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Linear and Switch-Mode
RF Power Amplifiers
Linear and Switch-Mode
RF Power Amplifiers
Design and Implementation Methods

Abdullah Eroglu
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Dedicated to my family who has always shown
great patience and support for my research.
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Acknowledgments................................................................................................... xiii
Author....................................................................................................................... xv

Chapter 1 Radio Frequency Amplifier Basics.......................................................1

1.1 I ntroduction................................................................................1
1.2 Types of Amplifiers: Small Signal and Large Signal
Amplifiers����������������������������������������������������������������������������������1
1.3 Linear Amplifiers.......................................................................3
1.4 Switch-Mode Amplifiers............................................................5
1.5 Power Transistors.......................................................................7
1.5.1 BJT and HBTs...............................................................8
1.5.2 FETs..............................................................................8
1.5.2.1 MOSFETs.................................................... 10
1.6 Passive Devices........................................................................ 12
1.6.1 Inductor....................................................................... 12
1.6.1.1 Air-Core Inductor Design............................ 14
1.6.1.2 Magnetic-Core Inductor Design.................. 14
1.6.1.3 Planar Inductor Design................................ 16
1.6.2 Capacitor..................................................................... 18
1.6.3 Resistor........................................................................ 19
References........................................................................................... 21

Chapter 2 Two-Port Parameters........................................................................... 23

2.1 I ntroduction.............................................................................. 23
2.2 Network Parameters................................................................. 23
2.2.1 Z-Impedance Parameters............................................ 23
2.2.2 Y-Admittance Parameters............................................24
2.2.3 ABCD Parameters.......................................................25
2.2.4 h-Hybrid Parameters...................................................26
2.3 Network Connections............................................................... 30
2.4 S-Scattering Parameters........................................................... 36
2.4.1 One-Port Network....................................................... 37
2.4.2 N-Port Network........................................................... 39
2.4.3 Normalized Scattering Parameters............................. 43
References........................................................................................... 51

Chapter 3 Impedance Matching and Resonant Networks................................... 53

3.1 I ntroduction.............................................................................. 53
3.2 Transmission Lines................................................................... 53

vii
viii Contents

3.2.1 Limiting Cases for Transmission Lines...................... 57

3.2.2 Terminated Lossless Transmission Lines................... 59
3.2.3 Special Cases of Terminated Transmission Lines......64
3.3 Smith Chart..............................................................................66
3.3.1 Input Impedance Determination with Smith Chart....... 72
3.3.2 Smith Chart as an Admittance Chart.......................... 76
3.3.3 ZY Smith Chart and Its Application............................ 76
3.4 Impedance Matching between Transmission Lines and
Load Impedances��������������������������������������������������������������������80
3.5 Single Stub Tuning................................................................... 83
3.5.1 Shunt Single Stub Tuning............................................84
3.5.2 Series Single Stub Tuning........................................... 85
3.6 Impedance Transformation and Matching between
Source and Load Impedances������������������������������������������������� 86
3.7 Resonator Networks................................................................. 89
3.7.1 Parallel and Series Resonant Networks.......................90
3.7.1.1 Parallel Resonance.......................................90
3.7.1.2 Series Resonance.........................................97
3.7.2 Parallel LC Networks................................................ 102
3.7.2.1 Parallel LC Networks with Ideal
Components���������������������������������������������� 102
3.7.2.2 Parallel LC Networks with Nonideal
Components���������������������������������������������� 103
3.7.2.3 Loading Effects on Parallel LC
Networks������������������������������������������������ 106
3.8 LC Resonators as Impedance Transformers........................... 108
3.8.1 Inductive Load........................................................... 108
3.8.2 Capacitive Load......................................................... 109
3.9 Tapped Resonators as Impedance Transformers.................... 112
3.9.1 Tapped-C Impedance Transformer........................... 112
3.9.2 Tapped-L Impedance Transformer............................ 117
3.10 Signal Flow Graphs................................................................ 117
References......................................................................................... 123

Chapter 4 Small-Signal Amplifiers.................................................................... 125

4.1 Amplifier Basic Terminology................................................. 125
4.1.1 Gain........................................................................... 125
4.1.2 Efficiency................................................................... 127
4.1.3 Power Output Capability........................................... 128
4.1.4 Linearity.................................................................... 129
4.1.5 1 dB Compression Point............................................ 130
4.1.6 Harmonic Distortion................................................. 131
4.1.7 Intermodulation......................................................... 134
4.2 Small-Signal Amplifier Design.............................................. 139
4.2.1 DC Biasing Circuits.................................................. 143
Contents ix

