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Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics 57
Yan Li
Deepak Goyal Editors
3D
Microelectronic
Packaging
From Fundamentals to Applications
Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics
Volume 57
Series Editors:
Kukjin Chun, Seoul, Korea, Republic of (South Korea)
Kiyoo Itoh, Tokyo, Japan
Thomas H. Lee, Stanford, CA, USA
Rino Micheloni, Vimercate (MB), Italy
Takayasu Sakurai, Tokyo, Japan
Willy M.C. Sansen, Leuven, Belgium
Doris Schmitt-Landsiedel, München, Germany
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/4076

The Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics provides systematic information
on all the topics relevant for the design, processing, and manufacturing of
microelectronic devices. The books, each prepared by leading researchers or
engineers in their fields, cover the basic and advanced aspects of topics such as
wafer processing, materials, device design, device technologies, circuit design,
VLSI implementation, and subsystem technology. The series forms a bridge
between physics and engineering and the volumes will appeal to practicing
engineers as well as research scientists.
Yan Li • Deepak Goyal
Editors
3D Microelectronic
Packaging
From Fundamentals to Applications
Editors
Yan Li Deepak Goyal
Intel Corporation Intel Corporation
Chandler, AZ, USA Chandler, AZ, USA
ISSN 1437-0387 ISSN 2197-6643 (electronic)

Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics
ISBN 978-3-319-44584-7 ISBN 978-3-319-44586-1 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-44586-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016954441
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.
Printed on acid-free paper
This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents
1 Introduction to 3D Microelectronic Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Yan Li and Deepak Goyal
2 3D Packaging Architectures and Assembly Process Design . . . . . . . 17
Ravi Mahajan and Bob Sankman
3 Materials and Processing of TSV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Praveen Kumar, Indranath Dutta, Zhiheng Huang,
and Paul Conway
4 Microstructural and Reliability Issues of TSV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Praveen Kumar, Indranath Dutta, Zhiheng Huang,
and Paul Conway
5 Fundamentals and Failures in Die Preparation
for 3D Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Hualiang Shi and Erasenthiran Poonjolai
6 Direct Cu to Cu Bonding and Other Alternative Bonding
Techniques in 3D Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Tadatomo Suga, Ran He, George Vakanas,
and Antonio La Manna
7 Fundamentals of Thermal Compression Bonding Technology
and Process Materials for 2.5/3D Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Sangil Lee
8 Fundamentals of Solder Alloys in 3D Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Kwang-Lung Lin
9 Fundamentals of Electromigration in Interconnects
of 3D Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Pilin Liu
v
vi Contents
10 Fundamentals of Heat Dissipation in 3D IC Packaging . . . . . . . . . . 245

Satish G. Kandlikar and Amlan Ganguly
11 Fundamentals of Advanced Materials and Processes
in Organic Substrate Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Songhua Shi and Peter Tortorici
12 Die and Package Level Thermal and Thermal/Moisture
Stresses in 3D Packaging: Modeling and Characterization . . . . . . . 293
Liangbiao Chen, Tengfei Jiang, and Xuejun Fan
13 Processing and Reliability of Solder Interconnections
in Stacked Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Paul Vianco
14 Interconnect Quality and Reliability of 3D Packaging . . . . . . . . . . 375
Yaodong Wang, Yingxia Liu, Menglu Li, K.N. Tu,
and Luhua Xu
15 Fault Isolation and Failure Analysis of 3D Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Contributors
Liangbiao Chen Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lamar University,

Beaumont, TX, USA
Paul Conway The Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical and Manufacturing
Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK
Indranath Dutta School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Washington
State University, Pullman, WA, USA
Xuejun Fan Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lamar University, Beau-
mont, TX, USA
Amlan Ganguly Computer Engineering Department, Rochester Institute of Tech-
nology, Rochester, NY, USA
Deepak Goyal Intel Corporation, Chandler, AZ, USA
Ran He The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Zhiheng Huang School of Materials Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen Uni-
versity, Guangzhou, China
Tengfei Jiang Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of
Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
Satish G. Kandlikar Mechanical Engineering Department, Rochester Institute
of Technology, Rochester, NY, USA
Praveen Kumar Department of Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Sci-
ence, Bangalore, India
Sangil Lee, Ph.D. Invensas Corporation, San Jose, CA, USA
Menglu Li Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of
California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, USA
Yan Li Intel Corporation, Chandler, AZ, USA
vii
viii Contributors
Kwang-Lung Lin Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National

Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, R.O.C.
Pilin Liu Intel Corporation, Chandler, AZ, USA
Yingxia Liu Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of
Ravi Mahajan High Density Interconnect Pathfinding, Assembly Technology,
Intel Corporation, Chandler, AZ, USA
Antonio La Manna IMEC Consortium, Leuven, Belgium
Erasenthiran Poonjolai Intel Corporation, Chandler, AZ, USA
Bob Sankman High Density Interconnect Pathfinding, Assembly Technology,
Hualiang Shi Intel Corporation, Chandler, AZ, USA
Songhua Shi Medtronic, Tempe, AZ, USA
Tadatomo Suga The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Peter Tortorici Medtronic, Tempe, AZ, USA
K. N. Tu Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Cali-
fornia, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, USA
George Vakanas Intel Corporation, Chandler, AZ, USA
Paul Vianco Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA
Yaodong Wang Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of
Luhua Xu Intel Corporation, Chandler, AZ, USA
About the Authors
Deepak Goyal graduated (Ph.D.) from State University of New York, Stony Brook,
and joined Intel as a Failure Analysis Engineer. He is currently the Technical Leader of
the Assembly and Test Technology Development (ATTD) Failure Analysis Labs at
Intel, supporting the materials and failure analysis of all assembly technology devel-
opment at Intel and developing the next generation of analytical tools and techniques.
He is an expert in the failure analysis of packages and has taught Professional
Development courses on Package FA/FI and failure mechanisms at the ECTC from
2003 to present. He has won two Intel Achievement Awards and around 25 Division
Recognition Awards at Intel. He has around 50 publications and has been awarded
three patents and has ten patents filed. He was the chair of the Package and Interconnect
Failure Analysis Forum sponsored by the International Sematech. He is a senior
member of the IEEE. He has coauthored a chapter titled “Applications of terahertz
technology in the semiconductor industry” in the Handbook of Terahertz Technology
for Imaging, Sensing and Communications, 2013. He has also coauthored and edited
two chapters for a book titled Characterization and Metrology for Nanoelectronics and
Nanostructures, which will be published in November 2016.
Yan Li is currently a senior staff packaging engineer in the Assembly Test and
Technology Development Failure Analysis Lab of Intel Corporation located in
Chandler, Arizona. She joined Intel in 2006, and her work focuses on the quality
and reliability of electronic packages, fundamental understanding of failure modes
and failure mechanisms of electronic packages, and developing new tools and
techniques for fault isolation and failure analysis of electronic packages. Yan
received her Ph.D. in materials science and engineering from Northwestern Univer-
sity in 2006 on studies related to the synthesis and characterization of boron-based
nanowires and nanotubes. She is actively involved in professional associations, such
as Minerals, Metals and Materials Society (TMS), American Society for Metals
(ASM) International, and Electronic Device Failure Analysis Society (EDFAS),
serving as conference organizers and session chairs for more than 5 years.
ix
Chapter 1
Introduction to 3D Microelectronic
Packaging
1.1 Introduction
Microelectronic packaging is the bridge between the Integrated Circuit (IC) and the
electronic system, which incorporates all technologies used between them
[1]. Advanced 3D microelectronic packaging technology is the industry trend to
meet portable electronics demand of ultra-thin, ultra-light, high performance with
low power consumption. It also opens up a new dimension for the semiconductor
industry to maintain Moore’s law with a much lower cost [1–3].
A wide variety of real products assembled by the advanced 3D packaging
technology have been unveiled in the recent years. For example, the Apple A7
inside the iPhone 5S, introduced in September 2013, is a 3D package with Package
on Package (POP) configuration [4]. As displayed in Fig. 1.1, the wire bond Elpida
(now Micron) memory (low power double data rate type-3 (LPDDR3) mobile
random access memory (RAM)) package is stacked on top of the Apple A7 flip-
chip package to achieve better performance with smaller form factor. In early 2014,
SK Hynix announced its high bandwidth memory (HBM) products having higher
bandwidth, less power consumption, and substantially small form factor, achieved
by stacking up to eight DRAM dice interconnected through Through Silicon Vias
(TSV) and micro-bumps [5]. In July of 2015, AMD introduced the AMD Radeon™
Fury graphics cards, the first Graphic Processing Unit (GPU) to implement HBM by
TSVs and micro-bumps [6]. Figure 1.2 shows a top-down and schematic cross-
sectional view of the advanced 3D package. The big GPU die is integrated into the
Si interposer along with four HBM memory stacks by micro-bumps and TSVs to
ensure faster and shorter connection between chips [6]. These real products bring
Y. Li (*) • D. Goyal
e-mail: yan.a.li@intel.com
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 1

