all as an
advocate of such destruction. I am glad to think that the
measure is now seldom if ever resorted to. At the same time,
the destruction of even a considerable number of farms, having
regard to the very rough and inexpensive character of the
majority of these structures in the Orange River Colony and
Transvaal, is a comparatively small item in the total damage
caused by the war to the agricultural community.

"To the losses incidental to the actual course of the

campaign, there has recently been added destruction of a
wholly wanton and malicious character. I refer to the injury
done to the head-gear, stamps, and other apparatus of some of
the outlying mines by Boer raiders, whose sole object was
injury. For this destruction there is, of course, no possible
excuse. … Fortunately the damage done to the mines has not
been large, relatively to the vast total amount of the fixed
capital sunk in them. The mining area is excessively difficult
to guard against purely predatory attacks having no military
purpose, because it is, so to speak, 'all length and no
breadth'—one long thin line, stretching across the country
from east to west for many miles. Still, garrisoned as
Johannesburg now is, it is only possible successfully to
attack a few points in it. Of the raids hitherto made, and
they have been fairly numerous, only one has resulted in any
serious damage. In that instance the injury done to the single
mine attacked amounted to £200,000, and it is estimated that
the mine is put out of working for two years. This mine is
only one out of a hundred, and is not by any means one of the
most important. These facts may afford some indication of the
ruin which might have been inflicted, not only on the
Transvaal and all South Africa, but on many European
interests, if that general destruction of mine works which was
contemplated just before our occupation of Johannesburg had
been carried out. However serious in some respects may have
been the military consequences of our rapid advance to
Johannesburg, South Africa owes more than is commonly
recognized to that brilliant dash forward, by which the vast
mining apparatus, the foundation of all her wealth, was saved
from the ruin threatening it.

"The events of the last six or seven months will involve a

greater amount of repair and a longer period of recuperation,
especially for agriculture, than anybody could have
anticipated when the war commenced. Yet, for all that, having
regard to the fact that both the Rand and Kimberley are
virtually undamaged, and that the main engines of prosperity,
when once set going again, will not take very long to get into
working order, the economic consequences of the war, though
grave, do not appear by any means appalling. The country
population will need a good deal of help, first to preserve it
from starvation, and then, probably, to supply it with a
certain amount of capital to make a fresh start. And the great
industry of the country will need some little time before it
is able to render any assistance. But, in a young country with
great recuperative powers, it will not take many years before
the economic ravages of the war are effaced.

"What is more serious to my mind than the mere material

destruction of the last six months is the moral effect of the
recrudescence of the war. I am thinking especially of the
Orange River Colony, and of that portion of the Transvaal
which fell so easily into our hands after the relief of
Mafeking, that is to say, the country lying between
Johannesburg and Pretoria, and the border of Bechuanaland.
Throughout this large area the feeling in the middle of last
year was undoubtedly pacific. The inhabitants were sick of the
war. They were greatly astonished, after all that had been
dinned into them, by the fair and generous treatment they
 received on our first occupation, and it would have taken very
little to make them acquiesce readily in the new regime. At that
time too, the feeling in the Colony was better than I have
ever known it. The rebellious element had blown off steam in
an abortive insurrection, and was glad to settle down again.
If it had been possible for us to screen those portions of the
conquered territory, which were fast returning to peaceful
pursuits, from the incursions of the enemy still in the field,
a great deal of what is now most deplorable in the condition of
South Africa would never have been experienced. The vast
extent of the country, the necessity of concentrating our
forces for the long advance, first to Pretoria and then to
Komati Poort, resulted in the country already occupied being
left open to raids, constantly growing in audacity, and fed by
small successes, on the part of a few bold and skilful
guerrilla leaders who had nailed their colours to the mast.
The reappearance of these disturbers of the peace, first in
the south-east of the Orange River Colony, then in the
south-west of the Transvaal, and finally in every portion of
the conquered territory, placed those of the inhabitants who
wanted to settle down in a position of great difficulty.
Instead of being made prisoners of war, they had been allowed
to remain on their farms on taking the oath of neutrality, and
many of them were really anxious to keep it. But they had not the
strength of mind, nor, from want of education, a sufficient
appreciation of the sacredness of the obligation which they
had undertaken, to resist the pressure of their old companions
in arms when these reappeared among them appearing to their
patriotism and to their fears. …

