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WOLCZUK
NORMAN
AN INTRODUCTION TO
LINEAR ALGEBRA
AN INTRODUCTION TO LINEAR ALGEBRA

FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
DANIEL NORMAN • DAN WOLCZUK
ENGINEERING
FOR SCIENCE AND
www.pearson.com
THIRD
EDITION
THIRD EDITION
An Introduction to
Linear Algebra for
Science and
Engineering
Daniel Norman Dan Wolczuk
University of Waterloo
Third Edition
00_norman_fm.indd 1 03/12/18 2:04 PM

Pearson Canada Inc., 26 Prince Andrew Place, North York, Ontario M3C 2H4.
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9780134682631
1 20
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Norman, Daniel, 1938-, author
Introduction to linear algebra for science and engineering / Daniel
Norman, Dan Wolczuk, University of Waterloo. – Third edition.
ISBN 978-0-13-468263-1 (softcover)
1. Algebras, Linear–Textbooks. 2. Textbooks. I. Wolczuk, Dan,
1972-, author II. Title.
QA184.2.N67 2018 512’.5 C2018-906600-8
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Table of Contents
A Note to Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

A Note to Instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
A Personal Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
CHAPTER 1 Euclidean Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Vectors in R2 and R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Spanning and Linear Independence in R2 and R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3 Length and Angles in R2 and R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.4 Vectors in Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.5 Dot Products and Projections in Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
CHAPTER 2 Systems of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

2.1 Systems of Linear Equations and Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.2 Reduced Row Echelon Form, Rank, and Homogeneous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.3 Application to Spanning and Linear Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.4 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
CHAPTER 3 Matrices, Linear Mappings, and Inverses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

3.1 Operations on Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.2 Matrix Mappings and Linear Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.3 Geometrical Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.4 Special Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
3.5 Inverse Matrices and Inverse Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
3.6 Elementary Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
3.7 LU-Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
CHAPTER 4 Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

4.1 Spaces of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.2 Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
4.3 Bases and Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
4.4 Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
iii
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iv Table of Contents
4.5 General Linear Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

4.6 Matrix of a Linear Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
4.7 Isomorphisms of Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
CHAPTER 5 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

5.1 Determinants in Terms of Cofactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
5.2 Properties of the Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
5.3 Inverse by Cofactors, Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
5.4 Area, Volume, and the Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
CHAPTER 6 Eigenvectors and Diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

6.1 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
6.2 Diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
6.3 Applications of Diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
CHAPTER 7 Inner Products and Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

7.1 Orthogonal Bases in Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
7.2 Projections and the Gram-Schmidt Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
7.3 Method of Least Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
7.4 Inner Product Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
7.5 Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
CHAPTER 8 Symmetric Matrices and Quadratic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . 425

8.1 Diagonalization of Symmetric Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
8.2 Quadratic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
8.3 Graphs of Quadratic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
8.4 Applications of Quadratic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
8.5 Singular Value Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
CHAPTER 9 Complex Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

9.1 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
9.2 Systems with Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
9.3 Complex Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
9.4 Complex Diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
9.5 Unitary Diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
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Table of Contents v
APPENDIX A Answers to Mid-Section Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507

APPENDIX B Answers to Practice Problems and Chapter Quizzes . . 519
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Index of Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
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A Note to Students
Linear Algebra – What Is It?
Welcome to the third edition of An Introduction to Linear Algebra for Science and Engineering! Linear alge-
bra is essentially the study of vectors, matrices, and linear mappings, and is now an extremely important topic
in mathematics. Its application and usefulness in a variety of different areas is undeniable. It encompasses
technological innovation, economic decision making, industry development, and scientific research. We are
literally surrounded by applications of linear algebra.
Most people who have learned linear algebra and calculus believe that the ideas of elementary calculus
(such as limits and integrals) are more difficult than those of introductory linear algebra, and that most prob-
lems encountered in calculus courses are harder than those found in linear algebra courses. So, at least by this
comparison, linear algebra is not hard. Still, some students find learning linear algebra challenging. We think
two factors contribute to the difficulty some students have.
First, students do not always see what linear algebra is good for. This is why it is important to read the
applications in the text–even if you do not understand them completely. They will give you some sense of
where linear algebra fits into the broader picture.
Second, mathematics is often mistakenly seen as a collection of recipes for solving standard problems.
Students are often uncomfortable with the fact that linear algebra is “abstract” and includes a lot of “theory.”
However, students need to realize that there will be no long-term payoff in simply memorizing the recipes–
computers carry them out far faster and more accurately than any human. That being said, practicing the
procedures on specific examples is often an important step towards a much more important goal: understand-
ing the concepts used in linear algebra to formulate and solve problems, and learning to interpret the results of
calculations. Such understanding requires us to come to terms with some theory. In this text, when working
through the examples and exercises – which are often small – keep in mind that when you do apply these
ideas later, you may very well have a million variables and a million equations, but the theory and methods
remain constant. For example, Google’s PageRank system uses a matrix that has thirty billion columns and
thirty billion rows – you do not want to do that by hand! When you are solving computational problems,
always try to observe how your work relates to the theory you have learned.
Mathematics is useful in so many areas because it is abstract: the same good idea can unlock the prob-
lems of control engineers, civil engineers, physicists, social scientists, and mathematicians because the idea
has been abstracted from a particular setting. One technique solves many problems because someone has
established a theory of how to deal with these kinds of problems. Definitions are the way we try to capture
important ideas, and theorems are how we summarize useful general facts about the kind of problems we are
studying. Proofs not only show us that a statement is true; they can help us understand the statement, give us
practice using important ideas, and make it easier to learn a given subject. In particular, proofs show us how
ideas are tied together, so we do not have to memorize too many disconnected facts.
Many of the concepts introduced in linear algebra are natural and easy, but some may seem unnatural and
“technical” to beginners. Do not avoid these seemingly more difficult ideas; use examples and theorems to see
how these ideas are an essential part of the story of linear algebra. By learning the “vocabulary” and “gram-
mar” of linear algebra, you will be equipping yourself with concepts and techniques that mathematicians,
engineers, and scientists find invaluable for tackling an extraordinarily rich variety of problems.
vii
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viii A Note to Students
Linear Algebra – Who Needs It?

Mathematicians
Linear algebra and its applications are a subject of continuing research. Linear algebra is vital to mathematics
because it provides essential ideas and tools in areas as diverse as abstract algebra, differential equations,
calculus of functions of several variables, differential geometry, functional analysis, and numerical analysis.
Engineers
Suppose you become a control engineer and have to design or upgrade an automatic control system. The
system may be controlling a manufacturing process, or perhaps an airplane landing system. You will probably
start with a linear model of the system, requiring linear algebra for its solution. To include feedback control,
your system must take account of many measurements (for the example of the airplane, position, velocity,
pitch, etc.), and it will have to assess this information very rapidly in order to determine the correct control
responses. A standard part of such a control system is a Kalman-Bucy filter, which is not so much a piece
of hardware as a piece of mathematical machinery for doing the required calculations. Linear algebra is an
essential part of the Kalman-Bucy filter.
If you become a structural engineer or a mechanical engineer, you may be concerned with the problem
of vibrations in structures or machinery. To understand the problem, you will have to know about eigenvalues
and eigenvectors and how they determine the normal modes of oscillation. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are
some of the central topics in linear algebra.
An electrical engineer will need linear algebra to analyze circuits and systems; a civil engineer will need
linear algebra to determine internal forces in static structures and to understand principal axes of strain.
In addition to these fairly specific uses, engineers will also find that they need to know linear algebra to
understand systems of differential equations and some aspects of the calculus of functions of two or more
variables. Moreover, the ideas and techniques of linear algebra are central to numerical techniques for solving
problems of heat and fluid flow, which are major concerns in mechanical engineering. Also, the ideas of linear
algebra underlie advanced techniques such as Laplace transforms and Fourier analysis.
Physicists
Linear algebra is important in physics, partly for the reasons described above. In addition, it is vital in appli-
cations such as the inertia tensor in general rotating motion. Linear algebra is an absolutely essential tool in
quantum physics (where, for example, energy levels may be determined as eigenvalues of linear operators)
and relativity (where understanding change of coordinates is one of the central issues).
Life and Social Scientists

Input-output models, described by matrices, are often used in economics and other social sciences. Similar
ideas can be used in modeling populations where one needs to keep track of sub-populations (generations, for
example, or genotypes). In all sciences, statistical analysis of data is of a great importance, and much of this
analysis uses linear algebra. For example, the method of least squares (for regression) can be understood in
terms of projections in linear algebra.
Managers and Other Professionals

All managers need to make decisions about the best allocation of resources. Enormous amounts of computer
time around the world are devoted to linear programming algorithms that solve such allocation problems. In
industry, the same sorts of techniques are used in production, networking, and many other areas.
Who needs linear algebra? Almost every mathematician, engineer, scientist, economist, manager, or pro-
fessional will find linear algebra an important and useful. So, who needs linear algebra? You do!
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A Note to Students ix
Will these applications be explained in this book?

Unfortunately, most of these applications require too much specialized background to be included in a first-
year linear algebra book. To give you an idea of how some of these concepts are applied, a wide variety of
applications are mentioned throughout the text. You will get to see many more applications of linear algebra
in your future courses.
How To Make the Most of This Book: SQ3R

The SQ3R reading technique was developed by Francis Robinson to help students read textbooks more effec-
tively. Here is a brief summary of this powerful method for learning. It is easy to learn more about this and
other similar strategies online.
Survey: Quickly skim over the section. Make note of any heading or boldface words. Read over the defini-
tions, the statement of theorems, and the statement of examples or exercises (do not read proofs or solutions
at this time). Also, briefly examine the figures.
Question: Make a purpose for your reading by writing down general questions about the headings, bold-
face words, definitions, or theorems that you surveyed. For example, a couple of questions for Section 1.1
could be:
How do we use vectors in R2 and R3 ?
How does this material relate to what I have previously learned?
What is the relationship between vectors in R2 and directed line segments?
What are the similarities and differences between vectors and lines in R2 and in R3 ?
Read: Read the material in chunks of about one to two pages. Read carefully and look for the answers to
your questions as well as key concepts and supporting details. Take the time to solve the mid-section exercises
before reading past them. Also, try to solve examples before reading the solutions, and try to figure out the
proofs before you read them. If you are not able to solve them, look carefully through the provided solution
to figure out the step where you got stuck.
Recall: As you finish each chunk, put the book aside and summarize the important details of what you
have just read. Write down the answers to any questions that you made and write down any further questions
that you have. Think critically about how well you have understood the concepts, and if necessary, go back
and reread a part or do some relevant end of section problems.
Review: This is an ongoing process. Once you complete an entire section, go back and review your notes
and questions from the entire section. Test your understanding by trying to solve the end-of-section problems
without referring to the book or your notes. Repeat this again when you finish an entire chapter and then again
in the future as necessary.
Yes, you are going to find that this makes the reading go much slower for the first couple of chapters. However,
students who use this technique consistently report that they feel that they end up spending a lot less time
studying for the course as they learn the material so much better at the beginning, which makes future concepts
much easier to learn.
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A Note to Instructors
Welcome to the third edition of An Introduction to Linear Algebra for Science and Engineering! Thanks to
the feedback I have received from students and instructors as well as my own research into the science of
teaching and learning, I am very excited to present to you this new and improved version of the text. Overall,
I believe the modifications I have made complement my overall approach to teaching. I believe in introducing
the students slowly to difficult concepts and helping students learn these concepts more deeply by exposing
them to the same concepts multiple times over spaced intervals.
One aspect of teaching linear algebra that I find fascinating is that so many different approaches can be
used effectively. Typically, the biggest difference between most calculus textbooks is whether they have early
or late transcendentals. However, linear algebra textbooks and courses can be done in a wide variety of orders.
For example, in China it is not uncommon to begin an introductory linear algebra course with determinants
and not cover solving systems of linear equations until after matrices and general vector spaces. Examination
of the advantages and disadvantages of a variety of these methods has led me to my current approach.
It is well known that students of linear algebra typically find the computational problems easy but have
great difficulty in understanding or applying the abstract concepts and the theory. However, with my approach,
I find not only that very few students have trouble with concepts like general vector spaces but that they also
retain their mastery of the linear algebra content in their upper year courses.
Although I have found my approach to be very successful with my students, I see the value in a multitude
of other ways of organizing an introductory linear algebra course. Therefore, I have tried to write this book
to accommodate a variety of orders. See Using This Text To Teach Linear Algebra below.
Changes to the Third Edition

• Some of the content has been reordered to make even better use of the spacing effect. The spacing
effect is a well known and extensively studied effect from psychology, which states that students learn
concepts better if they are exposed to the same concept multiple times over spaced intervals as opposed
to learning it all at once. See:
Dempster, F.N. (1988). The spacing effect: A case study in the failure to apply the results of
psychological research. American Psychologist, 43(8), 627–634.
Fain, R. J., Hieb, J. L., Ralston, P. A., Lyle, K. B. (2015, June), Can the Spacing
Effect Improve the Effectiveness of a Math Intervention Course for Engineering Students?
Paper presented at 2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition, Seattle, Washington.
• The number and type of applications has been greatly increased and are used either to motivate the
need for certain concepts or definitions in linear algebra, or to demonstrate how some linear algebra
concepts are used in applications.
00_norman_fm.indd 10 03/12/18 2:04 PM

A Note to Instructors xi
• A greater emphasis has been placed on the geometry of many concepts. In particular, Chapter 1 has
been reorganized to focus on the geometry of linear algebra in R2 and R3 before exploring Rn .
• Numerous small changes have been made to improve student comprehension.
Approach and Organization