Y. Li, D. Goyal (eds.), 3D Microelectronic Packaging, Springer Series in Advanced
Microelectronics 57, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-44586-1_1
2 Y. Li and D. Goyal
Fig. 1.1 POP inside iPhone 5s. (a) Top view of the Apple A7 package, (b) schematic of the cross-
sectional view (not in scale), (adapted from Ref. [4])
Fig. 1.2 Top view (a) and schematic cross-sectional view (not in scale), (b) of the AMD
Radeon™ Fury. The big GPU die is integrated into the Si interposer along with four HBM
memory stacks by micro-bumps and TSVs (adapted from Ref. [6])
the 3D packaging techniques from paper to reality and indicate the extensive
applications of 3D packaging technology to microelectronics.
3D packaging technology involves multiple disciplines, for example, materials
science, mechanical engineering, physics, chemistry, and electrical engineering. A
technical book, which could provide a comprehensive scope of 3D microelectronic
packaging technology is desirable for graduate students and professionals in both
academic and industry area. Current available books on 3D integration typically
focus on processing of wafers, especially TSV fabrication, and do not cover other
key elements in 3D packaging. This book is proposed to fill in the gap. It presents a
thorough extent of 3D packaging, covering the fundamentals of interconnects,
bonding process, advanced packaging materials, thermal management, thermal
mechanical modeling, architecture design, quality and reliability, and failure anal-
ysis of 3D packages, which are critical for the success of advanced 3D packaging.
This chapter provides detailed illustration of motivations as well as various
architectures of 3D packaging. Challenges in 3D packaging, including fabrication,
1 Introduction to 3D Microelectronic Packaging 3
assembly, cost, design, modeling, thermal management, material, substrate, quality,

reliability, and failure analysis, are reviewed with brief introduction to the chapters
addressing these challenges.
1.2 Why 3D Packaging
1.2.1 Moore’s Law
Since Intel introduced the world’s first single-chip microprocessor, the Intel 4004,
in 1971, an exponential growth of ICs has been observed following Moore’s law in
terms of transistor number per chip [7]. As illustrated in Fig. 1.3, the number of
transistors per Si chip doubles approximately every 18 months, resulting in a
straight line on a log scale [7, 8]. In 1990, the bipolar transistor technology switched
to CMOS in order to reduce thermal power, circuit size, and manufacturing costs, at
the same time increase the operating speed and energy efficiency [3]. In the early
2000s, multi-core processors were developed to address the challenging thermal
power issue in conventional single-core processors [3]. Since multi-core processors
require enormous cache capacity and memory bandwidth to achieve the designed
performance, 3D packaging becomes one of the viable solutions to provide the
required cache and bandwidth with a relatively low cost [3].
Fig. 1.3 Moore’s law predicts the exponential growth of ICs since 1970s (adapted from Ref. [8])
Fig. 1.4 The exponential growth of lithography equipment cost since 1970s (adapted from Ref.
[8])
The conventional method to maintain Moore’s law is to decrease the dimensions

of components by lithography, which is becoming more and more sophisticated and
expensive [8]. Figure 1.4 illustrates the exponential growth of lithography equip-
ment cost since 1970s, which presents an economic challenge as the capital cost
rises faster than semiconductor industry revenue [8]. 3D integration technology,
which has been recognized as an enabling technology for future low cost ICs,
provides the third dimension to extend Moore’s law to ever higher density, more
functionality, better performance with lower cost [3].
1.2.2 Small Form Factor Requires 3D Packaging
Market demands of small form factor microelectronics head to 3D packages, which

are ultra-light, ultra-thin, and with small chip footprint. Si chips in 3D packages are
typically 50–100 μm thick, about 90 % thinner compared with those in conventional
packages. Substrate core thickness of 3D packaging is about 0–100 μm, more than
90 % thinner than that of traditional packaging. High density interconnects in 3D
packaging are on the order of 5–20 μm in diameter, more than 90 % smaller than
those in 2D packaging. Thus, tremendous reduction in size and weight could be
achieved by replacing conventional packaging with 3D technology [2].
Small form factor requires small chip footprint, which is defined as the printed
circuit board area occupied by the Si chip, as illustrated in Fig. 1.5 [2]. By stacking
multiple dice on top of each other using 3D packaging techniques, the chip footprint
could be reduced dramatically. Figure 1.5 schematically demonstrates the differ-
ence between conventional 2D packages and 3D packages
Fig. 1.5 (a) Schematic illustration of the footprint difference between conventional 2D packages
(a) and 3D packages (b) (adapted from Ref. [2])
Fig. 1.6 Schematic comparison between the wiring length in 2D packages (a) and 3D packages
(b) (adapted from Ref. [2])
1.2.3 Improved System Performance with Reduced Power
Interconnect length in 3D packages can be significantly reduced compared with

conventional 2D packaging [2]. Figure 1.6a shows a typical interconnect length of
4 mm in a 2D package. The interconnect length could be reduced to 200 μm in a 3D
package as demonstrated in Fig. 1.6b. Additionally, 3D packaging can also greatly
improve the interconnect usability and accessibility [2]. Figure 1.7 shows a compar-
ison between 2D and 3D packaging in terms of the accessibility and usability of
interconnection. In contrast to eight neighbors to the center element in the case of 2D
packaging technology, the utilization of a 3D packaging configuration provides access
to 116 neighbors within an equal interconnect length to a center element in the stack.
The significant decrease in interconnect length as well as dramatic improvement
in interconnect usability and accessibility result in much less delay in 3D devices,
which is primarily limited by the time taken for the signal to travel along the
Fig. 1.7 Schematic comparison between 2D packages (a) and 3D packages (b) in terms of the
interconnect accessibility and usability (adapted from Ref. [2])
interconnects [2]. Low latency and wide buses in 3D microelectronic systems lead
to significant improvement to the system bandwidth [2]. Noise in well-designed 3D
microelectronic systems, including reflection noise, crosstalk noise, simultaneous
switching noise, and electromagnetic interference, can be reduced as a result of the
reduction of interconnection length [2]. Additionally, as the parasitic capacitance in
microelectronic packages is proportional to the interconnection length, the total
power consumption in 3D packages is also reduced because of the reduced parasitic
capacitance [2]. The power saving achieved by 3D technology enables 3D devices
to perform at a faster rate or transition per second (frequency) with less power
consumption. The overall system performance is greatly improved by applying 3D
packaging technology [2].
1.3 3D Microelectronic Packaging Architectures
The various 3D packaging architectures could be divided into the following three
categories: die-to-die 3D integration, package-to-package 3D integration, and
heterogeneous 3D integration combining both package and die stacking [3, 9,
10]. Chapter 2 discusses different 3D packaging architectures in detail along with
assembly and test flows.
1.3.1 Die-to-Die 3D Integration
Die-to-die 3D integration is enabled by through silicon via (TSV) interconnections

and thinned die-to-die bonding [3]. As illustrated in Fig. 1.8, two memory dice are
stacked on top of a logic die with TSVs and micro-bumps. First Level Interconnect
Fig. 1.8 Schematic illustration of die-to-die 3D integration enabled by TSV and thinned die-to-
die bonding (adapted from Ref. [10])
(FLI) solder joints connects the logic die with the substrate, while Second Level
Interconnect (SLI) solder joints provides the connection between this 3D package
to the Printed Circuit Board (PCB) [10]. The TSVs are formed by laser drilling or
deep reactive ion etching, followed by liner deposition and copper fill. There are
three typical manufacturing processes for TSVs, Via First, Via Middle, and Via
Last [11–13]. The detailed process flow of each process as well as the Pros and
Cons of each process are discussed in Chaps. 2 and 3.
Die-to-die bonding is implemented by either Thermal Compression Bonding
(TCB) process for solder micro-bumps or other alternative bonding process, for
example, Cu-Cu bonding. Conventional solder mass reflow process in 2D packages,
which includes flux dispensing, die attaching, and solder reflow in ovens, is not able
to assemble advanced 3D packages having much thinner dice and organic packages,
along with much smaller and denser interconnects. As the extent of warpage from
both dice and substrates at the reflow temperature overcomes solder surface tension,
leading to die misalignment, and results in die tilting, solder joint non-contact
opens, and solder bump bridging [14]. TCB bonding process is developed to replace
the conventional solder mass reflow process for solder-based micro-bump assembly
in 3D packages. As illustrated schematically in Fig. 1.9, the substrate with
pre-applied flux is kept flat on hot pedestal under vacuum to eliminate the substrate
warpage. The die is picked up by the bond head, secured and kept flat with vacuum
Fig. 1.9 Schematic illustration of a typical thermal compression bonding process (adapted from
Ref. [14])
to remove any incoming die warpage. After the die is precisely aligned to the
substrate, the bond head with die touches the substrate. A constant bond force is
then applied on the die through the bond head, while the die is heated up rapidly
beyond the solder melting temperature, with a ramping rate higher than 100 C/s. As
soon as the solder joints melt, the die is moved further down to ensure all the solder
joints are at the same height. The die is held in this position long enough so that the
solder joint forms between the die and the substrate. While the solder is still in the
molten state, the bond head with die could retract upwards to control the solder joint
height. Subsequently, the solder joints are cooled abruptly below the solidus tem-
perature, with a cooling rate of more than 50 C/s, followed up with die release from
the bond head [14]. Unlike the traditional solder mass reflow process, with up to
10 min of process time for units in batches, the TCB bonding process assemble units
one by one with about a couple of seconds per unit [14]. Additionally, thermal
ramping rates during both the heating and cooling cycles are much higher than the
conventional method. These higher rates result in solder grain size and orientation
differences that can affect mechanical properties as detailed in Chap. 7.
Solder-based micro-bumps are more compliant, thus could compensate bump
height variations, lack of co-planarity, and misalignment issues during high volume
manufacture. However, the TCB process peak temperature needs to be higher than the
melting point of solder material, typically in the range of 250–300 C, which brings
more assembly and reliability challenges. Additionally, solder bridging risk gets much
higher as bump pitch shrinks from more than 100 μm to less than 40 μm. Alternative
bonding process, like direct Cu to Cu bonding, which could address interconnects with
Fig. 1.10 Schematic illustration of package-to-package 3D integration (adapted from Ref. [3])
less than 5 μm bump pitch, and assemble at relatively lower temperature is very
promising. Various types of alternative bonding process is reviewed in Chap. 6 as well
as Pros and Cons comparing with solder-based TCB process.
1.3.2 Package-to-Package 3D Integration
System in Package (SIP) and Package on Package (POP) are typical configurations
of package-to-package 3D integration, which is enabled by stacking packages
through wire bonding or flip-chip bonding [3]. Comparing to die-to-die stacking,
package-to-package stacking technique has a shorter development cycle, thus help
bring products to market faster with a low price. As displayed in Fig. 1.10, a wire
bonding package is stacked on top of the other wire bonding package by flip-chip
bonding. The two packages are then stacked on a flip-chip package to form a POP.
The conventional solder mass reflow process could still be used in package-to-
package stacking if the package warpages are within control, and the interconnect
size and density is comparable with traditional 2D packages. However, market
demands require packages to be ultra-thin, which limit the number of packages that
could be stacked together. Additionally, solder joints and package materials in SIP
and POP need to go through multiple cycles of reflow, bringing process and
reliability challenges, like solder joint open, delamination between multiple layers
in packages, and moisture control between each reflow process. Chapter 13 dis-
cusses in detail the processing and reliability of stacked packaging technique, as
well as the Pros and Cons comparing with die stacking.
1.3.3 Heterogeneous 3D Integration
Depending on product needs, complex 3D packages can have the combination of