4.2.2  JT Biasing Circuits................................................. 145

B
4.2.2.1 Fixed Bias.................................................. 145
4.2.2.2 Stable Bias................................................. 146
4.2.2.3 Self-Bias..................................................... 149
4.2.2.4 Emitter Bias............................................... 150
4.2.2.5 Active Bias Circuit..................................... 151
4.2.2.6 Bias Circuit Using Linear Regulator......... 151
4.2.3 FET Biasing Circuits................................................. 153
4.2.4 Small-Signal Amplifier Design Method................... 153
4.2.4.1 Definitions of Power Gains for
Small-Signal Amplifiers��������������������������� 154
4.2.4.2 Design Steps for Small-Signal
Amplifier����������������������������������������������� 158
4.2.4.3 Small-Signal Amplifier Stability............... 159
4.2.4.4 Constant Gain Circles................................ 165
4.2.4.5 Unilateral Figure of Merit......................... 170
References......................................................................................... 186

Chapter 5 Linear Amplifier Design and Implementation.................................. 187

5.1  arge-Signal RF Amplifier Design Techniques..................... 187
L
5.2 Push–Pull Amplifier Configuration....................................... 191
5.3 Parallel Transistor Configuration........................................... 194
5.4 PA Module Combiners........................................................... 194
5.5 Linear Amplifiers................................................................... 194
5.5.1 Conventional Amplifiers: Classes A, B, and C......... 199
5.6 Class A Amplifiers.................................................................202
5.7 Class B....................................................................................204
5.8 Class AB.................................................................................208
5.9 Class C....................................................................................208
5.9.1 Design Example........................................................ 211
References......................................................................................... 217

Chapter 6 Switch-Mode Amplifier Design and Implementation....................... 219

6.1 I ntroduction............................................................................ 219
6.2 Class D Amplifiers................................................................. 219
6.2.1 Voltage-Mode Class D Amplifiers............................ 219
6.2.2 Current Mode Class D Amplifiers............................ 225
6.3 Class E Amplifiers.................................................................. 228
6.3.1 Conventional Analysis of Class E Amplifiers........... 228
6.3.1.1 Suboptimum Conditions for Class E
Amplifier Design�������������������������������������� 228
6.3.1.2 Optimum Conditions Class E
Amplifier Design�������������������������������������� 236
6.3.2 Harmonic Modeling of Class E Amplifiers.............. 242
x Contents

6.4 Class DE Amplifiers............................................................... 247

6.4.1 Analysis of Series Resonant Network....................... 250
6.5 Class F Amplifiers.................................................................. 255
6.5.1 Class S....................................................................... 263
References......................................................................................... 286

Chapter 7 Phase-Controlled Switch-Mode Amplifiers...................................... 289

7.1 I ntroduction............................................................................ 289
7.2 Phase Control of a Class E Power Amplifier Pair.................. 289
7.2.1 Implementation of Harmonic Modeling.................... 292
7.2.1.1 Single-Ended Class E Power Amplifier..... 292
7.2.1.2 Phase-Controlled Class E Power
Amplifier��������������������������������������������������� 299
7.3 Pulsing of Switch-Mode Amplifiers.......................................302
7.3.1 Pulsing of Class E Amplifiers...................................302
7.3.1.1 Simulation Results.....................................304
7.3.1.2 Experimental Results................................. 310
References......................................................................................... 320

Chapter 8 Distortion and Modulation Effects in RF Power Amplifiers............ 323