Students of linear algebra typically have little trouble with computational questions, but they often struggle
with abstract concepts and proofs. This is problematic because computers perform the computations in the
vast majority of real world applications of linear algebra. Human users, meanwhile, must apply the theory
to transform a given problem into a linear algebra context, input the data properly, and interpret the result
correctly.
The approach of this book is both to use the spacing effect and to mix theory and computations throughout
the course. Additionally, it uses real world applications to both motivate and explain the usefulness of some
of the seemingly abstract concepts, and it uses the geometry of linear algebra in R2 and R3 to help students
visualize many of the concepts. The benefits of this approach are as follows:
• It prevents students from mistaking linear algebra as very easy and very computational early in the
course, and then getting overwhelmed by abstract concepts and theories later.
• It allows important linear algebra concepts to be developed and extended more slowly.
• It encourages students to use computational problems to help them understand the theory of linear
algebra rather than blindly memorize algorithms.
• It helps students understand the concepts and why they are useful.
One example of this approach is our treatment of the concepts of spanning and linear independence. They
are both introduced in Section 1.2 in R2 and R3 , where they are motivated in a geometrical context. They are
expanded to vectors in Rn in Section 1.4, and used again for matrices in Section 3.1 and polynomials in
Section 4.1, before they are finally extended to general vector spaces in Section 4.2.
Other features of the text’s organization include
• The idea of linear mappings is introduced early in a geometrical context, and is used to explain aspects
of matrix multiplication, matrix inversion, features of systems of linear equations, and the geometry of
eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Geometrical transformations provide intuitively satisfying illustrations
of important concepts.
• Topics are ordered to give students a chance to work with concepts in a simpler setting before using
them in a much more involved or abstract setting. For example, before reaching the definition of a
vector space in Section 4.2, students will have seen the ten vector space axioms and the concepts of
linear independence and spanning for three different vectors spaces, and will have had some experience
in working with bases and dimensions. Thus, instead of being bombarded with new concepts at the
introduction of general vector spaces, students will just be generalizing concepts with which they are
already familiar.
00_norman_fm.indd 11 03/12/18 2:04 PM

xii A Note to Instructors
Pedagogical Features
Since mathematics is best learned by doing, the following pedagogical elements are included in the text:
• A selection of routine mid-section exercises are provided, with answers included in the back of the
book. These allow students to use and test their understanding of one concept before moving onto
other concepts in the section.
• Practice problems are provided for students at the end of each section. See “A Note on the Exercises
and Problems” below.
Applications
Often the applications of linear algebra are not as transparent, concise, or approachable as those of elemen-
tary calculus. Most convincing applications of linear algebra require a fairly lengthy buildup of background,
which would be inappropriate in a linear algebra text. However, without some of these applications, many
students would find it difficult to remain motivated to learn linear algebra. An additional difficultly is that the
applications of linear algebra are so varied that there is very little agreement on which applications should be
covered.
In this text we briefly discuss a few applications to give students some exposure to how linear algebra is
applied.
List of Applications
• Force vectors in physics (Sections 1.1, 1.3)
• Bravais lattice (Section 1.2)
• Graphing quadratic forms (Sections 1.2, 6.2, 8.3)
• Acceleration due to forces (Section 1.3)
• Area and volume (Sections 1.3, 1.5, 5.4)
• Minimum distance from a point to a plane (Section 1.5)
• Best approximation (Section 1.5)
• Forces and moments (Section 2.1)
• Flow through a network (Sections 2.1, 2.4, 3.1)
• Spring-mass systems (Sections 2.4, 3.1, 3.5, 6.1 )
• Electrical circuits (Sections 2.4, 9.2)
• Partial fraction decompositions (Section 2.4)
• Balancing chemical equations (Section 2.4)
• Planar trusses (Section 2.4)
• Linear programming (Section 2.4)
• Magic squares (Chapter 4 Review)
• Systems of Linear Difference Equations (Section 6.2)
• Markov processes (Section 6.3)
• Differential equations (Section 6.3)
• Curve of best fit (Section 7.3)
00_norman_fm.indd 12 03/12/18 2:04 PM

A Note to Instructors xiii
• Overdetermined systems (Section 7.3)

• Fourier series (Section 7.5)
• Small deformations (Sections 6.2, 8.4)
• Inertia tensor (Section 8.4)
• Effective rank (Section 8.5)
• Image compression (Section 8.5)
A wide variety of additional applications are mentioned throughout the text.
A Note on the Exercises and Problems

Most sections contain mid-section exercises. The purpose of these exercises is to give students a way of
checking their understanding of some concepts before proceeding to further concepts in the section. Thus,
when reading through a chapter, a student should always complete each exercise before continuing to read
the rest of the chapter.
At the end of each section, problems are divided into A, B, and C Problems.
The A Problems are practice problems and are intended to provide a sufficient variety and number of
standard computational problems and the odd theoretical problem for students to master the techniques of
the course; answers are provided at the back of the text. Full solutions are available in the Student Solutions
Manual.
The B Problems are homework problems. They are generally identical to the A Problems, with no answers
provided, and can be used by by instructors for homework. In a few cases, the B Problems are not exactly
parallel to the A Problems.
The C Problems usually require students to work with general cases, to write simple arguments, or to
invent examples. These are important aspects of mastering mathematical ideas, and all students should attempt
at least some of these–and not get discouraged if they make slow progress. With effort most students will
be able to solve many of these problems and will benefit greatly in the understanding of the concepts and
connections in doing so.
In addition to the mid-section exercises and end-of-section problems, there is a sample Chapter Quiz in
the Chapter Review at the end of each chapter. Students should be aware that their instructors may have a
different idea of what constitutes an appropriate test on this material.
At the end of each chapter, there are some Further Problems; these are similar to the C Problems and
provide an extended investigation of certain ideas or applications of linear algebra. Further Problems are
intended for advanced students who wish to challenge themselves and explore additional concepts.
00_norman_fm.indd 13 03/12/18 2:04 PM

xiv A Note to Instructors
Using This Text To Teach Linear Algebra

There are many different approaches to teaching linear algebra. Although we suggest covering the chapters
in order, the text has been written to try to accommodate a variety of approaches.
Early Vector Spaces We believe that it is very beneficial to introduce general vector spaces immedi-
ately after students have gained some experience in working with a few specific examples of vector spaces.
Students find it easier to generalize the concepts of spanning, linear independence, bases, dimension, and
linear mappings while the earlier specific cases are still fresh in their minds. Additionally, we feel that it can
be unhelpful to students to have determinants available too soon. Some students are far too eager to latch
onto mindless algorithms involving determinants (for example, to check linear independence of three vectors
in three-dimensional space), rather than actually come to terms with the defining ideas. Lastly, this allows
eigenvalues, eigenvectors, and diagonalization to be focused on later in the course. I personally find that if
diagonalization is taught too soon, students will focus mainly on being able to diagonalize small matrices by
hand, which causes the importance of diagonalization to be lost.
Early Systems of Linear Equations For courses that begin with solving systems of linear ques-
tions, the first two sections of Chapter 2 may be covered prior to covering Chapter 1 content.
Early Determinants and Diagonalization Some reviewers have commented that they want to
be able to cover determinants and diagonalization before abstract vectors spaces and that in some introduc-
tory courses abstract vector spaces may be omitted entirely. Thus, this text has been written so that Chapter 5,
Chapter 6, most of Chapter 7, and Chapter 8 may be taught prior to Chapter 4 (note that all required informa-
tion about subspaces, bases, and dimension for diagonalization of matrices over R is covered in Chapters 1,
2, and 3). Moreover, we have made sure that there is a very natural flow from matrix inverses and elementary
matrices at the end of Chapter 3 to determinants in Chapter 5.
Early Complex Numbers Some introductory linear algebra courses include the use of complex num-
bers from the beginning. We have written Chapter 9 so that the sections of Chapter 9 may be covered imme-
diately after covering the relevant material over R.
A Matrix-Oriented Course For both options above, the text is organized so that sections or subsec-
tions involving linear mappings may be omitted without loss of continuity.
MyLab Math
MyLab Math and MathXL are online learning resources available to instructors and students using An Intro-
duction to Linear Algebra for Science and Engineering.
MyLab Math provides engaging experiences that personalize, stimulate, and measure learning for each
student. MyLab’s comprehensive online gradebook automatically tracks your students’ results on tests,
quizzes, homework, and in the study plan. The homework and practice exercises in MyLab Math are cor-
related to the exercises in the textbook, and MyLab provides immediate, helpful feedback when students
enter incorrect answers. The study plan can be assigned or used for individual practice and is personalized
to each student, tracking areas for improvement as students navigate problems. With over 100 questions (all
algorithmic) added to the third edition, MyLab Math for An Introduction to Linear Algebra for Science and
Engineering is a well-equipped resource that can help improve individual students’ performance.
To learn more about how MyLab combines proven learning applications with powerful assessment, visit
www.pearson.com/mylab or contact your Pearson representative.
00_norman_fm.indd 14 03/12/18 2:04 PM

A Personal Note
The third edition of An Introduction to Linear Algebra for Science and Engineering is meant to engage
students and pique their curiosity, as well as provide a template for instructors. I am constantly fascinated
by the countless potential applications of linear algebra in everyday life, and I intend for this textbook to
be approachable to all. I will not pretend that mathematical prerequisites and previous knowledge are not
required. However, the approach taken in this textbook encourages the reader to explore a variety of concepts
and provides exposure to an extensive amount of mathematical knowledge. Linear algebra is an exciting
discipline. My hope is that those reading this book will share in my enthusiasm.
xv
00_norman_fm.indd 15 03/12/18 2:04 PM

xvi A Personal Note
Acknowledgments
Thanks are expressed to:
Agnieszka Wolczuk for her support and encouragement.
Mike La Croix for all of the amazing figures in the text, and for his assistance in editing, formatting, and
LaTeX’ing.
Peiyao Zeng, Daniel Yu, Adam Radek Martinez, Bruno Verdugo Paredes, and Alex Liao for proof-reading
and their many valuable comments and suggestions.
Stephen New, Paul McGrath, Ken McCay, Paul Kates, and many other of my colleagues who have helped
me become a better instructor.
To all of the reviewers whose comments, corrections, and recommendations have resulted in many posi-
tive improvements.
Charlotte Morrison-Reed for all of her hard work in making the third edition of this text possible and for
her suggestions and editing.
A very special thank you to Daniel Norman and all those who contributed to the first and second editions.
Dan Wolczuk
University of Waterloo
00_norman_fm.indd 16 03/12/18 2:04 PM

CHAPTER 1
Euclidean Vector Spaces
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 Vectors in R2 and R3
1.2 Spanning and Linear Independence in R2 and R3
1.3 Length and Angles in R2 and R3
1.4 Vectors in Rn
1.5 Dot Products and Projections in Rn
Some of the material in this chapter will be familiar to many students, but some ideas
that are introduced here will be new to most. In this chapter we will look at operations
on and important concepts related to vectors. We will also look at some applications
of vectors in the familiar setting of Euclidean space. Most of these concepts will later
be extended to more general settings. A rm understanding of the material from this
chapter will help greatly in understanding the topics in the rest of this book.
1.1 Vectors in R2 and R3

We begin by considering the two-dimensional plane in Cartesian coordinates. Choose
an origin O and two mutually perpendicular axes, called the x1 -axis and the x2 -axis,
as shown in Figure 1.1.1. Any point P in the plane can be uniquely identied by the
2-tuple (p1 , p2 ), called the coordinates of P. In particular, p1 is the distance from P to
the x2 -axis, with p1 positive if P is to the right of this axis and negative if P is to the
left, and p2 is the distance from P to the x1 -axis, with p2 positive if P is above this axis
and negative if P is below. You have already learned how to plot graphs of equations
in this plane.
x2
P(p1, p2)
p2
O p1 x1
Figure 1.1.1 Coordinates in the plane.
01_norman_ch01.indd 1 28/11/18 4:28 PM

2 Chapter 1 Euclidean Vector Spaces
For applications in many areas of mathematics, and in many subjects such as

physics, chemistry, economics, and engineering, it is useful to view points more ab-
stractly. In particular, we will view them as vectors and provide rules for adding them
and multiplying them by constants.
x1
Denition

We let R2 denote the set of all vectors of the form , where x1 and x2 are real
R2
x2
numbers called the components of the vector. Mathematically, we write
x1

2
R = | x 1 , x2 ∈ R
x2
x1 y1

We say two vectors , ∈ R2 are equal if x1 = y1 and x2 = y2 . We write
x2 y2
x1 y

= 1
x2 y2
Although we are viewing the elements of R2 as vectors, we can still interpret these
p1

geometrically as points. That is, the vector �p = can be interpreted as the point
p2
P(p1 , p2 ). Graphically, this is often represented by drawing an arrow from (0, 0) to
(p1 , p2 ), as shown in Figure 1.1.2. Note, that the point (0, 0) and the points between
(0, 0) and (p1 , p2 ) should not be thought of as points “on the vector.” The representation
of a vector as an arrow is particularly common in physics; force and acceleration are
vector quantities that can conveniently be represented by an arrow of suitable
magnitude and direction.
x2
P(p1, p2)
p1
p=
p2
O = (0, 0) x1
Figure 1.1.2 Graphical representation of a vector.
01_norman_ch01.indd 2 28/11/18 4:28 PM

Section 1.1 Vectors in R2 and R3 3
EXAMPLE 1.1.1 An object on a frictionless surface is being pulled by two strings with force and
direction as given in the diagram.
(a) Represent each force as a vector in R2 .
(b) Represent the net force being applied to the object as a vector in R2 .
Solution: (a) The force F1 has 150N of horizontal force and 0N of vertical force.
Thus, we can represent this with the vector
100 N
150

F�1 =
0
F2
The force F2 has horizontal component p
100 cos π3 = 50 N and vertical component 3
√
100 sin π3 = 50 3 N. Therefore, we can F1
150 N
represent this with the vector
50

F�2 = √
50 3
(b) We know from physics that to get the net force we add the horizontal components
of the forces together and we add the vertical components of the forces together. Thus,
the net horizontal
√ component
√ is 150N + 50N = 200N. The net vertical force is
0N + 50 3N = 50 3N. We can represent this as the vector
200

F� = √
50 3
The example shows that in physics we add vectors by adding their corresponding
components. Similarly, we nd that in physics we multiply a vector by a scalar by
multiplying each component of the vector by the scalar.
Since we want our generalized concept of vectors to be able to help us solve
physical problems like these and more, we dene addition and scalar multiplication of
vectors in R2 to match.
x1 y
Denition

Let �x = , �y = 1 ∈ R2 . We dene addition of vectors by
Addition and Scalar
x2 y2
Multiplication in R2
x1 y1 x1 + y1

�x + �y = + =
x2 y2 x2 + y2
We dene scalar multiplication of �x by a factor of t ∈ R, called a scalar, by
x1 tx

t�x = t = 1
x2 tx2
Remark
It is important to note that �x − �y is to be interpreted as �x + (−1)�y .
01_norman_ch01.indd 3 28/11/18 4:28 PM

x2
R(p1 + q1, p2 + q2)
p2 + q2
q2
Q(q1, q2)
P(p1, p2)
q r=p+q
O p1 p1 + q1 x1
Figure 1.1.3 Addition of vectors �p and �q .
The addition of two vectors is illustrated in Figure 1.1.3: construct a parallelogram

with vectors �p and �q as adjacent sides; then �p + �q is the vector corresponding to the
vertex of the parallelogram opposite to the origin. Observe that the components really
are added according to the denition. This is often called the parallelogram rule for
addition.
EXAMPLE 1.1.2
−2 5
x2 3
Let �x = , �y = ∈ R2 . Calculate �x + �y .
–2 4
3 1 3
−2 + 5 3

5
Solution: We have �x + �y = = .
3+1 4 1
O x1
Scalar multiplication is illustrated in Figure 1.1.4. Observe that multiplication by

a negative scalar reverses the direction of the vector.
x2
(1.5)d
O x1
(–1)d
Figure 1.1.4 Scalar multiplication of the vector d.
�
01_norman_ch01.indd 4 28/11/18 4:28 PM

EXAMPLE 1.1.3 3 0

−2
Let �u = , �v = ,w
�= ∈ R2 . Calculate �u + �v , 3�
w, and 2�v − w
�.
1 3 −1
Solution: We get
3 1