both die stacking and package stacking [10]. As shown in Fig. 1.11, a 3D Dynamic
Random Access Memory (DRAM) package formed by stacking four memory dice
Fig. 1.11 Schematic illustration of 3D packaging architectures having the combination of both
die stacking and package stacking (adapted from Ref. [10])
Fig. 1.12 Schematic illustration of Silicon interposer technology providing connection between
chips and stacked dice through TSVs (adapted from Ref. [10])
on top of the logic die through TSVs and micro-bumps is integrated along with a
flip CPU chip by package stacking. FLIs between the CPU chip and the 3D
package, MLIs between the DRAM package and the 3D package, as well as
interconnects in the substrate provide connection between the CPU chip and the
DRAM package [10]. Smaller and denser interconnects between chips and pack-
ages are highly desired for better performance, higher bandwidth, and lower power
consumption. Figure 1.12 demonstrates the Silicon interposer technology, which
could provide better connection between chips and stacked dice through TSVs
[10, 15]. Embedded Multi-Die Interconnect Bridge (EMIB) technology is an
alternative approach to provide localized high density interconnects between dice
without TSVs [16]. As illustrated in Fig. 1.13, the link between dice is provided by
fine Cu interconnects in Si bridges embedded in the organic substrate and confined
denser FLIs between Si bridges and chips. Comparing with Si interposer technol-
ogy, EMIB technology is able to provide similar performance with a much lower
cost, thus opens up new opportunities for heterogeneous 3D packaging [16].
Fig. 1.13 Schematic illustration of Embedded Multi-Die Interconnect Bridge (EMIB) technology
providing localized high density interconnects between chips without TSVs (adapted from Ref.
[16])
1.4 3D Microelectronic Packaging Challenges
1.4.1 Assembly Process, Yield, Test, and Cost Challenges
3D packaging involves more challenging assembly steps than conventional pack-

aging, such as TSV wafer fabrication and die singulation process (reviewed in
Chap. 5), TCB of micro-bumps (discussed in Chap. 7), and multiple solder reflow
process for POP (refer to Chap. 13). The complicated process results in yield, test,
and cost challenges [2], which could be addressed by redundancy or fault-tolerant
designs, throughput time (TPT) improvement of assembly process, and minimize
process steps based on product quality and reliability requirement [2], [3].
1.4.2 Thermal Management, Package Design, and Modeling

Challenges
The 3D integration of heat generation components in close vicinity increases the

heat flux density as well as complexity of coolant routing, thus leads to big
challenges to the thermal management of 3D packaging [2, 3]. Chapter 10 presents
the fundamentals of heat transfer along with advanced guidelines helpful to address
the issue.
Due to the increased system complexity, designing 3D packages could be very
challenging, but could be addressed by designing and developing design software
[2]. In addition to increased system complexity, 3D packaging involves multilevels
of solder joints, underfill, and molding compounds. Thermal stress due to the
mismatch in coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE) and hygroscopic stress caused

by excessive moisture absorption are often combined together, which complicates
the stress modeling in 3D packaging [17, 18]. For interconnects with a couple of
micrometer in diameter, like TSVs, it is found that microstructure, anisotropy of
material properties, recrystallization, and time-dependent phase morphological
evolution need to be considered during stress modeling [19]. Chapters 4 and 10
provide through discussions on the modeling of thermal mechanical and moisture
stresses in 3D packaging.
1.4.3 Material and Substrate Challenges
3D packages typically have smaller interconnect size, tighter bump pitch, and
reduced chip gap, which brings challenges to underfill, chip attachment, and deflux
process. Additionally, the TCB process widely used in the chip attachment of 3D
packages is very different from the conventional mass reflow process, as the whole
bonding cycle completes in a few seconds rather than over 10 min [14]. Major
modification of traditional underfill and flux material is essential to prevent
underfill process, flux residue, and interconnect integrity-induced yield loss, such
as underfill voids, delamination because of flux residue, solder bump bridging, or
non-wets. Chapter 7 reviews the material challenges and provides guidelines for
epoxy and flux material selection.
To enable the highly integrated 3D packaging, both substrate and PCB need to
fulfill the much higher signal and power density requirements. Smaller substrate
vias, through holes (TH), and traces, along with much tighter pitches are desired.
Furthermore embedded components, including both Si chip and packages, integrat-
ing into substrates or PCB is one of the approaches to achieve the product minia-
turization with higher performance and lower power consumption goal. These
results in significant challenges in substrate warpage control and flawless fabrica-
tion process to enable much finer interconnect size and pitch. Chapter 11 reviews
the substrate material and fabrication technology evolution, along with general
recommendations in selecting and applying appropriate material and process tech-
nologies for 3D packaging.
1.4.4 Quality, Reliability, and Failure Analysis Challenges
Complex 3D packages have multiscale interconnects ranging from a few to

1000 micrometers. For instance, TSVs and micro-bumps are about a couple of
micron in diameters, while the SLI connecting packages to the PCB could be up to
1000 μm in diameter. During 3D integration, interconnects need to go through
multiple solder reflow process, defects generated during fabrication and assembly,
CTE mismatch between different materials, and microstructure evolution in
interconnects could lead to new quality and reliability issues. Additionally, the
extended application of 3D packaging in products requiring much higher reliability,
for instance, Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS), avionics, and high-end
servers brings extra challenges to the quality and reliability of 3D packages.
Chapters 3 and 4 review the quality and reliability of TSVs. Chapter 9 reviews
the electro migration concerns in interconnects of 3D packages. Focusing on the
reliability of multilevel solder joints in stacked packages, Chap. 13 explains the
different reliability requirements between consumer electronics and high-reliability
electronics. It also provides detailed discussions of use conditions, the roles of
encapsulants and underfills, reliability tests and modeling to address complex
reliability concerns in 3D packages. Chapter 14 provides an overview of quality
and reliability of 3D packaging and demonstrates with case studies, along with field
performance prediction.
Failure analysis is critical for the technology development of 3D packaging, as
in-depth root cause analysis of failures provides solution paths for resolving quality
and reliability issues. Due to the complexity of 3D packages, Fault Isolation
(FI) and Failure analysis (FA) become very challenging. First of all, multiple
failures could exist in one unit post-reliability tests, flawless failure analysis on
each failure requires nondestructive high-resolution techniques, including fault
isolation, imaging, and material analysis. Additionally, each electrical failure in a
3D package could come from various dice, assembly layers or interconnects, high-
resolution fault isolation techniques, which could provide 3D information of defects
are highly desired. After the identification of defects, physical failure analysis needs
to be performed for the root cause study. However interconnects in 3D packages,
like TSVs, have small diameters (2–10 μm) and long lengths (40–200 μm), artifact
free cross-sectional techniques with short throughput time is critical for character-
izing small defects in a relatively large cross-sectional plane. Chapter 15 reviews
advanced high-resolution nondestructive FI and FA techniques, such as Electro
Optic Terahertz Pulse Reflectometry (EOTPR), 3D X-ray Computed Tomography
(CT), Lock-in Thermography (LIT), and acoustic microscopy. The applications of
novel physical sample preparation techniques and various material analysis
methods in 3D packaging failure analysis are also discussed. It also provides
guidelines for building up efficient 3D packaging FI-FA flow and performing
in-depth root cause studies, along with case study demonstration.
1.4.5 Summary
3D packaging has provided a new dimension for semiconductor industry to main-

tain Moore’s law with much lower cost and has been adopted as an effective
approach to provide portable microelectronics with better performance, smaller
power consumption, and less cost. There has been numerous novel technological
innovations invented for the development of advanced 3D packaging in the recent
years. However, due to the much smaller and denser interconnects, complicated
assembly process, unique TSV and micro-bump TCB process, and the extended
application in high-reliability products, there are tremendous challenges in highly
integrated 3D packaging.
Chapters in this book are written by experts from both academia and semicon-
ductor industry. Chapter 2 provides an insightful overview of 3D packaging
architecture and assembly process design. Chapters 3, 4, and 5 focus on the
fundamentals of TSV processing, reliability, and mechanical properties. Chapters
6 and 7 discuss the fundamentals of thermal compression bonding of micro-bumps,
process materials, direct Cu to Cu bonding, and other alternative interconnects in
3D packaging. Chapters 8 and 9 provide fundamentals of solder alloys and electro
migration in interconnects of 3D packages. Chapter 10 presents a thorough review
of thermal management in 3D packaging. Chapter 11 displays in great details the
fundamentals of substrate materials and manufacture process. Chapter 12 covers the
thermal mechanical and moisture modeling in 3D packaging. Chapters 13, 14, and
15 illustrate a comprehensive overview of quality, reliability, fault isolation, and
failure analysis of advanced 3D packages. Readers could obtain all-around knowl-
edge about 3D packaging, including the fundamentals, developing areas, technique
gaps, and guidelines for future research and development.
Acknowledgement The editors would like to thank John Elmer from Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory for his critical review of this chapter.
References
1. I. Szendiuch, Radioengineering. 20(1), 214 (2011)