{516}

"As the guerrilla warfare swept back over the whole of the
western Transvaal, and practically the whole of the Orange
River Colony, its effect upon the Cape Colony also became very
marked. There was a time, about the middle of last year, when
the bulk of the Dutch population in the Cape Colony, even
those who had been most bitter against us at the outset,
seemed disposed to accept the 'fait accompli,' and were
prepared to acquiesce in the union of all South Africa under
the British flag. Some of them even began to see certain
advantages in such a consummation. The irreconcilable line
taken in the Cape Parliament, during its recent Session from
July to October, was a desperate effort to counteract this
tendency. But I doubt whether it would have succeeded to the
moderate extent to which it has, had it not been for the
recrudescence of the war on the borders of the Colony, and the
embittered character which it assumed. Every act of harshness,
however necessary, on the part of our troops, was exaggerated
and made the most of, though what principally inflamed the
minds of the people were alleged instances of needless cruelty
which never occurred. Never in my life have I read of, much
less experienced, such a carnival of mendacity as that which
accompanied the pro-Boer agitation in this Colony at the end
of last year. And these libels still continue to make
themselves felt. …

"The present position of affairs, alike in the new territories

and in a large portion of the Cape Colony, if by no means the
most critical, is possibly the most puzzling that we have had
to confront since the beginning of the war. Naturally enough
the public are impatient, and those who are responsible for
the government of the country are bombarded with most
conflicting advice. On the one hand, there is the outcry for
greater severity and for a stricter administration of Martial
Law. On the other hand, there is the expression of the fear
that strict measures would only exasperate the people.
Personally, I am of the opinion, which I have always held,
that reasonable strictness is the proper attitude in the
presence of a grave national danger, and that exceptional
regulations for a time of invasion, the necessity of which
every man of sense can understand, if clearly explained and
firmly adhered to, are not only not incompatible with, but
actually conducive to, the avoidance of injustice and cruelty.
I am satisfied by experience that the majority of those Dutch
inhabitants of the Colony who sympathize with the Republics,
however little they may be able to resist giving active
expression to that sympathy, when the enemy actually appear
amongst them, do not desire to see their own districts
invaded, or to find themselves personally placed in the
awkward dilemma of choosing between high treason and an
unfriendly attitude to the men of their own race from beyond
the border. There are extremists who would like to see the
whole of the Cape Colony overrun. But the bulk of the farmers,
especially the substantial ones, are not of this mind. …