−2
�u + �v = + =
1 3 4
0 0

3�w=3 =
−1 −3
0 0

−2 −4 −4
2�v − w� =2 + (−1) = + =
3 −1 6 1 7
EXERCISE 1.1.1 1 2 0

Let �u = , �v = ,w
� = ∈ R2 . Calculate each of the following and illustrate
−1 1 1
with a sketch.
(a) �u + w
� (b) −�v (c) (�u + w
� ) − �v
We will frequently look at sums of scalar multiples of vectors. So, we make the
following denition.
Denition Let �v 1 , . . . , �v k ∈ R2 and c1 , . . . , ck ∈ R. We call the sum c1�v 1 + · · · + ck�v k a linear

Linear Combination combination of the vectors �v 1 , . . . ,�v k .
It is important to observe that R2 has the property that any linear combination of
vectors in R2 is a vector in R2 (combining properties V1, V6 in Theorem 1.1.1 below).
Although this property is clear for R2 , it does not hold for most subsets of R2 . As we
will see in Section 1.4, in linear algebra, we are mostly interested in sets that have this
property.
Theorem 1.1.1 For all w

� , �x , �y ∈ R2 and s, t ∈ R we have
V1 �x + �y ∈ R2 (closed under addition)
V2 �x + �y = �y + �x (addition is commutative)
V3 (�x + �y ) + w� = �x + (�y + w
�) (addition is associative)
V4 There exists a vector �0 ∈ R2 such that �z + �0 = �z for all �z ∈ R2 (zero vector)
V5 For each �x ∈ R there exists a vector −�x ∈ R such that �x + (−�x ) = �0
2 2
(additive inverses)
V6 s�x ∈ R2 (closed under scalar multiplication)
V7 s(t�x ) = (st)�x (scalar multiplication is associative)
V8 (s + t)�x = s�x + t�x (a distributive law)
V9 s(�x + �y ) = s�x + s�y (another distributive law)
V10 1�x = �x (scalar multiplicative identity)
0

Observe that the zero vector from property V4 is the vector 0 =
� , and the
0
additive inverse of �x from V5 is −�x = (−1)�x .
01_norman_ch01.indd 5 28/11/18 4:28 PM

The Vector Equation of a Line in R2

In Figure 1.1.4, it is apparent that the set of all multiples of a non-zero vector d� creates
a line through the origin. We make this our denition of a line in R2 : a line through
the origin in R2 is a set of the form
{td� | t ∈ R}
Often we do not use formal set notation but simply write a vector equation of the line:
�x = td,
� t∈R
The non-zero vector d� is called a direction vector of the line.

Similarly, we dene a line through �p with direction vector d� �0 to be the set
{�p + td� | t ∈ R}
which has vector equation

�x = �p + td,
� t∈R
This line is parallel to the line with equation �x = td,
� t ∈ R because of the parallelogram
rule for addition. As shown in Figure 1.1.5, each point on the line through �p can be
obtained from a corresponding point on the line �x = td, � t ∈ R by adding the vector �p .
We say that the line has been translated by �p . More generally, two lines are parallel
if the direction vector of one line is a non-zero scalar multiple of the direction vector
of the other line.
x2
d+p
x = td + p, t g
x1
Figure 1.1.5 The line with vector equation �x = td� + �p , t ∈ R.
EXAMPLE 1.1.4

−4
A vector equation of the line through the point P(2, −3) with direction vector is
5
2

−4
�x = +t , t∈R
−3 5
01_norman_ch01.indd 6 28/11/18 4:28 PM

EXAMPLE 1.1.5 Write a vector equation of the line through P(1, 2) parallel to the line with vector
equation
2
� �
�x = t , t∈R
3
Solution: Since they are parallel, we can choose the same direction vector. Hence, a
vector equation of the line is
1 2
� � � �
�x = +t , t∈R
2 3
EXERCISE 1.1.2 Write a vector equation of a line through P(0, 0) parallel to the line
4 3
� � � �
�x = +t , t∈R
−3 −1
Sometimes the components of a vector equation are written separately. In

particular, expanding a vector equation �x = �p + td,
� t ∈ R we get
x1 p1 d1 p1 + td1
� � � � � � � �
= +t =
x2 p2 d2 p2 + td2
Comparing entries, we get parametric equations of the line:
⎨ x1 = p1 + td1
⎧
t∈R
⎪
⎪
⎩ x2 = p2 + td2 ,
⎪
⎪
The familiar scalar equation of the line is obtained by eliminating the parameter t.
Provided that d1 0 we solve the rst equation for t to get
x1 − p1
=t
d1
Substituting this into the second equation gives the scalar equation
d2
x2 = p2 + (x1 − p1 ) (1.1)
d1
What can you say about the line if d1 = 0?
EXAMPLE 1.1.6 Write a vector equation, a scalar equation, and parametric

� � equations of the line passing
−5
through the point P(3, 4) with direction vector .
1
x1 3
� � � � � �
−5
Solution: A vector equation is = +t , t ∈ R.
x2 4 1
⎨ x1 = 3 − 5t
⎧
So, parametric equations are ⎪ t ∈ R.
⎪
⎪
⎩ x2 = 4 + t,
⎪
Hence, a scalar equation is x2 = 4 − 51 (x1 − 3).
01_norman_ch01.indd 7 28/11/18 4:28 PM

Directed Line Segments

For dealing with certain geometrical problems, it is useful to introduce directed line
segments. We denote the directed line segment from point P to point Q by PQ � as in
Figure 1.1.6. We think of it as an “arrow” starting at P and pointing towards Q. We
shall identify directed line segments from the origin O with the corresponding vectors;
we write OP � = �p , OQ
� = �q , and so on. A directed line segment that starts at the origin
is called the position vector of the point.
x2
Q
P
O x1
Figure 1.1.6 The directed line segment PQ
� from P to Q.
For many problems, we are interested only in the direction and length of the di-
rected line segment; we are not interested in the point where it is located. For example,
in Figure 1.1.3 on page 4, we may wish to treat the line segment QR � as if it were the
same as OP.
� Taking our cue from this example, for arbitrary points P, Q, R in R2 , we
dene QR� to be equivalent to OP � if �r − �q = �p . In this case, we have used one directed
line segment OP starting from the origin in our denition.
�
More generally, for arbitrary points Q, R, S , and T in R2 , we dene QR � to be
equivalent to S�T if they are both equivalent to the same OP � for some P. That is, if
�r − �q = �p and �t − �s = �p for the same �p
We can abbreviate this by simply requiring that
�r − �q = �t − �s
EXAMPLE 1.1.7 For points Q(1, 3), R(6, −1), S (−2, 4), and T (3, 0), we have that QR � is equivalent to
S T because
�
6 1 5 3

−2
�r − �q = − = = − = �t − �s
−1 3 −4 0 4
x2
S(–2, 4) Q(1, 3)
O T(3, 0) x1
R(6, –1)
01_norman_ch01.indd 8 28/11/18 4:28 PM

In some problems, where it is not necessary to distinguish between equivalent

directed line segments, we “identify” them (that is, we treat them as the same object)
and write PQ � = RS � . Indeed, we identify them with the corresponding line segment
5

starting at the origin, so in Example 1.1.7 we write QR = S T =
� � .
−4
Remark
Writing QR � = S�T is a bit sloppy—an abuse of notation—because QR � is not really
the same object as S T . However, introducing the precise language of “equivalence
�
classes” and more careful notation with directed line segments is not helpful at this
stage. By introducing directed line segments, we are encouraged to think about vectors
that are located at arbitrary points in space. This is helpful in solving some geometrical
problems, as we shall see below.
EXAMPLE 1.1.8 Find a vector equation of the line through P(1, 2) and Q(3, −1).
Solution: A direction vector of the line is
x2
3 1 2

PQ = �q − �p =
� − =
−1 2 −3 P(1, 2)
Hence, a vector equation of the line with direction

� that passes through P(1, 2) is
PQ
O x1
1 2

�x = �p + t PQ = +t t∈R
� Q(3, –1)
,
2 −3
Observe in the example above that we would have the same line if we started at the
second point and “moved” toward the rst point—or even if we took a direction vector
in the opposite direction. Thus, the same line is described by the vector equations
3

−2
�x = +r , r∈R
−1 3
3 2

�x = +s , s∈R
−1 −3
1

−2
�x = +t , t∈R
2 3
In fact, there are innitely many descriptions of a line: we may choose any point on
the line, and we may use any non-zero scalar multiple of the direction vector.
EXERCISE 1.1.3 Find a vector equation of the line through P(1, 1) and Q(−2, 2).
01_norman_ch01.indd 9 28/11/18 4:28 PM

Vectors, Lines, and Planes in R3

Everything we have done so far works perfectly well in three dimensions. We choose
an origin O and three mutually perpendicular axes, as shown in Figure 1.1.7. The
x1 -axis is usually pictured coming out of the page (or screen), the x2 -axis to
the right, and the x3 -axis towards the top of the picture.
x3
O
x2
x1
Figure 1.1.7 The positive coordinate axes in R3 .
It should be noted that we are adopting the convention that the coordinate axes
form a right-handed system. One way to visualize a right-handed system is to spread
out the thumb, index nger, and middle nger of your right hand. The thumb is
the x1 -axis; the index nger is the x2 -axis; and the middle nger is the x3 -axis. See
Figure 1.1.8.
x3
x2
O x1
Figure 1.1.8 Identifying a right-handed system.
We now dene R3 to be the three-dimensional analog of R2 .
⎢⎢⎢ x1 ⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤
Denition We dene R3 to be the set of all vectors of the form ⎢⎢⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥, with x1 , x2 , x3 ∈ R.
⎢ ⎥
R3 x3
⎣ ⎦
Mathematically,
⎢⎢⎢ x1 ⎥⎥⎥
⎧⎡ ⎤ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
R3 = ⎪ x x x x
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
2⎥ | ,
1 2 3, ∈ R
⎨⎢⎢ ⎥⎥ ⎬
⎢ ⎥
⎩⎣ x ⎦
⎪ ⎢
⎢ ⎥ ⎪
⎪
3
⎪ ⎪
⎭
⎢⎢⎢ x1 ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢y1 ⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
We say two vectors �x = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥ , �y = ⎢⎢⎢⎢y2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥ are equal and write �x = �y if xi = yi , for
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
x3 y3
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
i = 1, 2, 3.
01_norman_ch01.indd 10 28/11/18 4:28 PM

⎢⎢⎢ x1 ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢y1 ⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
Denition Let �x = ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥ , �y = ⎢⎢⎢⎢y2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ∈ R3 . We dene addition of vectors by
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Addition and Scalar x3 y3
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Multiplication in R3
⎢⎢⎢ x1 ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢y1 ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ x1 + y1 ⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
�x + �y = ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢y2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ x2 + y2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥
x3 y3 x3 + y3
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
We dene the scalar multiplication of �x by a scalar t ∈ R by
⎢⎢⎢ x1 ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢tx1 ⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
t�x = t ⎢⎢⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢⎢⎢tx2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
x3 tx3
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Addition still follows the parallelogram rule. It may help you to visualize this
if you realize that two vectors in R3 must lie within a plane in R3 so that the two-
dimensional picture is still valid. See Figure 1.1.9.
x3
O x2
x1
Figure 1.1.9 Two-dimensional parallelogram rule in R3 .
EXAMPLE 1.1.9 ⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎢⎢−2⎥⎥⎥
Let �u = ⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥ , �v = ⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥ , w � = ⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥ ∈ R3 . Calculate �v + �u , −�
w, and −�v + 2�
w − �u .
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥
−1 2 1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Solution: We have
⎢⎢⎢−2⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
�v + �u = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 2⎥⎥⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2 −1 1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−�w = − ⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 0⎥⎥⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
1 −1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 2⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢2⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎢⎢−2⎥⎥⎥
w − �u = − ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥⎥ + 2 ⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥ − ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢⎢⎢−2⎥⎥⎥⎥
−�v + 2�
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2 1 2 1 1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
−1 −2
01_norman_ch01.indd 11 28/11/18 4:28 PM

EXERCISE 1.1.4 ⎢⎢⎢ 2⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
Let �x = ⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥ , �y = ⎢⎢2⎥⎥ ,�z = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 0⎥⎥⎥⎥ ∈ R3 . Calculate 2�x − �y + 3�z.
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥
−5 1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
−1
⎣ ⎦
As before, we call a sum of scalar multiples of vectors in R3 a linear combination.

Moreover, of course, vectors in R3 satisfy all the same properties in Theorem 1.1.1
replacing R2 by R3 in properties V1, V4, V5, and V6.
⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤
The zero vector in R3 is �0 = ⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥ and the additive inverse of �x ∈ R3 is −�x = (−1)�x .
⎢ ⎥
0
⎣ ⎦
Directed line segments are the same in three-dimensional space as in the two-
dimensional case.
The line through the point P in R3 (corresponding to a vector �p ) with direction
vector d� �0 can be described by a vector equation:
�x = �p + td,
� t∈R
CONNECTION
It is important to realize that a line in R3 cannot be described by a single scalar
equation, as in R2 . We shall see in Section 1.3 that a single scalar equation in R3
describes a plane in R3 .
EXAMPLE 1.1.10 Find a vector equation and parametric equations of the line that passes through the
points P(1, 5, −2) and Q(4, −1, 3).
⎢⎢⎢ 4 − 1 ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
Solution: A direction vector is PQ� = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ −1 − 5 ⎥⎥⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢⎢⎢−6⎥⎥⎥⎥. Hence, a vector equation of
3 − (−2) 5
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
the line is
⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
�x = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 5⎥⎥⎥⎥ + t ⎢⎢⎢⎢−6⎥⎥⎥⎥ , t ∈ R
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
−2 5
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Hence, we have
⎢⎢⎢ x1 ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 1 + 3t ⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎢⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 5 − 6t ⎥⎥⎥⎥ , t∈R
x3 −2 + 5t
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Consequently, corresponding parametric equations are
x1 = 1 + 3t
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
x2 = 5 − 6t t∈R
⎪
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎩ x3 = −2 + 5t,
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
01_norman_ch01.indd 12 28/11/18 4:28 PM

EXERCISE 1.1.5 Find a vector equation and parametric equations of the line that passes through the
points P(1, 2, 2) and Q(1, −2, 3).
Let �u and �v be vectors in R3 that are not scalar multiples of each other. This implies
that the sets {t�u | t ∈ R} and {s�v | s ∈ R} are both lines in R3 through the origin in
different directions. Thus, the set of all possible linear combinations of �u and �v forms
a two-dimensional plane. That is, the set
{t�u + s�v | s, t ∈ R}
is a plane through the origin in R3 . As we did with lines, we could say that
{�p + t�u + s�v | s, t ∈ R}
is a plane through �p in R3 and that
�x = �p + t�u + s�v , s, t ∈ R
is a vector equation for the plane. It is very important to note that if either �u or �v is a
scalar multiple of the other, then the set {t�u + s�v | s, t ∈ R} would not be a plane.
EXAMPLE 1.1.11 Determine which of the following vectors are in the plane with vector equation
⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
�x = s ⎢⎢0⎥⎥ + t ⎢⎢⎢⎢2⎥⎥⎥⎥ , s, t ∈ R
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥
1 2
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎢⎢⎢5/2⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
(a) �p = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 1 ⎥⎥⎥⎥ (b) �q = ⎢⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
3 1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Solution: (a) The vector �p is in the plane if and only if there are scalars s, t ∈ R such
that
⎢⎢⎢5/2⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 = s 0 + t ⎢⎢⎣2⎥⎥⎦
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥
3 1 2
⎢⎢⎣ ⎥⎥⎦ ⎢⎢⎣ ⎥⎥⎦
Performing the linear combination on the right-hand side gives
⎢⎢⎢5/2⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ s + t ⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎥⎦ = ⎢⎢⎣ 2t ⎥⎥⎥⎥⎦

⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥
3 s + 2t
For these vectors to be equal we must have
s + t = 5/2, 2t = 1, s + 2t = 3
01_norman_ch01.indd 13 28/11/18 4:28 PM

EXAMPLE 1.1.11 We nd that the values t = 1/2 and s = 2 satises all three equations. Hence, we have
(continued) found that �p is in the plane. In particular,
⎢⎢⎢5/2⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ 1⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ 1 ⎢⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎥⎦ = 2 ⎢⎢⎣0⎥⎥⎦ + ⎢⎢⎣2⎥⎦⎥
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥
2
3 1 2
(b) We need to determine whether there exists s, t ∈ R such that
⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎥ = s ⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥ + t ⎢⎢⎢⎢2⎥⎥⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
1 1 2
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ s + t ⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎢⎣1⎥⎥⎦ = ⎢⎢⎣ 2t ⎥⎥⎥⎥⎦

⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥
1 s + 2t
Since vectors are equal only if they have equal components, for these vectors to be
equal we must have
s + t = 1, 2t = 1, s + 2t = 1
The middle equation shows us that we must have t = 1/2. However, then we would
need s = 1/2 for the rst equation and s = 0 for the third equation. Therefore, there is
no value of s and t that satises all three equations. Thus, �q is not a linear combination
⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
of ⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥ and ⎢⎢⎢⎢2⎥⎥⎥⎥, so �q is not in the plane.
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
1 2
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
EXERCISE 1.1.6 Consider the plane in R3 with vector equation
⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
�x = ⎢⎢1⎥⎥ + s ⎢⎢1⎥⎥ + t ⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥ , s, t ∈ R
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥
1 0 1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Find two vectors �u , �v ∈ R3 that are in the plane, and nd a vector w
� ∈ R3 that is not in
the plane.
EXERCISE 1.1.7 Find two non-zero vectors �u and �v in R3 such that {s�u + t�v | s, t ∈ R} is a line in R3 .
01_norman_ch01.indd 14 28/11/18 4:28 PM

Section 1.1 Exercises 15
PROBLEMS 1.1
Practice Problems
In Problems A1–A4, compute the given linear combination A19 Consider the points P(2, 3, 1), Q(3, 1, −2), R(1, 4, 0),
in R2�and
� illustrate with a sketch. � � � � and S (−5, 1, 5). Determine PQ,
� PR,
� PS � , QR,
� and S�R.
1 2 3 4 Verify that PQ
� + QR� = PR� = PS� + S�R.
� �
A1 A2
4 3 2 1
+ −
For Problems A20–A23, write a vector equation for the line
2 3 passing through the given point with the given direction
� � � � � �
−1
A3 3 A4 2 −2
4 1 −1 vector. � � � �
In Problems A5–A10, compute the given linear
−5 −4
A20 P(3, 4), d� = A21 P(2, 3), d� =
1
combination in R2 .
−6
4 ⎢⎢⎢ 4⎥⎥⎥
� � � � � � � �
−1 −3 −2
A5 A6
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎢⎢−2⎥⎥⎥
3 5
+ −
−2 −4 A22 P(2, 0, 5), d� = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ −2⎥⎥⎥⎥ A23 P(4, 1, 5), d� = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
−11 2
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
3 2 4
� � � � � �
A7 −2 A8 12 + 13
−2 6 3 For Problems A24–A28, write a vector equation for the line
3
� �
1/4
� �
√
�√ �
2 1
� � that passes through the given points.
A9 23 −2 A10 2 √ + 3 √ A24 P(−1, 2), Q(2, −3) A25 P(4, 1), Q(−2, −1)
1 1/3 3 6
In Problems A11–A16, compute the given linear A26 P(1, 3, −5), Q(−2, 1, 0) A27 P(−2, 1, 1), Q(4, 2, 2)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ in⎤ R .
combination 3
A28 P 12 , 14 , 1 , Q −1, 1, 13
� � � �
⎢⎢⎢2⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 5⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 2⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢−3⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
A11 ⎢⎢3⎥⎥ − ⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥ A12 ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥⎥ For Problems A29–A32, determine parametric equations
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
4 −2 −6 −4 and a scalar equation for the line that passes through the
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
given points.
⎢⎢⎢ 4⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
A29 P(−1, 2), Q(2, −3) A30 P(1, 1), Q(2, 2)
⎢⎢⎢−5⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥
A13 −6 ⎢⎢−5⎥⎥ A14 −2 ⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥ + 3 ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 0⎥⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥
−6 1 −1 A31 P(1, 0), Q(3, 0) A32 P(1, 3), Q(−1, 5)
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎢⎢⎢ 2/3⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥ √ ⎢⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎥ A33 (a) A set of points is collinear if all the points lie
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥
A15 2 ⎢⎢⎢⎢−1/3⎥⎥⎥⎥ + 13 ⎢⎢⎢⎢−2⎥⎥⎥⎥ A16 2 ⎢⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎥ + π ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 0⎥⎥⎥⎥ on the same line. By considering directed line
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2 1 1 1 segments, give a general method for determining
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤
⎢⎢⎢ 2⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ whether a given set of three points is collinear.
A17 Let �v = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 2⎥⎥⎥⎥ and w
⎢ ⎥
� = ⎢⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥⎥. Determine
⎢ ⎥ (b) Determine whether the points P(1, 2), Q(4, 1),
−2
⎣ ⎦
3
⎣ ⎦ and R(−5, 4) are collinear. Show how you decide.
(a) 2�v − 3� w (c) Determine whether the points S (1, 0, 1),
(b) −3(�v + 2� w) + 5�v T (3, −2, 3), and U(−3, 4, −1) are collinear. Show
(c) �u such that w � − 2�u = 3�v how you decide.
(d) �u such that �u − 3�v = 2�u A34 Prove properties V2 and V8 of Theorem 1.1.1.
⎢⎢⎢3⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 5⎥⎥⎥ A35 Consider the object from Example 1.1.1. If the force
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
A18 Let �v = ⎢⎢1⎥⎥ and w � = ⎢⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥⎥. Determine F1 is tripled to 450N and the force F2 is halved to
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥
1 −2 50N, then what is the vector representing the net force
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
(a) 12 �v + 12 w � being applied to the object?
(b) 2(�v + w � ) − (2�v − 3� w)
(c) �u such that w � − �u = 2�v
(d) �u such that 12 �u + 13 �v = w �
01_norman_ch01.indd 15 28/11/18 4:28 PM

Homework Problems
In Problems B1–B4, compute the given linear combination ⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢2⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
and illustrate
� � � with � a sketch. B18 Let �v = ⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥ and w � = ⎢⎢⎢⎢4⎥⎥⎥⎥. Determine
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥
1 2 3
� � � �
−1 −3
B1 B2
−1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
2 2 4 1
+ −
(a) 3�v + 4� w
(b) − 12 �v + 34 w�
1 2 1
� � � � � �
B3 2 B4 3 (c) �u such that 2�v + �u = �v
3 5
−
(d) �u such that 3�u − 2� w = �v
−1
In Problems B5–B9, compute the given linear
combination in R2 . For Problems B19 and B20, determine PQ,� PR,
� PS � , QR,
�
7 2 3 and S R, and verify that PQ + QR = PR = PS + S R.
� � � � � �
� � � � � � � �
−2
B5 B6
11 4
+ −
−5 −3 B19 P(2, 3, 2), Q(5, 4, 1), R(−2, 3, −1), S (7, −3, 4)
3 2 3 B20 P(−2, 3, −1), Q(4, 5, 1), R(−2, −1, 0), and S (3, 1, −1)
� � � � � �
B7 5 B8 34 − 14
−2 6 −1
�√ � � �√ � For Problems B21–B26, write a vector equation for the line
√ 2 √ 1 6 passing through the given point with the given direction
�
B9 2 + 6 √ − √
2 − 3 2 vector.
⎢⎢⎢2⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤
� �
In Problems B10–B16, compute the given linear
−3
B21 P(2, −1), d� = B22 P(0, 0, 0), d� = ⎢⎢⎢⎢2⎥⎥⎥⎥
2
⎢ ⎥
combination in R3 . 1
⎣ ⎦
⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢3⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢4⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢−3⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
B10 ⎢⎢ 2⎥⎥ − ⎢⎢5⎥⎥ B11 ⎢⎢⎢⎢2⎥⎥⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 2⎥⎥⎥⎥ 1
� �
B23 P(3, 1), d� = B24 P(1, −1, 2), d� = ⎢⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
8 2 2
−1 −3 0
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢3⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢2⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
B12 ⎢⎢2⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢1⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢1⎥⎥ B13 3 ⎢⎢⎢⎢2⎥⎥⎥⎥ B25 P(1, 1, 1), d� = ⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥ B26 P(−2, 3, 1), d� = ⎢⎢⎢⎢3⎥⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
1 0 1 5 1 1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎢⎢⎢ 2⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥ For Problems B27–B32, write a vector equation for the line
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎢⎢ −6⎥⎥⎥
B14 0 ⎢⎢⎢⎢−5⎥⎥⎥⎥ B15 23 ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 5⎥⎥⎥⎥ + 13 ⎢⎢⎢⎢−10⎥⎥⎥⎥ that passes through the given points.
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
−1 2 B27 P(2, 4), Q(1, 2) B28 P(−2, 5), Q(−1, −1)
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
−1
⎣ ⎦
B29 P(1, 3, 2), Q(0, 0, 0) B30 P(0,� 1, 4), � 2, 2)�

√ ⎤ ⎡√ ⎤
√ ⎢⎢⎢⎢1 + 2⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 2⎥⎥⎥⎥ � Q(−1,
⎡
⎢ ⎥
1 1 1
B16 (1 + 2) ⎢⎢⎢ √ ⎢ 0⎥⎥⎥ − ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 0⎥⎥⎥⎥ B31 P(−2, 6, 1), Q(−2, 5, 1) B32 P 1, 2, 2 , Q 2, 3, 0
2−1 2
⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦
For Problems B33–B38, determine parametric equations
⎣
⎢⎢⎢2⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 2⎥⎥⎥ and a scalar equation for the line that passes through the
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
B17 Let �v = ⎢⎢⎢⎢4⎥⎥⎥⎥ and w
⎢ ⎥
� = ⎢⎢⎢⎢−2⎥⎥⎥⎥. Determine
⎢ ⎥ given points.
3 −1 B33 P(2, 5), Q(3, 3) B34 P(3, −1), Q(6, 1)
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
(a) 3�v − 2� w B35 P(0, 3), Q(1, −5) B36 P(−3, 1), Q(4, 1)
(b) −2(�v − 2� w) + 3� w B37 P(2, 0), Q(0, −3) B38 P(5, −2), Q(6, 3)
(c) �u such that w � + �u = 2�v
(d) �u such that 2�u + 3� w = −�v For Problems B39–B41, use the solution from Problem
A33 (a) to determine whether the given points are collinear.
Show how you decide.
B39 P(1, 1), Q(4, 3), R(−5, −3)
B40 P(2, −1, 2), Q(3, 2, 3), R(1, −4, 0)
B41 S (0, 4, 4), T (−1, 5, 6), U(4, 0, −4)
01_norman_ch01.indd 16 28/11/18 4:28 PM

Section 1.1 Exercises 17
Conceptual Problems
C8 Let A(a1 , a2 ) and B(b1 , b2 ) be points in R2 . Find the
1 1
� � � �
C1 Let �v = and w
�= . coordinates of the point 1/3 of the way from the point
1 −1
(a) Find real numbers A to the point B.
� � t1 and t2 such that
3 C9 Consider the plane in R3 with vector equation
t1�v + t2 w
�= . Illustrate with a sketch.
−2
(b) Find real numbers
� � t1 and t2 such that ⎢⎢⎢2⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x �x = ⎢⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎥ + s ⎢⎢⎢⎢2⎥⎥⎥⎥ + t ⎢⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎥ , s, t ∈ R
� = 1 for any x1 , x2 ∈ R.
t1�v + t2 w
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
x2 0
⎣ ⎦
3
⎣ ⎦
2
⎣ ⎦
(c) Use your result in part (b) to nd � √ real
� numbers t1
2 (a) Find parametric equations for the plane.
and t2 such that t1�v 1 + t2�v 2 = .
π (b) Use the parametric equations you found in (a) to
C2 Let P, Q, and R be points in R2 corresponding to nd a scalar equation for the plane.
vectors �p , �q , and �r respectively. C10 We have seen how to use a vector equation of a line to
(a) Explain in terms of directed line segments why nd parametric equations, and how to use parametric
equations to nd a scalar equation of the line. In this
PQ
� + QR � = �0
� + RP exercise, we will perform these steps in reverse. Let
ax1 + bx2 = c be the scalar equation of a line in R2
(b) Verify the equation of part (a) by expressing PQ,
� with a and b both non-zero.
� and RP
QR, � in terms of �p , �q , and �r. (a) Find parametric equations for the line by setting
For Problems C3 and C4, let �x and �y be vectors in R3 and x2 = t and solving for x1 .
s, t ∈ R. (b) Substitute the � �parametric equations into the
x
C3 Prove that s(t�x ) = (st)�x vector �x = 1 and use operations on vectors
x2
C4 Prove that s(�x + �y ) = s�x + s�y to write �x in the form �x = �p + td,
� t ∈ R.
(c) Find a vector equation of the line 2x1 + 3x2 = 5.
C5 Let �p and d� �0 be vectors in R2 . Prove that
� t ∈ R, is a line in R2 passing through the (d) Find a vector equation of the line x1 = 3.
�x = �p + td,
origin if and only if �p is a scalar multiple of d. d
� �
�
C11 Let L be a line in R2 with vector equation �x = t 1 ,
d2
C6 Let �p , �u , �v ∈ R3 such that �u and �v are not scalar mul- t ∈ R. Prove that a point P(p1 , p2 ) is on the line L if
tiples of each other. Prove that �x = �p + s�u +t�v , s, t ∈ R and only if p1 d2 = p2 d1 .
is a plane in R3 passing through the origin if and only
if �p is a linear combination of �u and �v . C12 Show that if two lines in R2 are not parallel to each
other, then they must have a point of intersection.
C7 Let O, Q, P, and R be the corner points of a parallelo- (Hint: Use the result of Problem C11.)
gram (see Figure 1.1.3). Prove that the two diagonals
of the parallelogram OR
� and PQ� bisect each other.
01_norman_ch01.indd 17 28/11/18 4:28 PM

1.2 Spanning and Linear Independence in R2

and R3
In this section we will give a preview of some important concepts in linear algebra.
We will use the geometry of R2 and R3 to help you visualize and understand these
concepts.
Spanning in R2 and R3
We saw in the previous section that lines in R2 and R3 that pass through the origin have
the form
�x = td,
� t∈R
for some non-zero direction vector d.