2. S.F. Al-sarawi, D. Abbott, P.D. Franzon, IEEE Trans. Comp. Packag. Manufact. Technol. 21
(1), 2 (1998)
3. J.Q. Lu, Proc. IEEE 97(1), 18 (2009)
4. J.H. Lau, Chip Scale Rev. 18(1), 32 (2014)
5. L. Li, P. Chia, P. Ton, M. Nagar, S. Patil, J. Xue, J. DeLaCruz, M. Voicu, J. Hellings,
B. Isaacson, M. Coor, R. Havens, in Conference Proceedings from the 66th Electronic
Components and Technology Conference. (ECTC), Las Vegas, 31 May–3 June 2016, p. 1445
6. C. Lee, C. Hung, C. Cheung, P. Yang, C. Kao, D. Chen, M. Shih, C. C. Chien, Y. Hsiao,
L. Chen, M. Su, M. Alfano, J. Siegel, J. Din, B. Black, in Conference Proceedings from the
66th Electronic Components and Technology Conference. (ECTC), Las Vegas, 31 May–3 June
2016, p. 1439
7. R.R. Tummala, Fundamentals of Microsystems Packaging (McGraw-Hill, New York, 2001),
pp. 4–41
8. D.C. Brock, Understanding Moore’s Law: Four Decades of Innovation (Chemical Heritage
Foundation, Philadelphia, 2006), pp. 67–84
9. Y. Li, P.K. Muthur Srinath, D. Goyal, J. Electron. Mater. 45(1), 116 (2016)
10. Zhiyong Ma and David G. Seiler, “Metrology and Diagnostic Techniques for
Nanoelectronics”, Pan Stanford Publishing, (2016), pp. 1089-1119. (To be published).
11. T.M. Bauer, S.L. Shinde, J.E. Massad, D.L. Hetherington, in Conference Proceedings from the
59th Electronic Components and Technology Conference. (ECTC), San Diego, 26–29 May
2009, p. 1165
12. G. Pares, N. Bresson, S. Minoret, V. Lapras, P. Brianceau, J.F. Lugand, R. Anciant, N. Sillon,
in Conference Proceedings from the 11th Electronics Packaging Technology Conference
(EPTC), Singapore, 9–11 Dec. 2009, p. 772
13. K-W Lee, H. Hashimoto, M. Onishi, Y. Sato, M. Murugesan, J.-C. Bea, T. Fukushima,
T. Tananka, M. Koyanagi, in Conference Proceedings from the 64th Electronic Components
and Technology Conference (ECTC), Orlando, 27–30 May 2014, p. 304
14. A. Eitan, K. Hung, in Conference Proceedings from the 65th Electronic Components and
Technology Conference (ECTC), San Diego, 26–29 May 2015, p. 460
15. K. Zoschke, M. Wegner, M. Wilke, N. Jürgensen, C. Lopper, I. Kuna, V. Glaw, J. R€ oder1,
O. Wünsch1, M.J. Wolf, O. Ehrmann, H. Reichl, in Conference Proceedings from the 60th
Electronic Components and Technology Conference (ECTC), Las Vegas, 1–4 June 2010,
p. 1385
16. R. Mahajan, R. Sankman, N. Patel, D. Kim, K. Aygun, Z. Qian, Y. Mekonnen, I. Salama,
S. Sharan, D. Iyengar, D. Mallik, in Conference Proceedings from the 66th Electronic
Components and Technology Conference (ECTC), Las Vegas, 31 May–3 June 2016, p. 558
17. C.-H. Liu, J.-L. Tsai, C. Hung-Hsien, C.-L. Lu, S.-C. Chen, in Conference Proceedings from
the 64th Electronic Components and Technology Conference (ECTC), Orlando, 27–30 May
2014, p. 1628
18. C.-H. Liu, Y.-H. Liao, W.-T. Chen, C.-L. Lu, S.-C. Chen, in Conference Proceedings from the
65th Electronic Components and Technology Conference (ECTC), San Diego, 26–29 May
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I.D. Wolf, Microelectron. Reliab. 55(5), 765–770 (2015)
Chapter 2
3D Packaging Architectures and Assembly
Process Design
Ravi Mahajan and Bob Sankman
Acronyms
2D Two dimensional
3D Three dimensional
BEOL Back end of line
BI Burn-In
CMP Chemical mechanical polishing
D2D Die-to-die
D2W Die-to-wafer
ECD Electro-chemical deposition
ECG Deleted in chapter
EMIB Embedded multi-die interconnect bridge
FEOL Front end of line
IP Intellectual property
KGD Known good die
KOZ Keep out zone
MCM Multi chip module
MCP Multi chip package
MEOL Middle end of line
MPM Multi package module
PECVD Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition
PVD Plasma vapor deposition
Rx Receiver
SBS Side by side
R. Mahajan (*) • B. Sankman

High Density Interconnect Pathfinding, Assembly Technology, Intel Corporation,
MS CH5-157, 5000 West Chandler Blvd., Chandler, AZ 85226, USA
e-mail: ravi.v.mahajan@intel.com; bob.sankman@intel.com
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 17

Y. Li, D. Goyal (eds.), 3D Microelectronic Packaging, Springer Series in Advanced
Microelectronics 57, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-44586-1_2
18 R. Mahajan and B. Sankman
SIP System in package

SOC System on chip
TDP Thermal design power
TIM Thermal interface material
TSV Through silicon via
Tx Transmitter
W2W Wafer-to-wafer
2.1 Introduction
Increasing transistor density enabled by Moore’s Law [1, 2] has led to increasingly
powerful and pervasive computer systems that enable multiple personal and busi-
ness applications (see Fig. 2.1 for an estimate of the overall size and growth trends
of the semiconductor market). The trend in increased compute capabilities has been
fueled by increased wired and wireless connectivity [3] which has led to powerful
interconnected computer networks. These computers and associated networks
utilize a myriad of computing and communication functions that are implemented
within digital circuits (e.g., Microprocessors, Field Programmable Gate Arrays),
memory circuits (e.g., SRAM, DRAM), and analog circuits (e.g., power supplies,
clocks, RF front end modules, amplifiers, SERDES, USB, PCIe, DDR). Different
computing and communication functions can be integrated on a monolithic silicon
chip (typically referred to as System On Chip or SOC integration) or on a package
(typically referred to as System In Package or SIP integration1). Integration on chip
has the advantages of improved signal transmission fidelity due to reduced inter-
connect lengths, lower system power due to efficient on-chip connections between
IP blocks, and overall reduced silicon resulting from Moore’s Law scaling. Thus,
on-chip integration is usually preferred when:
(a) The integrated functions can easily be implemented on the same silicon
fabrication process. For example, digital logic and SRAM can be built using
compatible silicon processes. Conversely, high performance digital logic and
DRAM are rarely fabricated on similar silicon manufacturing processes, and
hence are not commonly included in the same chip.
1
As a general definition, SIP refers to the on-package integration of multiple heterogeneous and/or
homogenous ICs each of which may be in the form of unpackaged die, individually packaged die,
or packaged modules. iNEMI (International Electronics Manufacturing Initiative) defines SIP as:
System in Package is characterized by any combination of more than one active electronic
component of different functionality plus optionally passives and other devices like MEMS or
optical components assembled preferred into a single standard package that provides multiple
functions associated with a system or subsystem. SIP is considered to be subset of the broader
concept of System On Package (SOP) [4] where an entire computer system is built on a package.
2 3D Packaging Architectures and Assembly Process Design 19
DRIVERS OF THE SEMICONDUCTOR MARKET

2012 2014E 2019F
Rest of the Rest of the Rest of the

Electronics Mobile Mobile Mobile
Electronics Electronics
Industry Phones/Tablets Phones/Tablets Phones/Tablets
Industry Industry
$70Bn 24% $69Bn 24% $91Bn 27% $110Bn 27%
$80Bn 24% $96Bn 23%
Consumer Consumer
Consumer Electronics Electronics
Electronics $20Bn 6% $24Bn 6%
$24Bn 8% PCs
$57Bn 20% Automotive PCs Automotive
Automotive Electronics $61Bn 18% Electronics PCs
Electronics $30Bn 9% $39Bn 10% $70Bn 17%
$25Bn 8% Servers/Storage/ Servers/Storage/ Servers/Storage/
Comm. Infrastructure Comm. Infrastructure Comm. Infrastructure
$47Bn 16% $54Bn 16% $70Bn 17%
TOTAL: $292Bn TOTAL: $336Bn TOTAL: $409Bn
CAAGR CAAGR
2012-2014 2014-2019
Mobile Phones/Tablets 15% 3.9%
PCs 3.5% 2.8%
Server/Storage/Comm. Infra. 7.2% 5.3%
Automotive Electronics 9.5% 5.4%
Consumer Electronics -8.7% 3.7%
Rest of the Electronics Indus. 6.9% 3.7%
TOTAL 7.3% 4.0%
N215.267bp-semimkt12-19
Fig. 2.1 Overall size and growth trends of the semiconductor market (Source: Prismark Partners
LLC)
(b) The IP2 blocks desired for the SOC are available in the same silicon fabrica-
tion process and the resulting chip meets the cost target required to make the
product economically viable.
SIP is preferred for the integration of heterogeneous functions [5] (i.e., functions
manufactured using disparate semiconductor technologies) and to help bring prod-
ucts to market quicker when technical and/or business reasons prevent timely SOC
integration. As seen in Table 2.1 and Fig. 2.2, there continues to be significant interest
in SIP configurations. SIP architectures can be broadly classed in three categories:
(a) Planar configurations where two or more die or packages are placed side by
side and connected to each other through lateral interconnects in a multilayer
substrate.
(b) Stacked configurations where two or more die, or packages, are stacked one on
top of the others and connected through a combination of both lateral and
vertical interconnects. The value of implementing stacking in a product
2
An IP (Intellectual Property) block is reusable circuit block that performs a certain specialized
functions and serves as a building block for constructing the SOC.
20 R. Mahajan and B. Sankman
Table 2.1 Volume forecast of different SIP configurations (Source: Prismark Partners LLC)
SiP/MCP forecast
Product/package type
volume (Bn units) 2014 2019 F Leading suppliers/players
Stacked die in package 8.3 10.5 Samsung, Micron, SKHynix, Toshiba, SanDisk
and memory card PTI, ASE, SPIL, Amkor, STATS ChipPAC
Stacked package on pack- 0.95 1.2 Samsung, Apple, Qualcomm, MediaTek
age: bottom package only Amkor, STATS ChipPAC, ASE, SPIL
PA centric RF module 4.5 5.9 Qorvo, Skyworks, Anadigics, Avago, Amkor,
ASE, Inari, HEG, JCET. Unisem, ShunSin
Connectivity module 0.6 0.9 Murata, Taiyo Yuden, Samsung, ACSIP, ALPS,
(bluetooth/WLAN) USI
Graphics/CPU or ASIC 0.2 0.2 Intel, AMD, Nvidia, Xilinx, Altera
MCP
Leadframe module (power 3.2 4.7 NXP, STMicro, TI, Freescale, Toshiba,
SiP) Infineon/IR, Renesas, ON Semi
MEMS and controller 54 8.2 ST, Analog, Bosch, Freescale, Knowles,
InvenSense, Denso
Camera module 3.7 5.3 LG Innotek, SEMCO, Hon Hai, Lite-on,
Toshiba, Sunny Optical, Sharp, Cowell
Fingerprint sensor 0.35 1.5 Apple, Synaptics, Fingerprint Cards, Cypress/
IDEX, Silead, Goodix, NEXT Biometrics,
Qualcomm
Total 27.2 38.4
SiP Market by Device Type (unit shares)
Automotive Sensors & Modules
Silicon Interposers &