"The inherent vice, if I may say so, of almost all public

discussion of our South African difficulties is the tendency
to concentrate attention too exclusively upon the Boers. Say
what we will, the controversy always seems to relapse into the
old ruts—it is the British Government on the one hand, and the
Boers on the other. The question how a particular policy will
affect, not merely our enemies, but our now equally numerous
friends, seems seldom to be adequately considered. And yet it
would seem that justice and policy alike should lead us to be
as eager to consider the feelings and interests, and to retain
the loyalty, of those who are fighting on our side, as to
disarm the present enmity and win the future confidence of
those who are fighting against us. And this principle would
seem an the easier to adhere to because there is really
nothing which the great body of the South African loyalists
desire which it is not for the honour and advantage of the
Mother Country to insist upon. Of vindictiveness, or desire to
oppress the Afrikanders, there is, except in hasty utterances,
inevitable in the heat of the conflict, which have no
permanent significance, or in tirades which are wholly devoid
of influence, no sign whatever. The attitude of almost all
leading and representative men, and the general trend of
public feeling among the loyalists, even in the intensity of
the struggle, is dead against anything like racial
exclusiveness or domination. If this were not so, it would be
impossible for a section of pure bred Afrikanders, small no
doubt in numbers but weighty in character and position, to
take the strong line which they do in opposition to the views
of the majority of their own people, based as these are, and
as they know them to be, upon a misconception of our policy
and intentions. These men are among the most devoted adherents
to the Imperial cause, and would regard with more disfavour
and alarm than anyone the failure of the British nation to
carry out its avowed policy in the most complete manner. They
are absolutely convinced that the unquestioned establishment
of the British supremacy, and the creation of one political
system from Cape Town to the Zambesi, is, after all that has
happened, the only salvation for men of their own race, as
well as for others. Of the terms already offered, a great
majority, I believe, of the South Africans at present in arms
on our side entirely approve. There is, no doubt, an extreme
section who would advocate a sterner attitude on our part, but
they are not numerous, and their feelings are not lasting. The
terms offered by Lord Kitchener, which are, in substance,
identical with repeated declarations of policy on the part of
His Majesty's Government, are generally regarded as a generous
and statesmanlike offer, as one which, if firmly adhered to,
will ultimately be accepted, but as an offer which we cannot
afford to enlarge. On the other hand, there is a very general
desire that no effort should be spared to make the generous
character of our intentions widely known, and to encourage any
disposition on the part of the enemy to parley, with the object
of making them better acquainted with the terms on which we
are prepared to accept their submission.

"If I might sum up the predominant, indeed, the almost

unanimous feeling of those South Africans who sympathise with
the Imperial Government, I should describe it as follows:—They
are sick to death of the war, which has brought ruin to many of
them, and imposed considerable sacrifices on almost all. But
they would rather see the war continue for an indefinite time
than run the risk of any compromise which would leave even the
 remotest chance of the recurrence of so terrible a scourge in
the future. They are prepared to fight and suffer on, in order
to make South Africa, indisputably and for ever, one country
under one flag, with one system of government, and that system
the British, which they believe to ensure the highest possible
degree of justice and freedom to men of all races.
{517}
But, with that object accomplished, they are willing, and,
indeed, ready, to bury racial animosities. They have fought
against the principle of race oligarchy in one form, and they
do not wish to re-establish it in another. For the attainment
of that object, they would rely for the present on the
vigorous prosecution of the war in which they are prepared
themselves to take the most active part, coupled with every
inducement to the enemy to come in on the terms already
offered, and for the future, as soon as public security is
assured and the circumstances permit, on the extension to the
newly acquired territories of a system of Colonial
self-government. For my own part, I have no doubt that this
attitude is a wise one, and that it only requires persistence
in it, in spite of the discouraging circumstances of the
moment, to lead us to ultimate success."

Great Britain, Papers by Command, Cd. 547.

The same Blue Book made known the fact that, on the 3d of
April, Sir Alfred Milner applied for and obtained leave of
absence for three months from his duties in South Africa.

SOUTH AFRICA: The Field of War: A. D. 1901 (April).

The situation.

Early in April it was announced that the seat of government of

the South African Republic had been transferred from
Pietersburg to Leydsdorp in the Zoutpansberg by the
Vice-President, General Schalk-Burger, which seems to indicate
the beginning of another stage of the South African war. The
 Boers are said to have been for some time past collecting
great quantities of cattle and sheep in the fastnesses of the
Zoutpansberg, where also they have ample supplies of
ammunition, and intend making it a point of ultimate
resistance as well as a base of present operations.

SOUTH AFRICA: The Field of War: A. D. 1901 (April).

The cost of the war to Great Britain as stated
by the Chancellor of the Exchequer.