� That is, such a line is the set of all possible scalar
multiples of d.
�
Similarly, we saw that planes in R3 that pass through the origin have the form
�x = s�u + t�v , s, t ∈ R
where neither �u nor �v is a scalar multiple of the other. Hence, such a plane is the set of
all possible linear combinations of �u and �v .
Sets of all possible linear combinations (or scalar multiples in the case of a single
vector) are extremely important in linear algebra. We make the following denition.
Denition Let B = {�v 1 , . . . ,�v k } be a set of vectors in R2 or a set of vectors in R3 . We dene

Span in R2 the span of B, denoted Span B, to be the set of all possible linear combinations of
the vectors in B. Mathematically,
Span B = {c1�v 1 + · · · + ck�v k | c1 , . . . , ck ∈ R}
A vector equation for Span B is
�x = c1�v 1 + · · · + ck�v k , c1 , . . . , ck ∈ R
If S = Span B, then we say that B spans S , that B is a spanning set for S , and
that S is spanned by B.
EXAMPLE 1.2.1 1

Describe the set spanned by geometrically.
2
Solution: A vector equation for the spanned set is
1

�x = s , s∈R
2
1

Thus, the spanned set is a line in R through the origin with direction vector .
2
2
01_norman_ch01.indd 18 28/11/18 4:28 PM

Section 1.2 Spanning and Linear Independence in R2 and R3 19
EXAMPLE 1.2.2 3 1 −1

Is the vector in Span , ?
1 2 1
3

Solution: Using the denition of span, the vector is in the spanned set if it can be
1
written as a linear combination of the vectors in the spanning set. That is, we need to
determine whether there exists c1 , c2 ∈ R such that
3 1

−1
= c1 + c2
1 2 1
Performing operations on vectors on the right-hand side gives
3 c1 − c2

=
1 2c1 + c2
Since vectors are equal if and only if their corresponding entries are equal, we get that
this vector equation implies
3 = c1 − c2
1 = 2c1 + c2
Adding the equations gives 4 = 3c1 and so c1 = 43 .

Substituting this into either equation gives c2 = − 53 . Hence, we have that
3 4 1 5 −1

= −
1 3 2 3 1
3 1 −1

Thus, by denition, ∈ Span , .
1 2 1
EXAMPLE 1.2.3 1 0

Let �e1 = and �e2 = . Show that Span{�e1 , �e2 } = R2 .
0 1
Solution: We need to show that every vector in R2 can be written as a linear combi-
x
nation of the vectors �e1 and �e2 . We pick a general vector �x = 1 in R2 . We need to
x2
determine whether there exists c1 , c2 ∈ R such that
x1 1 0

= c1 + c2
x2 0 1
We observe that we can take c1 = x1 and c2 = x2 . That is, we have
x1 1 0

= x1 + x2
x2 0 1
So, Span{�e1 , �e2 } = R2 .
01_norman_ch01.indd 19 28/11/18 4:28 PM

We have just shown that every vector in R2 can be written as a unique linear
combination of the vectors �e1 and �e2 . This is not surprising since
Span{�e1 } is the x1 -
x
axis and Span{�e2 } is the x2 -axis. In particular, when we write 1 = x1�e1 + x2�e2 we
x2
are really just writing the vector �x in terms of its standard coordinates. We call the set
{�e1 , �e2 } the standard basis for R2 .
Remark
1 0

In physics and engineering, it is common to use the notation i = and j = instead
0 1
of �e1 and �e2 .
Using the denition of span, we have that if d� ∈ R2 with d� �0, then geometrically
Span{d}
� is a line through the origin in R2 . If �u , �v ∈ R2 with �u �0 and �v �0, then
what is Span{�u , �v } geometrically? It is tempting to say that the set {�u , �v } would span
R2 . However, as demonstrated in the next example, this does not have to be true.
EXAMPLE 1.2.4 3 6

Describe Span , geometrically.
2 4
Solution: Using the denition of span, a vector equation of the spanned set is
3 6

�x = s +t , s, t ∈ R
2 4
Observe that we can rewrite this as
3 3

�x = s + (2t) , s, t ∈ R
2 2
3

= (s + 2t) , s, t ∈ R
2
Since c = s + 2t can take

any real value, the spanned set is a line through the origin
3
with direction vector .
2
Hence, before we can describe a spanned set geometrically, we must rst see if we
can simplify the spanning set.
01_norman_ch01.indd 20 28/11/18 4:28 PM

EXAMPLE 1.2.5 ⎢ 3⎥ ⎢ 0⎥ ⎢ 3⎥⎪

⎧⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪
Describe Span ⎪ ⎢⎢⎢⎣ 1⎥⎥⎥⎦ , ⎢⎢⎢⎣−1⎥⎥⎥⎦ , ⎢⎢⎢⎣ 0⎥⎥⎥⎦⎪ geometrically.
⎪
⎨⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎬
1 −2 ⎭
⎪
⎪
⎩ −3 ⎪
⎪
Solution: By denition, a vector equation for the spanned set is
⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 0⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
�x = c1 ⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥ + c2 ⎢⎢−1⎥⎥ + c3 ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 0⎥⎥⎥⎥ , c1 , c2 , c3 ∈ R
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥
−3 1 −2
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 0⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
We observe that ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 0⎥⎥⎥⎥. Hence, we can rewrite the vector equation as
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
−3 1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
−2
⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 0⎥⎥⎥ ⎜⎜⎜⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 0⎥⎥⎥⎟⎟⎟

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎛⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎞
�x = c1 ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥⎥ + c2 ⎢⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥⎥ + c3 ⎜⎜⎜⎜⎢⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥⎥⎟⎟⎟⎟ , c1 , c2 , c3 ∈ R
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎜⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎟
−3 1 −3 1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎝⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎠
⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 0⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
= (c1 + c3 ) ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥⎥ + (c2 + c3 ) ⎢⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥⎥ , c1 , c2 , c3 ∈ R
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
−3 1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 0⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
Since ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥⎥ and ⎢⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥⎥ are not scalar multiples of each other, we cannot simplify the
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
−3 1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
vector equation any more. Thus, the set is a plane with vector equation
⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 0⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
�x = s ⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥ + t ⎢⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥⎥ , s, t ∈ R
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥
−3 1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
In Example 1.2.4, we used the fact that the second vector was a scalar multiple
of the rst to simplify the vector equation. In Example 1.2.5, we used the fact that
the third vector could be written as a linear combination of the rst two vectors to
simplify the spanning set. Rather than having to perform these steps each time, we
create a theorem to help us.
Theorem 1.2.1 Let B = {�v 1 , . . . ,�v k } be a set of vectors in R2 or a set of vectors in R3 . Some vector
�v i , 1 ≤ i ≤ k, can be written as a linear combination of �v 1 , . . . , �v i−1 , �v i+1 , . . . ,�v k if
and only if
Span{�v 1 , . . . , �v k } = Span{�v 1 , . . . ,�v i−1 , �v i+1 , . . . , �v k }
This theorem shows that if one vector �v i in the spanning set can be written as a
linear combination of the other vectors, then �v i can be removed from the spanning set
without changing the set that is being spanned.
01_norman_ch01.indd 21 28/11/18 4:28 PM

EXERCISE 1.2.1 Use Theorem 1.2.1 to nd a simplied spanning set for each of the following sets.
⎢−1⎥ ⎢−2⎥ ⎢ 1⎥⎪
⎧⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎫
1 −1
�� ⎪
(a) Span (b) Span ⎪ ⎢⎢⎢ 2⎥⎥⎥ , ⎢⎢⎢ 4⎥⎥⎥ , ⎢⎢⎢−2⎥⎥⎥⎬
⎪
⎨⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥⎪
⎪ ⎪
,
1 1 ⎩⎣ 1⎦ ⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 0⎦⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎭
Linear Independence and Bases in R2 and R3

Examples 1.2.4 and 1.2.5 show that it is important to identify if a spanning set is as
simple as possible. For example, if �v 1 , �v 2 , �v 3 ∈ R3 , then it is impossible to determine
the geometric interpretation of Span{�v 1 , �v 2 , �v 3 } without knowing if one of the vectors
in the spanning set can be removed using Theorem 1.2.1. We now look at a mathemat-
ical way of determining if one vector in a set can be written as a linear combination of
the others.
Denition Let B = {�v 1 , . . . ,�v k } be a set of vectors in R2 or a set of vectors in R3 . The set B is
Linearly Dependent said to be linearly dependent if there exist real coefficients c1 , . . . , ck not all zero
Linearly Independent such that
c1�v 1 + · · · + ck�v k = �0
The set B is said to be linearly independent if the only solution to
c1�v 1 + · · · + ck�v k = �0
is c1 = c2 = · · · = ck = 0 (called the trivial solution).
EXAMPLE 1.2.6 ⎢1⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢1⎥⎪

⎧⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪
Determine whether the set B = ⎪ ⎢⎢⎢⎣0⎥⎥⎥⎦ , ⎢⎢⎢⎣1⎥⎥⎥⎦ , ⎢⎢⎢⎣1⎥⎥⎥⎦⎪ in R3 is linearly independent.
⎪
⎨⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎬
⎩1 1 0⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎭
Solution: By denition, we need to nd all solutions of the equation

⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢1⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥ = c1 ⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥ + c2 ⎢⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎥ + c3 ⎢⎢⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎥⎥
0 1 1 0
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢c1 + c3 ⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎢⎣0⎥⎥⎦ = ⎢⎢⎣c2 + c3 ⎥⎥⎥⎥⎦

⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥
0 c1 + c2
Comparing entries gives the system of equations
c1 + c3 = 0, c2 + c3 = 0, c1 + c2 = 0
Adding the rst to the second and then subtracting the third gives 2c3 = 0. Hence,
c3 = 0 which then implies c1 = c2 = 0 from the rst and second equations.
Since c1 = c2 = c3 = 0 is the only solution, the set is linearly independent.
01_norman_ch01.indd 22 28/11/18 4:28 PM

EXAMPLE 1.2.7 1 1 2
��
Determine whether the set C = , , is linearly independent or linearly
1 0 2
dependent.
Solution: We consider the equation
0 1 1 2
� � � � � � � �
= c1 + c2 + c3
0 1 0 2
We observe that taking c1 = −2, c2 = 0, and c3 = 1 satises the equation. Hence, by

denition, the set C is linearly dependent.
As desired, the denition of linear independence/linear dependence gives us the

following theorem.
Theorem 1.2.2 Let B = {�v 1 , . . . ,�v k } be a set of vectors in R2 or a set of vectors in R3 . The set B
is linearly dependent if and only if �v i ∈ Span{�v 1 , . . . ,�v i−1 , �v i+1 , . . . , �v k } for some i,
1 ≤ i ≤ k.
Theorem 1.2.2 tells us that a set B is linearly independent if and only if none of the
vectors in B can be written as a linear combination of the others. That is, the simplest
spanning set B for a given set S is one that is linearly independent. Hence, we make
the following denition.
Denition Let B = {�v 1 , �v 2 } be a set in R2 . If B is linearly independent and Span B = R2 , then

Basis of R2 the set B is called a basis of R2 .
Basis of R3
Let B = {�v 1 , �v 2 , �v 3 } be a set in R3 . If B is linearly independent and Span B = R3 ,
then the set B is called a basis of R3 .
Remarks
1. The plural of basis is bases. As we will see, both R2 and R3 have innitely
many bases.
2. Here we are relying on our geometric intuition to say that all bases of R2 have
exactly two vectors and all bases of R3 have exactly three vectors. In Chapter
2, we will mathematically prove this assertion.
1 0
��
We saw in Example 1.2.3 that the set {�e1 , �e2 } = , is the standard basis for
0 1
⎪⎢⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥⎪
⎧⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪
R2 . We now look at the standard basis {�e1 , �e2 , �e3 } = ⎪ ⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥ , ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ , ⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎪ for R3 .
⎪
⎨ ⎪
⎬
⎩⎣0⎦ ⎣0⎦ ⎣1⎦⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎪
⎪
⎭
01_norman_ch01.indd 23 28/11/18 4:28 PM

EXAMPLE 1.2.8 Prove that the set B = {�e1 , �e2 , �e3 } is a basis for R3 .
Solution: To show that B is a basis, we need to prove that it is linearly independent
and spans R3 .
Linear Independence: Consider
⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢0⎥⎥ ⎢⎢c1 ⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥ = c1 ⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥ + c2 ⎢⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎥ + c3 ⎢⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢⎢⎢⎢c2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥⎥
0 0 0 1 c3
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Comparing entries, we get that c1 = c2 = c3 = 0. Therefore, B is linearly independent.

⎢⎢⎢ x1 ⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤
Spanning: Let ⎢⎢⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥ be any vector in R3 . Observe that we have
⎢ ⎥
x3
⎣ ⎦
⎢⎢⎢ x1 ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎢⎣ x2 ⎥⎥⎦ = x1 ⎢⎣⎢0⎥⎥⎦ + x2 ⎢⎢⎣1⎥⎥⎦ + x3 ⎢⎢⎢⎢⎣0⎥⎥⎥⎥⎦

⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥
x3 0 0 1
Hence, Span B = R3 .
Since B is a linearly independent spanning set for R3 , it is a basis for R3 .
EXAMPLE 1.2.9 −1 1
��
Prove that the set C = , is a basis for R2 .
2 1
Solution: We need to show that Span C = R2 and that C is linearly independent.
x
� �
Spanning: Let 1 ∈ R2 and consider
x2
x1 1 −c1 + c2
� � � � � � � �
−1
= c1 + c2 = (1.2)
x2 2 1 2c1 + c2
Comparing entries, we get two equations in two unknowns
−c1 + c2 = x1
2c1 + c2 = x2
Solving gives c1 = 13 (−x1 + x2 ) and c2 = 13 (2x1 + x2 ). Hence, we have that
1 1 1 x
� � � � � �
= 1
−1
(−x1 + x2 ) + (2x1 + x2 )
3 2 3 1 x2
Thus, Span C = R2 .
Linear Independence: Take x1 = x2 = 0 in equation (1.2). Our general solution to that
equation says that the only solution is c1 = 13 (−0 + 0) = 0 and c2 = 13 (2(0) + 0) = 0.
So, C is also linearly independent. Therefore, C is a basis for R2 .
01_norman_ch01.indd 24 28/11/18 4:28 PM

Graphically, the basis in Example 1.2.9 represents a different set of coordinate

axes. Figure 1.2.1 shows how these vectors still form a grid covering all points in R2 .
x2
–1
2
1
1
x1
Figure 1.2.1 Geometric representation of the basis B in Example 1.2.9.
Observe that the coefficients c1 = 13 (−x1 + x2 ) and c2 = 13 (2x1 + x2 ) represent the

location of the vector �x on this grid system in the same way that the values x1 and x2
represent the location of the vector �x on the standard coordinate axes.
Denition Let B = {�v 1 , �v 2 } be a basis for R2 and let �x ∈ R2 . If �x = c1�v 1 + c2�v 2 , then the
Coordinates in R 2
scalars c1 and c2 are called the coordinates of �x with respect to the basis B.
EXAMPLE 1.2.10 4 −1 1