3D TSV DRAMs
PMUs, Voltage Regulators

& High Power Modules
RF Modules
Other Mobile,
Wearable & Consumer
Mobile, Wearable &
Stacked-CIS Camera Consumer Devices
Modules
MEMS Inertial Sensors,
Hubs & Nodes
APs, Modems & Hardware

Platform Modules
Connectivity Modules © 2016 TechSearch International, Inc.
www.techsearchinc.com © 2016 TechSearch International, Inc.
Fig. 2.2 2015 SIP Market by device type (Source: TechSearch International)
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trace of a digestive tract at any stage of the life-history of Cestodes. For
nourishment they absorb, through the skin, the previously-digested food (of the
host) that bathes them. In a few Cestodes the body is simple and not divided into
"proglottides" or generative segments, but in most cases it is jointed in such a way
that the last segment is the oldest, and each contains a set of reproductive organs.
The life-histories of Cestodes are most remarkable. The proglottides containing the
eggs pass out of the final host along with the faeces and enter the intermediate
host with the food. The larvae hatch, and boring their way into the blood-vessels,
are carried by the circulation to various internal organs. Here they usually become
"bladder-worms," and develop the "head" of the future sexual form. Then, if, as is
usually the case, the intermediate host is preyed upon by the final host, the larval
Cestodes enter the alimentary canal of the latter. The head of the larva alone
survives digestion, and from it the mature worm is formed.
Of these three branches of the phylum Platyhelminthes, the Turbellaria possess

features of special interest and importance. Not only do they furnish the
explanation of the structure of the two parasitic groups (which have probably arisen
from Turbellarian-like ancestors), but they occupy the lowest position in the whole
group of worms. There are reasons for thinking that this is the simplest group of
bilateral animals which adopt the habit of creeping. The Turbellaria are most
closely allied to that great extinct group from which they, the Nemertinea, Rotifera,
and even the Annelids, offer increasingly convincing evidence of having been
derived. Many questions relating to the affinities of, or the origin of organs in, the
Annelids, resolve themselves into similar questions about the Turbellaria. For these
reasons, this group is here dealt with at greater length than the others, the interest
of which is of a more special nature.
The history of our knowledge of the Cestodes dates back to ancient times, as the
presence and effects of tape-worms early attracted the attention of physicians.
Trematodes are first distinctly referred to in the sixteenth century, while Turbellaria
first figure in Trembley's memoir on Hydra (1744).[3] The whole subject of the
increase in our knowledge of parasitic Platyhelminthes is dealt with in the standard
work, The Parasites of Man, by Leuckart,[4] and a complete list of references in
zoological literature to Cestodes and Trematodes is to be found in Bronn's
Thierreich.[5] O. F. Müller[6] and Ehrenberg founded our knowledge of the
Turbellaria, but for a long time the group remained in a most neglected condition. In
this country Montagu, G. Johnston, and in Ireland, William Thompson, discovered
several marine species, one of which, Planocera folium (from Berwick), has not
again been met with on British shores. Dalyell[7] conducted classical researches on
the habits of Planarians, and Faraday[8] made interesting experiments on their
power of regenerating lost parts. The credit of assigning the correct interpretation
to most of the various organs of fresh-water Planarians belongs to von Baer[9] and
Dugès,[10] while Mertens[11] effected a similar service for the marine forms, or
Polyclads. The minute Rhabdocoels were first successfully investigated and
classified by Oscar Schmidt.[12] The great work on this group is, however, the
monograph by von Graff.[13] A similarly comprehensive and indispensable treatise
by Lang, on the Polycladida,[14] contains references to all previous publications on
the group, among which the papers by Quatrefages, Johannes Müller, Keferstein,
Minot, and Hallez stand out conspicuously. Moseley's work[15] on the Land
Planarians of Ceylon is undoubtedly the most revolutionary paper referring to this
group, and the best contribution towards elucidating the structure of the Tricladida
at a time when the subject was very obscure. A monograph on Land Planarians is
being prepared by von Graff.
The Turbellaria are divided into: (1) Polycladida, marine forms with multiple
intestinal branches; (2) Tricladida, marine, fresh-water, and terrestrial Planarians
with three main intestinal branches; (3) the Rhabdocoelida, as varied in habit as
the Triclads, but possessing a straight and simple or slightly lobed, intestine. A
detailed description of an example of the Polyclads, and then a comparative
account of each division, will now be given.
Fig. 1.—Leptoplana tremellaris O. F. M. Seen from the dorsal surface. The

alimentary canal runs down the middle line and sends branches to the margin
of the body. × 6.
Turbellaria. I. Polycladida.
Description of Leptoplana tremellaris.
Appearance and Habits.—An account of the Polyclad Turbellaria may be fitly

prefaced by a description of a very common representative, Leptoplana tremellaris,
so called on account of the thin, flat body which executes when disturbed,
quivering or tremulous swimming movements.
Like all Polyclads, Leptoplana is marine. It is probably found on all European

shores, northwards to Greenland and southwards to the Red Sea, while vertically it
ranges from the littoral zone down to fifty fathoms. There is, however, an
apparently well-marked difference between the littoral specimens, which vary from
three-quarters to one inch in length, are brownish in colour and firm in consistency,
and the more delicate examples half an inch long, white with a brown tinge, which
occur in deeper water.
Fig. 2.—Leptoplana tremellaris. Three-quarters view from the ventral surface. The
pharynx (ph) is widely protruded through the month (mo) as in the act of
attacking prey. br, Brain with nerves, close to which are the four groups of eyes;
mg, stomach; mgc, "marginal groove"; pe, penis; sc, sucker; ut, uterus; vd, vasa
deferentia; ♀ , female genital aperture surrounded by the shell-gland; ♂ , male
aperture. (Semi-diagrammatic, and × 6.)
At low water Leptoplana may be found buried in mud or on the under surface of
stones, in pools where darkness and dampness may be ensured till the return of
the tide. It is, however, by no means easy to detect and remove it from the
encrusting Polyzoa, Ascidians, or Sponges with which it is usually associated. The
flat, soft, unsegmented body is so closely appressed to the substratum that its
presence is usually only betrayed by its movement, an even gliding motion of the
mobile body, which suggested the apt name "la pellicule animée" to Dicquemare.
The creeping surface is called ventral, the upper one dorsal, and as the broader
end of the body always goes first, it is anterior as opposed to the more pointed
posterior extremity. With a lens the characters shown in Figs. 1 and 2 may be
observed. The eyes are seen as black dots near the anterior end, and are placed
at the sides of a clear oval space, the brain. Along the transparent margin of the
body, the ends of the intestinal branches may be seen. These ramify from a lobed
stomach or main-gut, and should the specimen be mature, the "uterus" loaded with
eggs forms a dark margin round the latter (Figs. 1 and 2, ut). The ventral surface is
whitish, and through it the "pharynx," a frilled protrusible structure, may be dimly
observed. The "mouth,"[16] through which the pharynx at the time of feeding is
thrust out (Fig. 2, mo), is almost in the centre of the ventral surface. Behind this, a
white, V-shaped mark (vd) indicates the ducts of the male reproductive organs, and
still further back is the irregular opaque mark of the "shell-gland," by which the egg-
shells are formed (Fig. 2, ♀).
Fig. 3.—Leptoplana tremellaris in the act of swimming. A, Seen from the right side
during the downward stroke (the resemblance to a skate is striking); B, from
above, showing the upward stroke and longitudinal undulations of the swimming
lobes; C, side view during the upward stroke; D, transverse sections of the body
during the strokes. × 5.
Leptoplana employs two kinds of movement, creeping and swimming. Creeping is