In his speech (April 18), on introducing the budget for 1901,

in the House of Commons, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Sir
Michael Hicks-Beach, made the following statements of the cost
of the war to Great Britain: "I would remind the Committee
that so far we have borrowed towards the cost of the war
£67,000,000—£13,000,000 Treasury bills, £10,000,000 Exchequer
Bonds maturing rather less than three years hence, £14,000,000
Exchequer Bonds maturing about five years hence, and
£30,000,000 War Loan maturing in 1910. Now, Sir, in what mode
may we fairly borrow such a large sum as we now require? This
can no longer be considered a small war. In cost it is a great
war. Let me just make a statement to the Committee as to what,
so far, the estimated cost of this war has been. In 1899-1900 the
Estimates were £23,217,000. Last year they were £68,620,000,
and this year's Estimates amount to £60,230,000, including in
each case the interest on the sums borrowed. That amounts to
over £152,000,000. I must ask the Committee to remember that
in those figures I include the cost of both the South African
and Chinese wars. Then I have to add a million and a quarter
for this year's borrowing, making in all over £153,000,000.
That is double the cost of the Crimean War, and when I look
back at the Peninsular War I find the two most expensive years
were 1813 and 1814. The forces engaged, of course, were very
much smaller than those engaged now; but in those two years
the total cost of our Army and Navy amounted to £144,581,000.
This amount is less than the charges of the South African and
Chinese wars. Therefore, I think I am justified in saying that
 in cost this has been a great war. I think, then, it is clear
we can no longer, in borrowing towards the cost of it, rely
upon temporary borrowing. We have already £67,000,000 of
unfunded debt borrowed for this purpose and maturing within
the next ten years. We have also some £36,000,000 of 2¾ and 2½
per cent., redeemable in 1905. Therefore, whatever may be the
prosperity of the country, whatever may be the condition of
our finances, it is perfectly obvious to my mind that the
stanchest advocate of the redemption of the debt will have
ample scope for his energies in the years that are now before
us. For this reason I propose to ask the Committee to extend
the powers of borrowing which they gave me in previous Acts,
to Consols."

----------SOUTH AFRICA: End--------

SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC, The.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL);

also,
CONSTITUTION (GRONDWET) OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN
REPUBLIC.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

See (in this volume)

AUSTRALIA; and CONSTITUTION OF AUSTRALIA.

SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1892-1899.

The Dispensary Law.

In 1892 the Legislature of South Carolina passed an Act,

commonly called the Dispensary Law, which caused turbulent
agitations in the State, and excited much interest in the
country at large. It was based upon the principle of what is
 known as the Gothenburg system of regulation for the sale of
intoxicating liquors, making the traffic a State monopoly,
carried on by officials, under rigorous restrictions, with
profit to the public treasury, and none else. It provided for
the creation of a State Board of Control, under the direction
of which a Commissioner, appointed by the Governor, should
purchase all intoxicating liquors allowed to be sold in the
State, and should furnish the same to such agents (called
"dispensers") in the several counties as might be appointed by
county boards to sell them, in accordance with the regulations
prescribed. It required all liquors purchased by the
Commissioner to be tested by an official chemist and declared
to be pure and unadulterated. It allowed nobody but the
official "dispensers" to deal in any manner with any kinds of
intoxicating liquors after the 1st of July, 1893. It forbade
the selling of such drinks by the authorized salesmen to
minors and drunkards, and it required all who bought to sign
and date a printed or written request, stating their residence
and age.

The law was fiercely resisted in many parts of the State by

mobs, and powerfully assailed in the courts; but Governor
(afterwards Senator) Tillman, who then occupied the executive
chair, gave it resolute enforcement and support. The attack in
the courts had momentary success in 1894, the Supreme Court of
the State rendering a decision adverse to the
constitutionality of the law; but, meantime, the Legislature,
in 1893, had made changes in the Act, and its new enactment
was held to be untouched by the judgment of the court.
{518}
Before a new case could be brought to issue, the retirement of
one of the justices of the Supreme Court brought about a
change of opinion in that tribunal, and the law in its new
form was sustained. Disorderly resistance to the enforcement
of the law was long kept up; but in the end such resistance
seems to have been mostly overcome.