Find the coordinates of �x = with respect to the basis C = , .
1 2 1
Solution: From our work in Example 1.2.9 we have that the coordinates are
1 1
c1 = (−4 + 1) = −1, c2 = (2(4) + 1) = 3
3 3
x2
–1
2
1 4 –1 1
= ( –1) +3
1 1 2 1
x1
01_norman_ch01.indd 25 28/11/18 4:28 PM

EXAMPLE 1.2.11 1 2 4

Given that B = , is a basis for R , nd the coordinates of �x =
2
with
2 1 1
respect to B.
Solution: We need to nd c1 , c2 ∈ R such that
4 1 2 c1 + 2c2

= c1 + c2 =
1 2 1 2c1 + c2
Comparing entries gives the system of two equations in two unknowns
4 = c1 + 2c2
1 = 2c1 + c2
Solving, we nd that the coordinates of �x with respect to the basis B are c1 = −2/3
and c2 = 7/3.
Applications of Non-Standard Bases

Although we generally use the standard basis in R2 and R3 , there are applications in
which the naturally occurring grid system does not line up with the standard coordinate
axes. For example, in crystallography, atoms in a monoclinic crystal are depicted in a
Bravais lattice such that the angle between two of the axes is not 90◦ . Figure 1.2.2
shows a two-dimensional Bravais lattice depicting a monoclinic crystal.
Figure 1.2.2 Two dimensional Bravais lattice of a monoclinic crystal.
Here is another example demonstrating when it can be advantageous to use an

alternate coordinate system.
01_norman_ch01.indd 26 28/11/18 4:28 PM

EXAMPLE 1.2.12 Consider the ellipse x2
17x12 + 12x1 x2 + 8x22 = 2500 (–1, 20)
This equation, which is written in terms of

standard coordinates, does not look easy to
use. (10, 5)
x1
However, if we sketch the ellipse on a new

grid system based on the basis y2
10 −5
(0, 2)
B= ,
5 10
y1
then we see that in this grid system the
equation of the ellipse is
(1, 0)
y21 y22
+ = 1 ⇒ 4y21 + y22 = 4
12 22
which is much easier to work with.
CONNECTION
A natural question to ask is how we found the basis B in Example 1.2.12 that corre-
sponded to the ellipse. This procedure, covered in Section 8.3, requires many of the
concepts from Chapters 2, 3, 5, 6, and 8 to understand.
EXERCISE 1.2.2 (a) If �u is a non-zero vector in R3 , then what is the geometric interpretation of
S 1 = Span{�u }?
(b) If �u , �v are non-zero vectors in R3 , then what is the geometric interpretation of
Span{�u , �v }?
(c) If �u , �v are non-zero vectors in R3 such that {�u , �v } is linearly independent, then
what is the geometric interpretation of Span{�u , �v }?
(d) If �u , �v , w
� are non-zero vectors in R3 , then what is the geometric interpretation of
Span{�u , �v , w� }?
01_norman_ch01.indd 27 28/11/18 4:28 PM

PROBLEMS 1.2
Practice Problems
For Problems A1–A6, determine whether the vector �x is in ⎢ 1⎥ ⎢ 2⎥⎪ ⎢0⎥⎪
⎧⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎫ ⎧⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎪
Span B. If so, write �x as a linear combination of the vectors A19 Span ⎪ ⎢⎢⎢⎣ 0⎥⎥⎥⎦ , ⎢⎢⎢⎣ 1⎥⎥⎥⎦⎪ A20 Span ⎪ ⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎬
⎪
⎨⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎬ ⎪
⎨⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥⎪
⎪ ⎪
in B. ⎩0⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎩ −2 −1 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎭ ⎪
⎪ ⎣ ⎦ ⎪
⎭
3 1 1
� � ��
A1 �x = ,B= , For Problems A21–A26, determine whether the set forms a
1 3 −1
basis for R2 .
8 3 2 1
� � ��
A2 �x = ,B=
−2 A21 B = A22 B = ,
−4 1 2 3 0
2 0 2 −3
��
6 A23 B = A24 B =
� � ��
−2
A3 �x = ,B= 1 0
, ,
2 −3
3 1
−1 1 −1 1 0
��
2 2 1 A25 B = , A26 B = , ,
� � ��
A4 �x = ,B= , 1 3 1 3 2
5 −1 2
For Problems A27–A30, determine whether the set forms a
⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢1⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢1⎥⎪ basis for R3 .
⎡ ⎤ ⎧⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪
A5 �x = ⎢⎢ 2⎥⎥, B = ⎪ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ , ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ , ⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎬
⎪
⎨⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎪ ⎢−1⎥ ⎢1⎥⎪
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎧⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎫ ⎧⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎩0 1 1⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪
−1
⎪ ⎪
A27 B = ⎪
⎪
2 ⎢⎢⎢ 2⎥⎥ , ⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦
0
⎣
4 A28
⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎪
⎭ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎨⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥⎥⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
, , B =
⎨⎢⎢ ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎬ ⎬
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥ ⎢1⎥ ⎢ 0⎥ ⎢1⎥⎪ 1 0 3 −1 2 ⎭
⎡ ⎤ ⎧⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎫ ⎪ ⎢
⎢ ⎥
⎥
⎪⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎭ ⎢
⎢ ⎥
⎥ ⎢
⎢ ⎥
⎥⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎩ ⎩
A6 �x = ⎢⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎥, B = ⎪ ⎢⎢2⎥⎥⎥ , ⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥ , ⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎬
⎪
⎨⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥⎪
⎪⎢⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥⎪ ⎪⎢⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎥⎪
⎢ ⎥ ⎪ ⎪ ⎧⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎫ ⎧⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎫
3 ⎩⎣2⎦ ⎣ 1⎦ ⎣4⎦⎪
⎢ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
A29 B = ⎪
⎪
⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥ , ⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥ , ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎬ A30 ⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥ , ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ , ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎭ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
B =
⎨ ⎨ ⎬
⎩⎢⎣1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣2⎥⎦⎪ ⎩⎢⎣1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0⎥⎦⎪
For Problems A7–A14, determine whether the set is lin-
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎭ ⎭
early independent. If it is linearly dependent, write one of
For Problems A31–A33:
the vectors in the set as a linear combination of the others.
(a) Prove that B is a basis for R2 . � �
1 1 1 3 −1 1 0
� �
(b) Find the coordinates of �e1 = , �e = , and
��
A7 , , A8 , 0 2 1
2 3 4 1 3
1
� �
1 1 2 −4 �x = with respect to B.
��
A9 , A10 , 3
1 0 3 −6
1 1 1 1
��
⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥⎪ ⎢ 1⎥ ⎢4⎥ ⎢0⎥⎪ A31 B = A32 B =
⎧⎡ ⎫ ⎤ ⎡
⎧ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎫
, ,
0 1 1 −1
⎪
2 A12
⎪
A11 ⎪ ⎢⎢⎢−3⎥⎥⎥ , ⎢⎢⎢6⎥⎥⎥ , ⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎬
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎨⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎨⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎬
⎩⎣1⎦⎪ ⎩⎣−2⎦ ⎣1⎦ ⎣0⎦⎪ 1 −1
⎪ ⎢
⎢ ⎥
⎥ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ��
A33 B =
⎪ ⎭ ⎭
,
⎢1⎥ ⎢ 1⎥ ⎢−2⎥⎪
⎧⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ 1⎥ ⎢2⎥ ⎢ 0⎥⎪
⎧⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ 2 −1
A13 ⎪ 1 2 A14 ⎢⎢−2⎥⎥⎥ , ⎢⎢⎢3⎥⎥⎥ , ⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥⎬
⎪
⎨⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥⎪ ⎪
⎨⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥⎪
A34 Let {�v 1 , �v 2 } be a set of vectors in R3 . Prove that
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
, , −4
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎬
⎥
⎩⎣0⎦ ⎣−1⎦ ⎣ 2⎦⎭ ⎩⎣ 1⎦ ⎣4⎦ ⎣−2⎦⎪
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎪
{�v 1 , �v 2 } is linearly independent if and only if neither
⎪
⎪ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎭
For Problems A15–A20, describe the set geometrically and �v 1 nor �v 2 is a scalar multiple of the other.
write a simplied vector equation for the set. A35 Let {�v 1 , �v 2 } be a set of vectors in R3 . Prove that
1 2 Span{�v 1 , �v 2 } = Span{�v 1 , t�v 2 } for any t ∈ R, t 0.
��
−1
A15 Span A16 Span ,
0 1 −2
⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢−2⎥⎥⎥⎪ ⎢ 1⎥ ⎢−2⎥⎪
⎧⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎫ ⎧⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪
A18 ⎢⎢−3⎥⎥⎥ , ⎢⎢⎢ 6⎥⎥⎥⎬
⎪
A17 Span ⎪ 6
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎨⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥⎪
⎪ ⎪
−3 ,
⎨⎢⎢ ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎬
⎩⎣ 1⎦ ⎣−2⎦⎪
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎩⎣ 1⎦ ⎣−2⎦⎪
⎪ ⎢
⎢ ⎥
⎥ ⎢
⎢ ⎥
⎥ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎢ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎭ ⎭
01_norman_ch01.indd 28 28/11/18 4:28 PM

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current, and it should be used in the way that will produce the
greatest amount of excitation in the cutaneous end-organs. This is
best done by applying the faradic current to the dry skin with the
metallic brush, or by allowing the cathode of the galvanic current to
rest upon it for some time.
The PROGNOSIS in peripheral anæsthesia is in the main favorable, but

it must, of course, depend much on the gravity of the lesion causing
it, as mechanical injury, pressure, neuritis, cold, etc. Rheumatic
anæsthesia, the result of exposure to cold, is in general readily
recovered from. Vaso-motor anæsthesia yields in most cases without
difficulty to treatment. Washerwoman's anæsthesia and allied cases
are intractable, and often resist the patient and well-conducted
application of remedies.
As a concrete picture of peripheral anæsthesia we will give a

description of anæsthesia of the fifth nerve—the rather that in its
consideration we meet with some of the most interesting and
important complications occurring in connection with paralysis of
sensitive nerves. The fifth nerve may have either of its three
branches separately affected, giving rise to anæsthesia limited to the
distribution of that branch, or all of its fibres may be simultaneously
involved, giving rise to complete anæsthesia of the nerve. In the
latter case the lesion of the nerve in all likelihood exists at some
point of its course between the apparent origin from the pons and the
ganglion of Gasser, which rests upon the apex of the petrous portion
of the temporal bone. Beyond this point the nerve divides into its
three branches. Amongst the causes of trigeminal anæsthesia are
injuries, tumors, syphilitic thickening of the dura mater, neuritis, etc.,
affecting the nerve within the cranial cavity. In complete anæsthesia
of the fifth nerve the parts implicated are the skin of the forehead to
the vertex, the nose, the lips, and chin up to the median line, the
cheek and temporal region, including the anterior portion of the ear,
the conjunctiva, the mucous membrane of the nose, the mucous
membrane of the mouth, and partly of the fauces of the same side.
The tongue is deprived not only of common sensation on the
affected side in its anterior two-thirds, but the sense of taste is also
lost over the same region, by reason that the fibres of the chorda
tympani, the nerve of taste for this region of the tongue, are derived
from the fifth nerve. If the whole thickness of the nerve-trunk is
involved, including the small motor root, there is, in connection with
the anæsthesia, paralysis of the muscles of mastication on the side
affected, which may be distinguished by the want of hardening of the
masseter when the jaws are forcibly brought together, and by the
thrusting of the chin over to the paralyzed side when the mouth is
widely opened, caused by the want of action of the external
pterygoid muscle, which allows the condyle on the paralyzed side to
remain in the glenoid fossa, while the condyle of the opposite side is
pulled forward upon the articular eminence by the sound pterygoid.
The face is of a dusky or livid color, and cooler than natural. Ulcers
of a stubborn character in the mucous membrane of the cheek may
be caused by the patient unconsciously biting the insensitive parts.
An inflammation of the conjunctiva is frequently set up, which may
extend to the cornea, causing ulceration, perforation,
panophthalmitis, and destruction of the eye (ophthalmia neuro-
paralytica). This has been regarded by some as caused by trophic
changes in the tissues, the direct result of irritation or destruction of
trophic fibres connected with the ganglion of Gasser. Experiments
made upon animals, however, seem to show that the inflammation of
the eye depends upon the irritation caused by the intrusion of foreign
bodies, which, owing to the loss of sensation, are not appreciated,
and which from loss of reflex action are not removed by winking nor
washed away by an increased lachrymal secretion, as in the healthy
eye. It may be that although the latter is the true explanation of the
origin of the inflammation, nevertheless the tissues may have lost
their normal power of resistance to its invasion by reason of nutritive
changes consequent upon the lesion of trophic fibres running in the
trunk of the nerve. The reflexes ordinarily induced by irritation of the
parts in their normal state are lost. Irritation of the conjunctiva causes
no winking of the lids nor secretion of tears, and titillation of the
nostrils no movements of the muscles of the face nor mucous or
lachrymal secretion. The movements of the face are less lively on
the affected side, not on account of paralysis of the muscles, but
from the loss of that constant play of reflex activity in them which
takes place in the normal condition. The loss of the reflexes
distinguishes peripheral trigeminal anæsthesia from that of cerebral
origin, in which they may still be excited by irritating the anæsthesic
surfaces. In trigeminal anæsthesia, which sometimes occurs from
the effect of cold upon the surface of the face, the mucous surfaces
are not affected.
The SYMPTOMS and DIAGNOSIS of peripheral paralysis having been

already given under the heads of Injuries of Nerves and Neuritis, a
consideration of the distribution of any motor nerve will enable us to
anticipate the distinguishing features of the paralysis dependent
upon it. With each the picture will be modified according to the
position of the muscles paralyzed and the motor functions destroyed.
It now remains to give the symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of the
paralysis of an individual motor nerve, which may serve as an
example and paradigm, in the consideration of which points of
interest and instruction may be touched upon applicable to all other
cases.
Peripheral Paralysis of the Facial Nerve (Bell's Paralysis).
Of all the peripheral paralyses, probably that of the seventh is the