a uniform gliding movement, caused by the cilia of the ventral surface, aided
perhaps by the longitudinal muscular layers of this surface, and is effected on the
under side of the "surface-film" of water almost as well as on a solid substratum.
Swimming is a more rapid and elegant movement, employed when alarmed or in
pursuit of prey. The expanded fore-parts of the body act as lobes, which are
flapped rapidly up over the body and then down beneath it, undulations running
rapidly down them from before backwards. The action in fact is somewhat similar
to that by which a skate swims, a resemblance pointed out long ago by Dugès[17]
(Fig. 3).
We have few direct observations on the nature of the food of Leptoplana, or the
exact mode by which it is obtained. Dalyell,[18] who observed this species very
carefully, noticed that it was nocturnal and fed upon a Nereis, becoming greatly
distended and of a green colour after the meal, but pale after a long fast.
Keferstein[19] noticed a specimen in the act of devouring a Lumbriconereis longer
than itself, and also found the radulae of Chiton and Taenioglossate Molluscs in the
intestine. That such an apparently weak and defenceless animal does overpower
large and healthy Annelids and Mollusca, has not hitherto been definitely proved.
Weak or diseased examples may be chiefly selected. The flexible Leptoplana
adheres firmly to its prey, and the rapid action of the salivary glands of its mobile
pharynx quickly softens and disintegrates the internal parts of the victim. The food
passes into the stomach (Fig. 2, mg), and is there digested. It is then transferred to
the lateral branches of the intestine, and, after all the nutritious matters have been
absorbed, the faeces are ejected with a sudden contraction of the whole body
through the pharynx into the water.
Leptoplana probably does not live more than a year. In the spring or summer,
batches of eggs are laid and fixed to algae or stones by one individual, after having
been fertilised by another. Young Leptoplana hatch out in two to three weeks, and
lead a pelagic existence till they are three or four millimetres in length. In late
summer, numbers of such immature examples may be found among sea-weeds
and Corallina in tide pools. In the succeeding spring they develop first the male and
then the female reproductive organs.
Fig. 4.—Portion of a transverse section of Leptoplana tremellaris in the hinder part of

the body. × 100. bm, Basement (skeletal) membrane; cil, cilia; d.m, diagonal
muscles; d.v.m, dorso-ventral muscles; ep, epidermis; f.p, food particles; l.g,
lateral intestinal branches cut across; l.m ext, external, and l.m int, internal
longitudinal muscle layers; m.c, glandular (mucous) cells; md, their ducts; N,
longitudinal nerve; Nu, nuclei of the intestinal epithelium; ov, ovary; ovd,
oviduct; par, cells of the parenchyma; r.d, vasa deferentia, with spermatozoa;
rm, circular musculature; rh, rhabdites; sh, cells of the shell-gland; te, testes; ve,
vasa efferentia; y.c, "yellow cells." (After Lang.)
Anatomy of Leptoplana tremellaris.—Leptoplana may be divided into

corresponding halves only by a median vertical longitudinal plane. The body and all
the systems of organs are strictly bilaterally symmetrical. Excepting the cavities of
the organs themselves, the body is solid. A connective "parenchyma" (Fig. 4, par)
knits the various internal organs together, while it allows free play of one part on
another. These organs are enclosed in a muscular body-wall, clothed externally by
the ciliated epidermis, which is separated from the underlying musculature by a
strong membrane (Fig. 4, bm), the only skeletal element in the body.
Body-Wall.—The epidermis (Fig. 4, ep) is composed of a single layer of ciliated

cells, containing small, highly refractive, pointed rods or "rhabdites" (rh), and gives
rise to deeply-placed mucous cells (m.c), which are glandular and pour out on the
surface of the body a fluid in which the cilia vibrate. The tenacious hold on a stone
which Leptoplana exerts if suddenly disturbed, or when grasping its prey, is
probably due to the increased glutinous secretion of these glands, aided perhaps
by rhabdites, which on such occasions are shot out in great numbers. The
basement membrane is an elastic skeletal membrane composed of stellate cells
embedded in a firm matrix. It serves chiefly for the origin and insertion of the dorso-
ventral muscles (d.v.m). Under the basement membrane lies a very thin layer of
transverse muscular fibres (Fig. 4, rm), which are, however, apparently absent on
the ventral surface. Then follows a stout layer of longitudinal fibres (l.m ext), and
beneath this a diagonal layer (d.m), the fibres of which intersect along the median
line in such a way that the inner fibres of one side become the outer diagonal fibres
of the other. Lastly, within this again, on the ventral surface, is a second stout
longitudinal layer (l.m int). The sucker (sc, Figs. 2 and 5) is a modification of the
body-wall at that point. In addition to the dorso-ventral muscles, there exists a
complex visceral musculature regulating the movements of the pharynx, intestine,
and copulatory organs.
Parenchyma.—The spaces between the main organs of the body are filled by a
tissue containing various kinds of cells, salivary glands, shell-glands, and prostate
glands. Besides these, however, we find a vacuolated, nucleated, thick-walled
network, and to this the word parenchyma is properly applied. Besides its
connective function, the parenchyma confers that elasticity on the body which
Leptoplana possesses in such a high degree. Pigment cells are found in the
parenchyma in many Polyclads.
Digestive System.—The general arrangement of this system may be seen in Figs.

2, 5, and 7; and may be compared, especially when the pharynx is protruded, as in
Fig. 2, with the gastral system of a Medusa. The "mouth" (there is no anus) is
placed almost in the centre of the ventral surface. It leads (Fig. 7, B, phs) into a
chamber (the peripharyngeal space) divided into an upper and a lower division by
the insertion of a muscular collar-fold (the pharynx, ph), which may be protruded,
its free lips advancing, through the mouth (Fig. 2), and is then capable of enclosing
by its mobile frilled margin, prey as large as Leptoplana itself. The upper division of
the chamber communicates by a hole in its roof[20] (the true mouth, Figs. 5 and 7,
g.m) with the cavity of the main-gut or stomach (m.g), which runs almost the length
of the body in the middle line, forwards over the brain (Fig. 5, up). Seven pairs of
lateral gut-branches convey the digested food to the various organs, not directly
however, but only after the food mixed with sea-water has been repeatedly driven
by peristalsis first towards the blind end of the gut-branches and then back towards
the stomach. Respiration is probably largely effected by this means. The epithelium
of the intestine (Fig. 4, l.g) of a starving specimen is composed of separate
flagellated cells frequently containing "yellow cells."[21] After a meal, however, the
cell outlines are invisible. Gregarines, encysted Cercariae, and Orthonectida[22]
occur parasitically in the gut-branches.
An excretory system of "flame-cells" and fine vessels has hitherto been seen only
by Schultze[23] in this species, which will not, however, resist intact the
compression necessary to enable the details to be determined. They are probably
similar to those of Thysanozoon described on p. 25.
Nervous System.—The brain, which is enclosed in a tough capsule (Fig. 5, br), is

placed in front of the pharynx, but some distance behind the anterior margin of the
body. It is of an oval shape, subdivided superficially into right and left halves by a
shallow depression, and is provided in front with a pair of granular-looking
appendages, composed of ganglion-cells from which numerous sensory nerves
arise, supplying the eyes and anterior region. Posteriorly the brain gives rise to a
chiefly motor, nervous sheath (Fig. 5, nn), which invests the body just within the
musculature. This sheath is thickened along two ventral lines (Fig. 5, ln) and two
lateral lines (n.s), but is very slightly developed on the dorsal surface. Ganglion-
cells occur on the course of the nerves, and are particularly large at the point of
origin of the great motor nerves.
Fig. 5.—Diagrammatic view of the structure of Leptoplana tremellaris
as a type of the Polycladida. The body is cut across the middle to
show the relative position of organs in transverse section. In the
posterior half the alimentary canal has been bisected and
removed from the left side, to exhibit the deeply placed nervous
sheath (nn) and the male reproductive organs. br, Brain; dp,
"diaphragm"; e, cerebral group of eyes; et, tentacular eye-group;
gr, marginal groove; gm, true mouth; lg, lateral gut-branch; ln,
longitudinal nerve stem; m, external mouth; mg, mg', main-gut,
whole, and bisected; n, sensory nerve supplying the eyes; nn,
nervous network lying on the ventral musculature; n.s, lateral
nerve; od, oviduct; ov, ovary; pe, penis (in section); ph, pharynx;
pr, prostate or "granule gland"; sc, sucker; sg, shell-gland; te,
testes; up, anterior unpaired gut-branch; ut, uterus; va, vagina (in
section); vd, vas deferens; ve, vasa efferentia; ♂ , male genital
pore; ♀, female pore.
Sense Organs.—Leptoplana possesses eyes, stiff tactile, marginal

cilia, and possibly a sense organ in the "marginal groove." The eyes,
which are easily seen as collections of black dots lying at the sides
of the brain, may be divided into two paired groups: (1) cerebral eyes
(Fig. 5, e), and (2) tentacle eyes (et), which indicate the position of a
pair of tentacles in allied forms (Fig. 8, A, t and B). Each ocellus
consists of a capsule placed at right angles to the surface of the
body in the parenchyma, below the dorsal muscles, and with its
convex face outwards. It is a single cell in which pigment granules
have accumulated. The light, however, can only reach the refractive
rods, which lie within it, obliquely at their outer ends. These rods are
in connexion with the retinal cells, and thus communicate by the
optic nerve with the brain. The cerebral eyes are really paired, and
are directed some upwards, some sideways, some downwards.
The "marginal groove" is a shallow depression of the epidermis (Fig.

5, gr) lined by cilia, and containing the ducts of very numerous gland-
cells. It runs almost parallel to the anterior margin of the body, a
short distance from it, but we have no observations on its functions.
Fig. 6.—Diagram of an eye of Leptoplana from the tentacle group. ×

600. (After Lang.)
Reproductive Organs.—Leptoplana is hermaphrodite, and, as in

most hermaphrodites, the reproductive organs are complicated. The
male organs are the first to ripen, but this does not appear to prevent
an overlapping of the periods of maturity of the male and female
products, so that when the eggs are being laid, the male organs are,
apparently, still in a functional state. The principal parts are seen in
Fig. 5. The very numerous testes (te) are placed ventrally, and are
connected with fine vasa efferentia (ve), which form a delicate
network opening at various points into the two vasa deferentia (vd).
These tubes, especially when distended with spermatozoa, may
easily be seen (Fig. 2, vd) converging at the base of the penis, and
connected posteriorly by a loop that runs behind the female genital
pore (Fig. 5). The penis (pe) is pyriform and muscular, and is divided
into two chambers, a large upper one for the spermatozoa, and a
smaller lower one for the secretion of a special "prostate" gland. The
apex of the penis is eversible and not merely protrusible, being
turned inside out when evaginated. The ovaries (Fig. 5, ov) are
numerous and somewhat spherical. They are dorsally placed, but
when fully developed extend deeply wherever they can find room to
do so, and they not only furnish the ova, but elaborate food-yolk in
the ova, as there are no special yolk-glands. The slender oviducts
(od) open at several points into the "uterus" (ut) (a misnomer, as no
development takes place within it), which encircles the pharynx, and
opens by a single duct into the vagina (va). Here the ova are
probably fertilised, and one by one invested by the shell-gland (sg)
with a secretion which hardens and forms a resistant shell. They are
then laid in plate-like masses which are attached to stones or shells.
The development is a direct one, and the young Leptoplana, which
hatches in about three weeks, has the outline of a spherical triangle,
and possesses most of the organs of the adult. After leading a
floating life for a few weeks it probably attains maturity in about nine
months.
Classification, Habits, and Structure of the Polycladida.
The Polyclads were so called by Lang on account of the numerous

primary branches of their intestine. They are free-living, purely
marine Platyhelminthes, possessing multiple ovaries, distinct male
and female genital pores (Digonopora), but no yolk-glands. The eggs
are small, and in many cases give rise to a distinct larval form,
known as "Müller's larva" (Fig. 12). The Polyclads, with one
exception,[24] fall into two sub-groups, Acotylea and Cotylea:—
Character. Acotylea. Cotylea.

Sucker A sucker absent.[25] A sucker always present
(Figs. 8, D, s; 7, A, sc).
Mouth In the middle, or In the middle, or in front
behind the middle, of of the middle, of the
the ventral surface. ventral surface.
Pharynx More or less intricately Rarely folded. Usually
folded. cylindrical or trumpet-
shaped.
Tentacles A pair of dorsal A pair of marginal
tentacles usually tentacles (except in
present. Anonymus).
Development Usually direct. Larva Müller's larva present.
when present, not a Metamorphosis,
typical Müller's larva. however, extremely
slight.
Fig. 8 shows that, starting with a member (A, D) of each division, in

which the mouth is almost in the middle of the ventral surface, and
the brain and sense organs somewhat remote from the anterior end,
we find in the Acotylea a series leading to an elongated form
(Cestoplanidae), in which the mouth, pharynx, and genital pores are
far back near the hinder end of the body; while in the Cotylea the
series leads similarly to the elongated Prosthiostomatidae, in which,
however, the pharynx and external apertures are in the front part of
the body. This view of the morphology of the Polyclads is due to
Lang, and is based on the assumption that the more radially-
constructed forms (Fig. 8, A, D) are the primitive ones.
Fig. 7.—Diagrammatic vertical longitudinal sections: A, Of

Prosthiostomum (type of Cotylea); B, of Leptoplana; C, of
Cestoplana (types of Acotylea). (After Lang.) These figures
illustrate the changes which follow the shifting of the mouth from a
central position (B) to either end of the body. br, Brain; dphm,
"diaphragm"; gm, true mouth; lg, openings of lateral gut-branches;
m, mouth; mg, main-gut or stomach; mgbr, median gut-branch;
ph, pharynx; ph.m, aperture in pharyngeal fold; phs,
peripharyngeal sheath; sc, sucker; ♂, male, and ♀, female, genital
aperture.
Fig. 8.—Chief forms of Polycladida: A-C, Acotylea; D-F, Cotylea. A,

Planocera graffii Lang, nat. size; B, Stylochoplana maculata
Stimps, × 7; C, Cestoplana rubrocincta Lang, × 4⁄3; D, Anonymus
virilis Lang, × 3, ventral surface; E, Thysanozoon brocchii Grube,
nat. size; the head is thrown back and the pharynx (ph) is
protruded. F, Prosthiostomum siphunculus Lang, × 3. Br, Brain;
CG, cerebral eye group; DM, true mouth; Ey, marginal eyes; m,
mouth; MG, main-gut or stomach; P, dorsal papillae; Ph, pharynx;
s, sucker (ventral); T, tentacles; UP, dorsal median gut-branch. ♂,
male, and ♀, female, genital aperture, except in D, where ♂ refers
to the multiple penes. (After Lang and Schmidt.)
Classification of Polycladida.
ACOTYLEA.
Family. Genus. British
Representatives.
Planocera (Fig. 8,
Planocera folium
A).
Grube. Berwick-
Imogine.
on-Tweed.
Planoceridae. Conoceros.
Stylochoplana
With dorsal tentacles. Stylochus.
maculata Quatref.
Mouth sub-central. Stylochoplana
Among brown
(Fig. 8, B).
weeds in
Diplonchus.
Laminarian zone.
Planctoplana.
Leptoplana
tremellaris O. F.
Müll.
Discocelis.
L. fallax Quatref.
Leptoplanidae. Cryptocelis.
Plymouth.
Without dorsal Leptoplana.
L. droebachensis
tentacles. Penis Trigonoporus.
Oe. Plymouth
directed backwards. ?Polypostia (see
Sound.
p. 27).
L. atomata O. F.
Müll. Doubtful
species.
Cestoplana (Fig. 8,
Cestoplanidae. C).
No tentacles. Body In Mediterranean
elongated. Penis and on French
directed forwards. side of the
Channel.
Enantiidae.
No sucker. No
tentacles. Main-gut Enantia.
very short. External Adriatic Sea.
apertures as in
Euryleptidae.
COTYLEA.
Anonymidae. Anonymus (Fig. 8,
Mouth central. No D).
tentacles. With two Naples (two
rows of penes. specimens).
Pseudoceridae. Thysanozoon (Fig.
Marginal tentacles 8, E).
folded. Mouth in Pseudoceros.
anterior half. Yungia.
Prostheceraeus
vittatus Mont. On
west coast.
P. argus Quatref.
Guernsey.
Cycloporus
Euryleptidae. papillosus Lang.
Tentacles usually Prostheceraeus. On Ascidians in
present and pointed, Cycloporus. 2-30 fms.
or represented by Eurylepta. Eurylepta cornuta
two groups of eyes. Oligocladus. O.F. Müll. On
Mouth close to Stylostomum. sponges and
anterior end. Aceros. shells, 2-10 fms.
Pharynx cylindrical. Oligocladus
sanguinolentus
Quatref.
O. auritus Clap.
Doubtful.
Stylostomum
variabile Lang.
Prosthiostomatidae.
Tentacles absent.
Body elongated.
Prosthiostomum
Pharynx long,
(Fig. 8, F).
cylindrical. Penis
with accessory
muscular vesicles.
Appearance and Size of Polyclad Turbellaria.—Polyclads are
almost unique amongst animals in possessing a broad and thin,
delicate body that glides like a living pellicle over stones and weeds,
moulding itself on to any inequalities of the surface over which it is
travelling, yet so fragile that a touch of the finger will rend its tissues
and often cause its speedy dissolution. The dorsal surface in a few
forms is raised into fine processes (Planocera villosa), or into hollow
papillae (Thysanozoon brocchii), and in very rare cases may be
armed with spines (Acanthozoon armatum,[26] Enantia spinifera); in
others, again, nettle-cells (nematocysts) are found (Stylochoplana
tarda, Anonymus virilis). Some Polyclads, especially the pelagic
forms, are almost transparent; in others, the colour may be an
intense orange or velvety black, and is then due to peculiar deposits
in the epidermal cells. Between these two extremes the colour is
dependent upon the blending of two sources, the pigment of the
body itself and the tint of the food. Thus a starved Leptoplana is
almost or quite white, a specimen fed on vascular tissue reddish.
Many forms are coloured in such a way as to make their detection
exceedingly difficult, but this is probably not merely due, as Dalyell
supposed, to the substratum furnishing them with food and thus
colouring them sympathetically, but is probably a result of natural
selection.
The largest Polyclad, the bulkiest Turbellarian, is Leptoplana gigas

(6 inches long and 4 in breadth), taken by Schmarda, free-
swimming, off the coast of Ceylon. The largest European form is
Pseudoceros maximus, 3½ inches in length and stoutly built. A
British species, Prostheceraeus vittatus, attains a length of from 2 to
3 inches. These large forms, especially the Pseudoceridae (pre-
eminently the family of big Polyclads), are brightly coloured, and
usually possess good swimming powers, since, being broad and flat,
they are certainly not well adapted for creeping rapidly, and this is
well shown by the way these Polyclads take to swimming when in
pursuit of prey at night. The size of any individual is determined,
amongst other factors, by the period at which maturity sets in, after
which probably no increase takes place. Polyclads apparently live
about twelve months, and mature specimens of the same species
vary from ½ inch to 2½ inches in length (Thysanozoon brocchii),
showing that growth is, under favourable conditions, very rapid.
Habits of Polyclad Turbellaria.—Polyclads are exclusively marine,

and for the most part littoral, animals. Moreover, there is no evidence
of their occurrence in those inland seas where certain marine
animals (including one or two species of otherwise characteristically
marine Rhabdocoelida, p. 46) have persisted under changed
conditions. From half-tide mark down to 50 fathoms, some Polyclads
probably occur on all coasts, but as to their relative abundance in
different seas we have very little accurate information. The southern
seas of Europe possess more individuals and species than the
northern, and probably the maximum development of the group
takes place on the coasts and coral islands of the tropics.[27] No
Polyclads have been taken below 60 fathoms; but their delicacy and
inconspicuousness render this negative evidence of little value. Six
truly pelagic forms, however, are known,[28] and these are interesting
on account of their wide distribution (three occurring in the Atlantic,
Pacific, and Indian oceans), and also from the distinct modifications
they have undergone in relation to their pelagic existence.
Whatever may be the interpretations of the fact, Polyclads are

notoriously difficult to detect, and this fact doubtless explains the
scanty references to them by the older naturalists who collected
even in tropical seas. Lang, who worked seven years at Naples,
added to the Mediterranean fauna as many Polyclads as were
previously known for all Europe, in spite of the assiduous labours of
his predecessors, Delle Chiaje and Quatrefages. Again Hallez,
collecting at Wimereux at low-water, obtained some twenty
specimens of Leptoplana tremellaris in an hour, while some other
collectors working by his side could only find two or three. Yet, even
making allowance for the difficulty of finding Polyclads, few of them
appear to be abundant.
Leptoplana tremellaris is frequently associated with colonies of