one we are most frequently called upon to treat and the symptoms of
which are the most complex and interesting. The frequency of its
paralysis is due to the length and peculiarity of its course, enclosed
as it is in a bony canal which permits no increase of its volume
without compression, the run of its terminal branches through parts
liable to inflammation and disease (parotid gland), and their final
distribution to parts exposed to all vicissitudes of heat and cold and
in constant danger of mechanical injury. The complexity and interest
of the symptoms of its paralysis depend in a great measure upon the
intimate connections it forms at different points of its course with the
fibres of other nerves of entirely different functions (acoustic and
fifth).
The seventh nerve is liable not only to intercranial compression from
tumors, inflammation of the meninges, syphilitic processes, etc., but
its long course through the petrous portion of the temporal bone
renders it liable to injury from fracture or caries, and its close
proximity to the middle ear causes it often to suffer from the
diseased conditions of the bony walls or mucous lining membrane of
that chamber, its paralysis being not infrequently the result of simple
aural catarrh. After the exit of the nerve from the stylo-mastoid
foramen it is imbedded in the parotid gland, and sometimes suffers
from compression produced by an inflammation or abscess in that
organ or by enlarged lymphatic glands in the neighborhood. Surgical
operations, so often demanded for disease of the bones or soft parts
of the face, may necessitate the lesion of its trunk or branches. The
exposed position of this nerve is sometimes the occasion of its injury
at the very outset of the life of the individual, when the application of
the forceps to the head has been resorted to in delivery. But the
most frequent cause of facial paralysis appears to be the exposure
of one side of the face directly to cold—as sleeping in a draught of
air, sitting at the open window of a railroad coach, etc. Here the
causal connection appears evident from the rapidity with which the
paralysis usually follows, although cases occur in which an interval
of hours or days elapses after the exposure before the paralysis
declares itself. Although this is usually designated rheumatic
paralysis, there is nothing to connect it with that disease, nor are
rheumatics more liable to it than others. Under such circumstances
the paralysis is probably brought about by the occurrence of a
neuritis of the nerve-trunk, which is compressed by the hyperæmia,
and it may be by an inflammatory exudation against the bony walls
surrounding it, until not only does it lose the power of conduction, but
its fibres undergo the degenerative process. In some cases the
neuritis thus excited by exposure to cold attacks the nerve after it
has issued from the bony canal, and then the resulting injury to the
fibres is much less grave. Although in some cases there are
prodromal symptoms, as stiffness or pain in the face, generally the
paralysis occurs suddenly, very often being first observed upon
awaking. The patient may be first made aware of the paralysis by an
inability to drink without the fluid dribbling from the affected side of
the mouth or by the overflow of tears from the eye of the same side.
When the paralysis is recent and the face in complete repose, there
may be little or no deformity to mark the condition of the muscles.
When, however, the patient speaks or the slightest emotional or
reflex movements of the face are excited, as laughing, frowning, etc.,
it becomes obvious from the bizarre grimace caused by a one-sided
contraction. After the paralysis has existed for some time the
contrast of the two sides of the face is marked. The paralyzed side is
characterized by a vacancy of expression to which the staring,
unwinking eye contributes. From loss of the tonicity of the muscles
the angle of the mouth droops, and the expressive furrows and lines
about the brow, below the eye, and beside the nose are smoothed
out and obliterated. Speech is affected, inasmuch as the paralysis of
the lip interferes with the pronunciation of the labials, and all
attempts to purse up the mouth, as in whistling, is abortive. The eye
not only remains open, the lids motionless, but there is partial
eversion of the lower lid (lagophthalmos), and the tears, no longer
directed to the punctum (paralysis of Horner's muscle), flow over the
cheek. The natural impulse to reflex winking caused by evaporation
from the conjunctiva or by the contact of particles of dust is
answered by a rolling of the eyeball upward to wipe the cornea
beneath the momentarily relaxed and drooping upper lid. Excited
respiration causes no movement of the ala of the nose on the
affected side, but in deep inspiration, in contrast to the normal
elevation of the ala, it is flattened down by the suction of the
inrushing current of air. In masticating, the cheek bulges out from
want of power in the paralyzed buccinator to press the food inward
against the opposing movements of the tongue. In persons who
have the rather unusual power of voluntarily moving the ear we may
detect the paralysis of the muscles concerned in those movements—
a useful point in diagnosis. Moreover, on the sound side of the face
the features have not entirely the natural appearance. The angle of
the mouth is drawn upward and the naso-labial line more deeply
impressed than natural. This results not from excessive contraction,
but from the muscles remaining in the position they have taken
during contraction, the antagonistic tonic traction from the opposite
side, which would have restored them to their normal position, being
wanting. This may be in a measure remedied by mechanical
appliances which will keep up an elastic pull from the paralyzed side,
or by restoring the muscles after contraction to position with the
hand. The tongue rests symmetrically in the floor of the mouth, and
is thrust out straight, although in appearance it is pushed toward the
side paralyzed—a deceptive appearance produced by the
asymmetrical position of the mouth. In some cases there is partial
paralysis of the velum palati, the half arch on the affected side
hanging lowest, and if we cause the patient to make the sound of ah
the opposite side of the palate is alone drawn upward. The uvula
may also participate in the paralysis, but the explanation of its
position, sometimes directed away from, sometimes toward, the side
of the paralysis, cannot be given. In proportion to the amount of the
paralysis of the soft palate will be the prominence of the symptoms
caused by it, such as difficulty in deglutition, a nasal tone in
speaking, and the escape of fluids through the nostril in swallowing.
The sense of hearing is often affected coincidently with facial
paralysis. Thus by reason of their close juxtaposition the same cause
may in common affect the acoustic and the facial, causing imperfect
hearing, subjective noises, etc. The hearing is frequently affected by
diseased conditions of the middle ear, which also cause a facial
paralysis. Still another defect of hearing, however, is caused by the
paralysis of the facial nerve itself. The stapedius muscle, supplied by
a branch of the facial, is the antagonist of the tensor tympani, and
when it is paralyzed the over-tense tympanic membrane vibrates
more readily to sound-waves, and a condition of uncomfortably
exaggerated sensitiveness to sounds is the result (hyperacuisis).
The rarely-occurring symptom of dryness of the mouth on the side of
the paralysis receives its explanation in the well-known fact of the
presence of secretory fibres for the salivary gland in the chorda
tympani, which are derived from the facial. We observe sometimes,
in connection with facial paralysis, that the patient complains of
certain subjective sensations of taste, as sour or metallic, and an
examination will in some cases reveal that the sense of taste is lost
on the anterior two-thirds of the tongue on the side of the paralysis.
The fibres which convey the sense of taste pass centripetally from
the tongue in the chorda tympani nerve, join the facial just within the
stylo-mastoid foramen, and continue united with it to the geniculate
ganglion of the facial, at which point they leave it to pass in the great
superficial petrosal to the spheno-palatine ganglion, and thence to
the trunk of the fifth nerve. Loss of sensation over the face only
occurs in cases where the fifth nerve has been simultaneously
affected with the facial, which may occur from exposure to cold.
It is obviously of importance in cases of facial paralysis to determine

if they are of central or peripheral origin. The most prominent
symptoms which mark a peripheral paralysis are the implication of all
the branches of the nerve, the loss of the reflexes, the development
of the degenerative reaction, and atrophy of the muscles. In facial
paralysis of cerebral origin the frontal and orbital branches are not at
all or but slightly affected, leaving the eye with its natural
appearance, in contrast to the lagophthalmos, and the open eye
which does not close even in sleep. In cerebral paralysis the reflexes
are normal and the muscles retain their natural electric reaction.
Accompanying brain symptoms assure the diagnosis. In facial
paralysis of bulbar origin the electric reactions are diminished, and
we have a complex of symptoms made up in a great measure by the
implication of neighboring nerves. After the diagnosis of a peripheral
facial paralysis has been made, by a careful consideration of the
symptoms we may with more or less accuracy determine at which
point of the nerve the lesion is situated. If there is paralysis of all the
muscles of the face, without alteration of taste or hearing, the electric
reaction of nerve and muscles normal, the nerve is affected outside
of the stylo-mastoid foramen. This is usually the form of slight
rheumatic paralysis. If we discover that the muscles of the external
ear are paralyzed, it shows that the point of lesion is just within the
stylo-mastoid foramen, where the posterior auricular branch is given
off from the facial. If with paralysis of the face there is alteration of
the sense of taste, with dryness of the mouth, without interference
with hearing, the trunk of the nerve is affected within the Fallopian
canal, involving the chorda tympani fibres below the point where the
stapedius nerve is given off. If to the above symptoms there is added
over-sensitiveness to sounds, hyperacuisis, and there is no paralysis
of the palate, we have the nerve affected still higher up, but below
the geniculate ganglion. If the geniculate ganglion is involved, there
is, in addition to the foregoing, symptoms of paralysis of the palate.
If, now, the lesion is above the geniculate ganglion, we will have
eliminated the symptom due to implication of the chorda tympani,
which leaves the trunk of the facial at the geniculate ganglion, and
the sense of taste is unaffected, while there remains paralysis of the
face, dryness of the mouth (the secretory fibres run in the trunk of
the seventh), hyperacuisis, and paralysis of the palate.
It was in facial paralysis that the first observations upon the

degenerative reaction in muscles were made, and it is in that
affection that these electric phenomena have been best studied, and
give us the clearest indications for prognosis and treatment in
peripheral paralysis generally. In rheumatic facial paralysis, the most
common form of peripheral facial paralysis, the electric reactions of
the paralyzed muscles enable us to classify the cases into three
groups, the prognosis and duration of which vary very much. In the
first group are the slight forms of facial paralysis. Here the faradic or
galvanic current, applied to nerve or muscles, causes an ordinary
contraction; the electric reactions are normal. These cases scarcely
require treatment, and recover in two or three weeks. In a second
group are those cases in which within a short time after the invasion
of the paralysis (two weeks) complete degenerative reaction is
observed. This degenerative reaction, with the accompanying
anatomical changes in nerve and muscle, has already been treated
of in this article, and it is sufficient here to say that it is marked by
total loss of electric excitability, both faradic and galvanic, in the
nerve, loss of faradic and increased galvanic excitability in the
paralyzed muscles, with a reversal of the normal reply of the
muscles to the different poles of the galvanic battery. These cases
constitute the severe form of rheumatic facial paralysis, and the
prognosis is grave, recovery takes place only after months, and even
after the lapse of years traces of the disease remain in the imperfect
action of the muscles. A third group of cases are of a gravity
intermediate between these two. In them is present the milder form
of degenerative reaction; that is, there is a diminution, but not a total
loss, of electric excitability in the nerve for both the galvanic and
faradic currents; but in the muscles there is a marked increase of
galvanic excitability, with qualitative change—i.e. greater contraction
upon application to them of the positive than of the negative pole.
These cases may be expected to recover in from four to eight
weeks, the muscles still exhibiting the degenerative reaction after
voluntary motion has returned. Among the symptoms to be
particularly noticed in the progress of the severe forms of facial
paralysis are spasmodic twitchings or spasms of the muscles on the
affected side of the face, about the angle of the mouth, and around
the eye, occurring spontaneously or when voluntary movements are
made. Also a state of tonic contraction and rigidity may develop in
some of the muscles, causing a permanent elevation of the angle of
the mouth, a narrowing of the opening of the eye, or a rigidity of the
cheek. These symptoms have been erroneously attributed to the use
of electricity in the treatment, but they occur as frequently in cases in
which it has not been employed. Traumatic facial paralysis, as from
wounds, surgical operations, use of the forceps in delivery, or
paralysis from compression of the nerve, as from tumors, syphilitic
thickening of the dura mater, etc., do not require a detailed mention
here, as such cases come under the head of nerve-injuries, already
discussed. Paralysis of both facials (diplegia facialis), in so far as it is
caused by peripheral nerve lesion, is an accidental occurrence, and
need not be considered as a separate form of facial paralysis. It is
often the result of central disease.
The TREATMENT of peripheral facial paralysis must begin with the

effort to remove its cause. If syphilis is suspected, mercury and
iodide of potassium must be freely used. If the cause is an affection
of the middle ear, this must be treated. Wounds or traumatic injuries
must receive the necessary surgical attention. In addition, in such
cases electricity must be employed in the manner presently to be
described. In cases of rheumatic facial paralysis the treatment will
vary with their gravity. In the lighter form in which the nerve is
affected outside of the Fallopian canal, recovery takes place in a
comparatively short time, even without treatment, but is hastened by
the use of the faradic or galvanic current daily along the branches of
the nerve. In the severe form we must open the treatment by an
attempt to combat the condition of inflammation—of inflammatory
exudation—which we suppose exists within the Fallopian canal.
Local blood-letting by leeching upon the mastoid process may be
appropriately used in the very first outset of the paralysis. Iodide of
potassium, given persistently in large doses during the earlier period
of the disease, appears to act beneficially independently of any
syphilitic taint. Electricity is the remedy, however, on which most
reliance is to be placed in the treatment of rheumatic facial paralysis,
and the manner of its application may be taken as a model of how it
should be employed in all cases of peripheral paralysis. The galvanic
current, on account of its power of penetrating to the deeper parts
and its catalytic action, is to be preferred for the direct electrical
treatment of the nerve which should be instituted in recent cases. Its
action is best obtained by placing the positive pole behind the ear on
the affected side, the cathode behind the opposite ear, and passing
a moderate current across the base of the skull (the affected nerve
being thus in the course of the current) for one or two minutes.
Occasionally the position of the poles may be reversed. Besides this
direct application of galvanism to the point of lesion, it is necessary
to make a peripheral application of electricity to the branches of the
nerve and to the paralyzed muscles. For this we use both the faradic
and galvanic currents. The galvanic current is used by applying the
positive pole stationary behind the ear, while the negative pole, with
an electrode of suitable size, is stroked over each branch of the
nerve and applied to each muscle, a current being used sufficiently
strong to produce decided contractions. This peripheral application
should be made once daily, the time of application being from two to
five minutes. The application of the faradic current is made by simply
placing one electrode upon an indifferent spot, and moving the other
over the face, with a current strong enough to cause contractions if
the muscles still respond to it, or if they do not of such strength as
the patient can bear without discomfort. Without doubt, one of the
beneficial effects of peripheral electrization is the reflex excitement of
the facial above the point of lesion through the irritation of the
terminations of the fifth nerve in the skin. A certain advantage
derived from it is that it maintains the tone of the paralyzed muscles,
which in the case of the orbicularis palpebrarum is of great
importance in preventing the eversion of the lower lid and the
overflow of the tears. As it is impossible during the first days
succeeding the paralysis to distinguish severe cases from those of
the middle form, it is best to begin the treatment of all cases in the
manner above described. The use of strychnia in rheumatic facial
paralysis, both internally and by hypodermic injection, may be
mentioned on account of the widespread preposession in its favor,
and to point out distinctly its utter futility.
Mechanical appliances and manipulation are used with advantage in

the treatment of facial paralysis to prevent the paralyzed muscles
about the mouth and cheek from being drawn out of place and over-
stretched by the action of the sound ones of the opposite side, thus
having their tonicity and nutrition impaired.
Contractions and rigidity of muscles receive little benefit from the use
of electricity, and must be treated by mechanical procedures, such
as stretching, massage, etc.
Neuromata.
The term neuromata was applied to all tumors involving the nerve-
trunks at a time when their histological differences had not been
studied and they were all supposed to be composed of nerve-tissue;
and even yet the name is conveniently retained, because, although
differing widely histologically, tumors situated upon the nerves have
a very similar clinical history.
Neuromas must be divided into true and false, the true consisting of
nerve-tissue, the false, or pseudo-neuromas, being composed of
many varieties, having this only in common, that they are seated
upon the nerves.
The true neuromas are again subdivided into those in which the
nerve-tissue composing them resembles exactly the fibres of the
peripheral nerves, showing with the microscope the double-
contoured white substance of Schwann surrounding an axis-cylinder,
and those in which the tumor is made up of fibres which Virchow has
shown to be non-medullated nerve-fibres—i.e. the axis-cylinder
without the white substance of Schwann. These two forms have
been distinguished by the names myelinic and non-myelinic. The
true neuromas are non-malignant, although showing the tendency to
recur after extirpation, are of slow growth, and as a rule do not
increase to a very great size. The best type of the myelinic neuromas
is found in the spherical or spindle-shaped enlargements at the cut
ends of nerves, particularly in the stumps of amputated limbs, where
they are found oftenest intimately connected with the cicatricial
tissue, though sometimes lying free. They consist of true medullated
fibres mixed with some fibrous tissue. The fibres composing them
are derived partly from splitting up and proliferation of the fibres of
the nerve itself, partly are of new formation, the appearances
strongly recalling the process of regeneration in nerves. Myelinic
neuromas consist of fibres and nuclei so closely resembling in
microscopic appearance the fibromas that they have hitherto been
confounded with them; and there is a difference among the highest
authorities as to the certainty of their diagnosis, and, in
consequence, of the frequency of their occurrence. The true
neuromas may include in their structure all of the fibres of the nerve-
trunk or only a portion of them (partial neuroma)—a fact of
importance in their symptomatology. Of the false neuromas, the
fibromas are by far the most frequently met with. They appear as
knots, more or less hard, upon the course of the nerve-trunk, which
they may involve completely or partially. They are often excessively
painful to the touch or spontaneously, most of the so-called tubercula
dolorosa belonging to the fibro-neuromas. Fibromas sometimes
occur along the trunk and branches of a nerve, forming a plexus of
knotted cords (plexiform neuroma). Fibro-sarcomas are not an
infrequent form of neuroma.
Myxomas often occur upon the peripheral nerves, and are frequently
multiple, their points of predilection being the larger trunks, as the
sciatic, ulnar, etc. They show their characteristic soft structure, and
are usually spindle-shape, assuming a rounder form as they attain a
large size. The various forms of sarcoma occasionally form tumors
upon the nerves, attacking generally the large trunks. Carcinomatous
tumors beginning upon the nerves sometimes occur, but as a rule
these growths involve the nerve by extension to it from adjacent
parts.
Syphilitic gummata have been found almost exclusively upon the

intracranial portion of the cranial nerves.
Gliomas appear to affect only the optic and acoustic nerves. Lepra
nervorum (lepra anæsthetica) produces usually a spindle-form
thickening upon the nerve-trunks, but sometimes there are more
distinct knots, which may be felt beneath the skin, bead-like, along
the course of the nerves of the extremities.
Like the true neuromas, the false neuromas, developing from the
neurilemma and perineurium, may involve the whole or only a part of
the fibres of a nerve, or the nerve-fibres may run at the side of the
tumor—different conditions, which may alter materially the effects
produced upon the nerve.
Neuromas, both false and true, may occur not only singly, but often
in large numbers, many hundreds having been counted upon an
individual. Sometimes they are numerous upon a single nerve-trunk
and its branches, and again they may appear scattered over nearly
all of the nerves of the body, even to the cauda equina and roots of
the nerves. According to Erb,9 isolated neuromas are more frequent
in females, while multiple neuromas are found almost exclusively in
men. Neuromas vary greatly in size, as we might expect from the
very great difference of their nature and structure; sometimes no
larger than a pea, they may attain the size of a child's head.
9 Ziemssen's Handbuch.
ETIOLOGY.—In cases of multiple neuromata it would seem as if there

was a constitutional condition or diathesis as the foundation of the
affection. This we may the more readily believe as there appears
good evidence to show that the tendency to the formation of these
nerve-tumors is sometimes hereditary, and some of them are
congenital.
Idiots and cretins have been observed to suffer in undue proportion

with multiple neuromas. We find a direct exciting cause of neuromas
in mechanical injuries of nerves, wounds, blows, pressure, etc. Thus,
as has been already seen, true neuromas occur in the divided ends
of the nerves after amputations or otherwise where a nerve-trunk
has been divided (cicatricial neuroma). As such neuromas are in
some degree the result of inflammation, it is probable that they may
sometimes be caused by chronic neuritis.
For a large number of neuromas no cause can be assigned, and we

must at present consider them as originating spontaneously.
SYMPTOMS.—The position and connections of neuromas being so

different, sometimes simply in contact with the nerve; sometimes
situated in the thickness of the nerve-trunk, the fibres being pressed
aside and spread out upon the surface of the tumor; sometimes
involving in their tissue a part or the whole of the nerve-fibres,—we
cannot but expect a very marked difference in their clinical history.
Not a few cases occur in which the presence of neuromas, even in
large numbers, gives rise to no symptoms during life, and their
existence has been revealed only upon a post-mortem examination.
The symptom most common to neuromas, and one to be expected

from their mechanical interference with the nerves, is neuralgic pain
—sometimes extreme, local or shooting along the course of the
nerves, stubborn, and hardly to be alleviated by remedies. It is
paroxysmal, notwithstanding the unvarying character of its cause, in
consonance with the tendency to periodical activity which prevails in
the nervous system. Sometimes the pain is increased notably by
atmospheric changes. The pain may sometimes be arrested by firm
pressure upon the nerve above the seat of the tumor. In some cases
pressure upon the neuroma, or even handling it, causes great pain.
The intensity of the pain does not depend upon the size of the tumor,
some of the smallest having earned the appropriate name of
tubercula dolorosa. The continued irritation of a neuroma sometimes
produces a condition of general nervous excitability, which shows
itself in hysterical and even in true epileptic convulsions.
Occasionally there are abnormal sensations (paræsthesiæ),
formication, numbness, etc., in the distribution of the nerve affected,
and when from pressure or histological changes the fibres are
destroyed anæsthesia results.
The interference with the conductivity of the motor fibres, which

occurs less frequently than alterations of sensation, shows itself in
cramps, tumors, paresis, and paralysis, according to its degree.
Neuromas may destroy life by the continued excessive pain, which

wears down the strength and depresses the vitality. Death may be
caused by their peculiar situation; as, for instance, upon the cauda
equina, where they produce paraplegia, paralysis of the sphincter
and bladder, and trophic changes.
The DIAGNOSIS of neuromas can only be made when they are

sufficiently superficial to be recognized by the touch, and along with
the symptoms above detailed the tumor is situated upon the known
course of a nerve, to which, moreover, its attachment allows a lateral
movement.
The only TREATMENT available for neuromas is extirpation, which must

be conducted with a view to sparing any fibres of the nerve not
involved in the tumor. Where it is necessary to divide the nerve in the
removal of the tumor, as small a portion as possible must be
excised, with the hope of a regeneration and reuniting of the cut
ends. The success of extirpation depends largely upon the nature of
the neuroma. The true neuromas, while they often show a strong
tendency to recur after removal, are benign and show no metastasis.
For the false neuromas the prognosis will be in accordance with their
benign or malignant character.
NEURALGIA.
BY J. J. PUTNAM, M.D.
DEFINITION.—It is customary to describe as neuralgic those pains for

which no adequate cause can be assigned in any irritation of the
sensory nerves from outside, which recur paroxysmally, are
unattended by fever, and are distributed along the course of one or
more nerves or nerve-branches.
The general use of the term neuralgia further implies the common
belief that there is a disease or neurosis, not covered by any other
designation, of which these pains are the characteristic symptom. Of
the pathological anatomy of such a disease, however, nothing is
known; and if it could be shown for any given group of cases that the
symptoms which they present could be explained by referring them
to pathological conditions with which we are already familiar, these
cases would no longer properly be classified under the head of
neuralgia.
The attempt has frequently been made, and on good grounds, in

obedience to this reasoning, to cut down the list of the neuralgias,
strictly so called, and to account for many of the groups of symptoms
usually classified under that head by referring them to anæmia or
congestion of the sensory nerves, to neuritis, etc.
One of the best and most recent statements of this view is that of
Hallopeau,1 who, although he does not wholly deny the existence of
a neurosis which may manifest itself as neuralgia, goes so far as to
maintain that the gradual onset and decline and more or less
protracted course so common in the superficial neuralgias, such as
sciatica, suggest rather the phases of an inflammatory process than
the transitions of a functional neurotic outbreak, and that, in general
terms, a number of distinct affections are often included under the
name of neuralgia which are really of different origin, one from the
other, and resemble each other only superficially. This subject will be
discussed in the section on Pathology, and until then we shall, for
convenience' sake, treat of the various neuralgic attacks as if they
were modifications of one and the same disease.
1 Nouveau Dict. de Méd. et de Chir. pratiques, art. “Névalgies.”
GENERAL SYMPTOMATOLOGY.—The neuralgias may be conveniently

divided into—1, external or superficial; 2, visceral; 3, migraine and
the migrainoid headaches.
Superficial Neuralgia.
The most prominent symptom of a neuralgic attack of the superficial

nerves is of course the pain, and sometimes, from first to last, no
other sign of disease is present. In an acute attack the pain is usually
ushered in by a sense of discomfort, which the patient vainly tries to
shake off, or by a feeling of weight and pressure or of numbness and
prickling, or of itching. Sometimes, though far less often than in the
case of migraine, there are prodromal signs of a more general
character, such as a feeling of thirst2 or of mental depression or
drowsiness.
2 Spoken of by Mitchell's patient with neuralgia of the stump (see below).
A dart of pain may then be felt, which soon disappears, but again
returns, covering this time a wider area or occupying a new spot as
well as the old. The intensity, extension, and frequency of the
paroxysms then increase with greater or less rapidity, but, as a rule,
certain spots remain as foci of pain, which radiates from them in
various directions, principally up or down in the track of the nerve-
trunk mainly implicated. The pain rarely or never occupies the whole
course and region of distribution of a large nerve or plexus, but only
certain portions, which may be nearly isolated from one another.
In an acute attack the affected parts may at first look pale and feel
chilly, and later they frequently become congested and throb.
Mucous surfaces or glandular organs in the neighborhood often
secrete profusely, sometimes after passing through a preliminary
stage of dryness.
The skin often becomes acutely sensitive to the touch, even though
firm, deep pressure may relieve the suffering. Movement of the
painful parts, whether active or passive, is apt to increase the pain.
When the attack is at its height, the pain is apt to be felt over a larger
area than at an earlier or a later period, and may involve other
nerves than those first attacked. Thus, a brachial becomes a cervico-
brachial neuralgia or involves also the mammary or intercostal
nerves. A peculiarly close relationship exists between the neuralgias
of the trigeminal and of the occipital nerves. It is said that when the
attack is severe the corresponding nerves of the opposite side may
become the seat of pain. This is perhaps remotely analogous to the
complete transference of the pain from one side to the other which is
so characteristic of periodical neuralgic headaches, especially if they
last more than one day.
Some cutaneous neuralgias pass away after a few hours' or a night's

rest, after the manner of a migraine or a headache, and patients in
whom this takes place are, as a rule, constitutionally subject to
neuralgia or other neuroses. Toward the end of such an attack there
is often a copious secretion of pale, limpid urine. In a large class of
cases, on the other hand, the attack is of several days' or weeks', or
even months' or years', duration, with remissions or intermissions
and exacerbations, which may be either periodical or irregular.
The most marked periodicity of recurrence is seen with the

neuralgias of malarial origin, which may take on any one of the
typical forms of that disease.
These malarial neuralgias affect pre-eminently, though not

exclusively, the supraorbital branch of the fifth nerve; but it should
not be forgotten that there is also a typically periodical supraorbital
neuralgia of non-malarial origin, of which the writer has seen several
pronounced examples, the pain usually recurring regularly every
morning at eight or nine o'clock and passing away early in the
afternoon. The same periodicity is seen, though less often, in other
neuralgias. Thus, Trousseau3 speaks of neuralgic attacks from
cancer of the uterus in a young woman, which recurred daily at
exactly the same hour. Some of the traumatic neuralgias show the
same peculiarity to a marked degree.
3 Clin. Méd.
In many neuralgias, on the other hand, the exacerbations are worse

at night, like the pains of neuritis. In the intervals between the attacks
the pain may be wholly absent, or may persist, usually as a dull
aching.
After a neuralgia has lasted a few days—sometimes, indeed, from

the outset if the attack is severe—it is usually found that definite
spots of tenderness have made their appearance at certain limited
points on the course of the nerve. These are the famous points
douloureux which Valleix described with such minute accuracy,
believing them to be invariably present in true neuralgias. This is
certainly not strictly the case, though they are very common. They
are not necessarily coincident with the foci of spontaneous pain, as
Valleix supposed, but do correspond in general to the points at which
the affected nerve emerges from its bony canal or from deep
muscles and fascia, and to portions of its area of distribution in the
skin. The spinous process corresponding to an affected spinal nerve
may also become tender, but this is probably to be looked on, like
the same symptom in so-called spinal irritation, not as a sign of local
disease, but as due to a general reaction on the part of the nervous
system, and as a fact of a different order from the tenderness along
the nerve.
The termination of an acute neuralgic attack is usually gradual, like

its onset, although in some cases of headache, and in other
neuralgias to a less degree, there comes a moment when the patient
suddenly declares that he is free from pain.

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Introduction to Linear Algebra for

Science and Engineering, 3rd Edition -

AN INTRODUCTION TO LINEAR ALGEBRA

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A Note to Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

CHAPTER 1 Euclidean Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CHAPTER 2 Systems of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

CHAPTER 3 Matrices, Linear Mappings, and Inverses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

CHAPTER 4 Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

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4.5 General Linear Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

CHAPTER 5 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

CHAPTER 6 Eigenvectors and Diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

CHAPTER 7 Inner Products and Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

CHAPTER 8 Symmetric Matrices and Quadratic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . 425

CHAPTER 9 Complex Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

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APPENDIX A Answers to Mid-Section Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507

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Linear Algebra – Who Needs It?

Life and Social Scientists

Managers and Other Professionals

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Will these applications be explained in this book?

How To Make the Most of This Book: SQ3R

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Changes to the Third Edition

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• Numerous small changes have been made to improve student comprehension.

Approach and Organization

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• Overdetermined systems (Section 7.3)

A wide variety of additional applications are mentioned throughout the text.

A Note on the Exercises and Problems

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Using This Text To Teach Linear Algebra

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Agnieszka Wolczuk for her support and encouragement.

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Euclidean Vector Spaces

1.1 Vectors in R2 and R3

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For applications in many areas of mathematics, and in many subjects such as

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We dene scalar multiplication of �x by a factor of t ∈ R, called a scalar, by

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The addition of two vectors is illustrated in Figure 1.1.3: construct a parallelogram

Scalar multiplication is illustrated in Figure 1.1.4. Observe that multiplication by

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Denition Let �v 1 , . . . , �v k ∈ R2 and c1 , . . . , ck ∈ R. We call the sum c1�v 1 + · · · + ck�v k a linear

Theorem 1.1.1 For all w

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The Vector Equation of a Line in R2

The non-zero vector d� is called a direction vector of the line.

which has vector equation

Figure 1.1.5 The line with vector equation �x = td� + �p , t ∈ R.

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Sometimes the components of a vector equation are written separately. In

EXAMPLE 1.1.6 Write a vector equation, a scalar equation, and parametric

Since c = s + 2t can take