Botryllus, and if separated soon perishes, whereas the free-living
individuals are distinctly hardy (Hallez). A closely allied but possibly
distinct form lives upon the surface of the Polyzoon Schizoporella, on
the French side of the Channel, and cannot long endure separation
from its natural habitat, to which it is adaptively coloured. A striking
case of protective mimicry is exhibited by Cycloporus papillosus, on
the British coasts. This species, eminently variable in colour and in
the presence or absence of dorsal papillae, is usually a quarter of an
inch in length and of a firm consistency. Fixed by its sucker to
Polyclinid and other Ascidians, Cycloporus appears part and parcel
of the substratum, an interesting parallel to Lamellaria perspicua,[29]
though we are not justified in calling the Polyclad parasitic. Indeed,
though a few cases of association between Polyclads and large
Gasteropods, Holothurians, and Echinids are known,[30] there is only
one case, that of Planocera inquilina,[31] in the branchial chamber of
the Gasteropod Sycotypus canaliculatus, which would seem to bear
the interpretation of parasitism. The jet-black Pseudoceros velutinus
and the orange Yungia aurantiaca of the Mediterranean, are large
conspicuous forms with no attempt at concealment, but their taste,
which is not known, may protect them. Other habits, curiously
analogous with devices employed by Nudibranch Mollusca (compare
Thysanozoon brocchii with Aeolis papillosa), emphasise the
conclusion that the struggle for existence in the littoral zone has
adapted almost each Polyclad to its particular habitat.
As regards the vertical distribution of this group on the British coasts,

Leptoplana tremellaris has an extensive range, and appears to come
from deeper to shallower water to breed.[32] In the upper part of the
Laminarian zone, Cycloporus papillosus, and, among brown weeds,
Stylochoplana maculata are found. At and below lowest water-mark
Prostheceraeus vittatus, P. argus, and Eurylepta cornuta occur.
Stylostomum variabile and Oligocladus sanguinolentus, though
occasionally found between tide-marks, especially in the Channel
Islands, are characteristic, along with Leptoplana droebachensis and
L. fallax, of dredge material from 10 to 20 fathoms.
Locomotion.—Locomotion is generally performed by Polyclads at
night when in search of food, and two methods, creeping and
swimming, are usually employed—creeping by the cilia, aided
possibly, as in the case of some Gasteropod Mollusca, by the
longitudinal muscles of the ventral surface; and swimming, by
undulations of the expanded margins of the body. In the former case
the cilia work in a glandular secretion which bathes the body, and
enables them to effect their purpose equally well on different
substrata. The anterior region is generally lifted up, exploring the
surroundings by the aid of the tentacles, which are here usually
present. The rest of the body is closely appressed to the ground.
Swimming is particularly well performed by the Pseudoceridae,

certain species of Prostheceraeus, the large Planoceridae, some
Stylochoplana, Discocelis, and Leptoplana, and in the same manner
as in Leptoplana tremellaris (p. 9). In Cryptocelis, Leptoplana alcinoi,
and L. pallida, however, the whole body executes serpentine
movements like an active leech (e.g. Nephelis); a cross section of
the body would thus present the same appearance during the whole
movement. Many Polyclads, notably Anonymus (Lang), if irritated,
spread out in all directions, becoming exceeding thin and
transparent.
Fig. 9.—Discocelis lichenoides Mert. (after Mertens), creeping on the

inner side of a glass vessel by means of the lobes of the extended
and exceedingly mobile pharynx (ph). These lobes also serve to
enclose Crustacea (a), and one lobe may then be withdrawn
independently of the rest, back into the body (b). The brain (br)
and shell-gland (sg) are shown by transparency.
Discocelis lichenoides, Planocera graffii, and Anonymus virilis have
peculiar modes of progression. The first, according to Mertens, will
climb up the sides of a vessel by means of the expanded lobes of
the pharynx (Fig. 9, ph), a habit of considerable interest, since we
know that certain Ctenophores—Lampetia, for instance—progress
when not swimming on the expanded lobes of their "stomach."[33]
Planocera and Anonymus creep by extending parts of the anterior
margin and dragging the rest of the body behind. In consequence,
the brain and dorsal tentacles may come to lie actually behind the
middle of the body, and thus no definite anterior end or "head"
advances first. Along with this curious habit it may be noticed (Lang)
that the radial symmetry of the body is well marked; but even without
accepting this author's suggestion of the concurrent development of
a "head" with locomotion in a definite direction, the facts, whether
these two forms are primitive or not, are highly interesting.
Food.—Though we are probably right in calling Polyclads a

carnivorous group, the food of very few forms has been ascertained.
Those which possess a large frilled pharynx (most Acotylea)
probably enclose and digest large, and, it may be, powerful prey, as
appears to be the case in Leptoplana tremellaris. Cryptocelis alba
has been seen by Lang with the pharynx so distended, owing to a
large Drepanophorus (Nemertine) which it contained, as to resemble
a yolk-sac projecting from the under surface of an embryo. The
Cotylea such as Thysanozoon, with a bell- or trumpet-shaped
pharynx, are fond of fixing this to the side of the aquarium, but
whether they thus obtain minute organisms is not clear.
Prosthiostomum shoots out its long pharynx with great vehemence
(Fig. 8, F) and snaps up small Annelids by its aid (Lang). Those
Polyclads which, as Cycloporus and others, are definitely associated
with other organisms are not certainly known to feed upon the latter,
though "Planaria velellae" has been seen by Lesson[34] devouring
the fleshy parts of its host. The salivary glands which open on the
lips and the inner surface of the pharynx powerfully disintegrate the
flesh of the prey. Digestion takes place in the main-gut, and the
circulation of the food is accomplished by the sphinctral musculature
of the intestinal branches (conf. Leptoplana, p. 13).
Fig. 10.—Diagram of the musculature, causing peristaltic movements

of the intestinal branches of Polyclads. (After Lang.)
A distinct vent or anus is always absent. After a meal the faecal

matter collects in the main-gut, and is discharged violently by the
pharynx into the water. In a few species, however, the intestinal
branches open to the exterior (Lang). Yungia aurantiaca, a large and
abundant Neapolitan form, possesses such openings over the
greater part of the dorsal surface; Cycloporus papillosus has
marginal pores; Oligocladus sanguinolentus apparently possesses
an opening at the posterior end of the main-gut; and Thysanozoon
brocchii frequently rends at this point, in consequence of the
accumulation of food.
Respiration.—The oxygen of the atmosphere dissolved in the sea-

water is, in default of a special circulatory fluid, brought to the tissues
of Polyclads in two ways. The ciliated epidermis provides a constant
change of the surrounding water, by which the superficial organs
may obtain their supply; and the peristaltic movements of the
digestive system, aided by the cilia of the endoderm cells, ensure a
rough circulation of the sea-water, which enters along with the food,
to the internal organs. The papillae of Thysanozoon brocchii,
containing outgrowths of the intestinal branches, are possibly so
much additional respiratory surface, although still larger forms (other
Pseudoceridae) are devoid of such outgrowths.
Excretion.—The excretory system of only one Polyclad

(Thysanozoon brocchii) is accurately known. Lang, by compressing
light-coloured specimens, found the three parts of the system known

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1 Introduction to 3D Microelectronic Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

10 Fundamentals of Heat Dissipation in 3D IC Packaging . . . . . . . . . . 245

Liangbiao Chen Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lamar University,

Kwang-Lung Lin Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National

Yan Li and Deepak Goyal

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 1

assembly, cost, design, modeling, thermal management, material, substrate, quality,

1.2 Why 3D Packaging

1.2.1 Moore’s Law

The conventional method to maintain Moore’s law is to decrease the dimensions

1.2.2 Small Form Factor Requires 3D Packaging

Market demands of small form factor microelectronics head to 3D packages, which

1.2.3 Improved System Performance with Reduced Power

Interconnect length in 3D packages can be significantly reduced compared with

1.3 3D Microelectronic Packaging Architectures

1.3.1 Die-to-Die 3D Integration

Die-to-die 3D integration is enabled by through silicon via (TSV) interconnections

1.3.2 Package-to-Package 3D Integration

1.3.3 Heterogeneous 3D Integration

Depending on product needs, complex 3D packages can have the combination of

1.4 3D Microelectronic Packaging Challenges

1.4.1 Assembly Process, Yield, Test, and Cost Challenges

3D packaging involves more challenging assembly steps than conventional pack-

1.4.2 Thermal Management, Package Design, and Modeling

The 3D integration of heat generation components in close vicinity increases the

mismatch in coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE) and hygroscopic stress caused

1.4.3 Material and Substrate Challenges

1.4.4 Quality, Reliability, and Failure Analysis Challenges

Complex 3D packages have multiscale interconnects ranging from a few to

3D packaging has provided a new dimension for semiconductor industry to main-

1. I. Szendiuch, Radioengineering. 20(1), 214 (2011)

Ravi Mahajan and Bob Sankman

R. Mahajan (*) • B. Sankman

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 17

SIP System in package

DRIVERS OF THE SEMICONDUCTOR MARKET

Rest of the Rest of the Rest of the

SiP Market by Device Type (unit shares)

Automotive Sensors & Modules

Silicon Interposers &

PMUs, Voltage Regulators

APs, Modems & Hardware

www.techsearchinc.com © 2016 TechSearch International, Inc.

Of these three branches of the phylum Platyhelminthes, the Turbellaria possess

Fig. 1.—Leptoplana tremellaris O. F. M. Seen from the dorsal surface. The

Description of Leptoplana tremellaris.

Appearance and Habits.—An account of the Polyclad Turbellaria may be fitly

Like all Polyclads, Leptoplana is marine. It is probably found on all European