8.1 I ntroduction............................................................................ 323
8.2 Ideal Quadrature Modulator................................................... 324
8.3 Nonideal Quadrature Modulator............................................ 326
8.3.1 I Path......................................................................... 327
8.3.2 Q Path........................................................................ 329
8.3.3 Output of Nonideal Quadrature Modulator.............. 332
8.4 Improved Method for Image Band Rejection......................... 333
8.4.1 LO Cancellation........................................................ 338
8.4.2 Simulation Results..................................................... 342
8.4.2.1 Simulation Model...................................... 342
8.4.2.2 Simulation Results..................................... 345
References......................................................................................... 351
Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 353
Preface
Radio frequency power amplifiers are critical part of communication, semiconduc-
tor wafer processing, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and radar systems. The
amplifier system not only requires expertise in the design of amplifier topologies, but
it also requires knowledge in the design of its surrounding components. The authors’
previous two books, Introduction to RF Circuit Design Techniques for MF-UHF
Applications and Introduction to RF Power Amplifier Design and Simulation, have
presented the design and simulation of the amplifier components and devices. This
book is written to provide the implementation methods for RF amplifiers, which
can operate in linear or switch mode via several real-world engineering problems.
Step-by-step design methods to design amplifiers are exemplified with several design
problems. MATLAB, Matchcad Pspice, and ADS simulation tools are used to aid the
design process. All the design examples given include analytical design, simulation
verification, and measurement results of the built prototype.
The scope of each chapter in this book can be summarized as follows. Chapter 1
gives introduction to RF Power amplifiers and topologies and discussion on passive
and active components and surrounding devices for RF power amplifiers. Chapter 2
discusses two-port parameters including Z, Y, h, ABCD, and scattering parame-
ters, which can be used to design small-signal amplifiers. In Chapter 3, impedance
matching and resonant networks for amplifiers are detailed. In Chapter 4, small-
signal amplifier design methods are introduced with simulation and implementation
examples. Chapter 5 discusses design, analysis, and implementation of large-signal
amplifier design methods. In this chapter, RF linear amplifiers and different biasing
schemes have been presented. The design and implementation of Classes A, B, and
AB are given with examples. Furthermore, Class C amplifier design in different
modes is also detailed.
In Chapter 6, the design and implementation of RF switch-mode amplifiers
including Classes D, E, DE, F, and S topologies have been discussed with applica-
tion and implementation examples. Generic MATLAB and Mathcad design algo-
rithms to design Classes D, DE, E, and F amplifiers are given. Chapter 7 presents
phase-controlled switch-mode amplifiers using harmonic modeling. RF pulsing
amplifier design techniques and implementation methods are also discussed in this
chapter. Characterization methods for amplifiers have been illustrated using load-
pull technique. In Chapter 8, distortion and modulation effects for amplifiers and
the method for elimination of the impairments causing these defects have been
detailed.
It is important to note that engineering application examples are given in every
chapter for each subject to solidify the theory and help designers have hands-on
experience of the design problems. Implementation of RF amplifiers is given step
by step to make it possible for professionals and students use this book as the main
resource.

xi
xii Preface

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product informa-

tion, please contact:

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Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my wife, G. Dilek, for her greatest support, including editorial
corrections in the book.
The completion of this book was possible during my sabbatical leave from my
home institution, Purdue University Fort Wayne, and I thank it for the support.
I would also like to thank University of Gavle, Sweden for hosting me during some
portion of that period, which helped me complete this project.
I would also like to thank my editor, Nora Konopka, for her patience and support
during the course of the preparation and publication of this book.

xiii
Author
Abdullah Eroglu is a professor of electrical engineering at the Electrical and
Computer Engineering Department of Purdue University, Fort Wayne. He previ-
ously worked as a radio frequency (RF) senior design engineer at MKS Instruments,
ENI Products, Rochester, New York, and as a faculty fellow in the Fusion Energy
Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
His research focuses on design and development of RF devices for applications
including communication, energy, semiconductor manufacturing, and health care.
He also investigates the propagation and radiation characteristics of materials for
microwave and RF applications.
He earned a PhD in electrical engineering at Syracuse University, Syracuse, New
York. He is a recipient of several research awards, including 2013 IPFW Outstanding
Researcher Award, 2012 IPFW Featured Faculty Award, 2011 Sigma Xi Researcher
of the Year Award; and 2010 IPFW College of Engineering, Technology, and
Computer Science Excellence in Research Award.
Dr. Eroglu is the author of five books and has published more than 100 peer-
reviewed journals and conference papers. He has several patents in RF component,
device design, and methodology. He also serves as a reviewer and editorial board
member for several journals.

xv
 1 Radio Frequency
Amplifier Basics

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Radio frequency (RF) power amplifiers are one of the critical elements for commu-
nication systems when signal in use needs to be amplified for several applications.
The simplified RF power amplifier block diagram is shown in Figure 1.1.
Radio frequency power amplifiers consist of several surrounding components.
The main component of the amplifier is the active device that is critical in the ampli-
fication process. The surrounding components in the amplifier are matching net-
works that are implemented at the input and output of the amplifier, biasing network,
stability networks, filters that are used to eliminate spurious or harmonic contents,
and control system of the amplifier to ensure the functionality of the amplifier against
various conditions.
The type and class of the amplifier are important parameters in the design pro-
cess, apart from the design of its surrounding components. The amplifier type can be
small signal or large signal based on the design, whereas class of the amplifier might
belong to a group of linear or switch-mode class of amplifiers. The type and class of
the amplifier are based on the application and requirements identified beforehand for
the designer. In this book, different components, types, and classes of the amplifiers;
mathematical and computer tools that are used to design, simulate, and implement
RF; and microwave amplifier and components will be discussed.

1.2 TYPES OF AMPLIFIERS: SMALL SIGNAL

AND LARGE SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS
Amplifiers have inherently nonlinear characteristics owing to active devices that are
used during amplification process. However, when signal levels are small enough, it
does not cause distortion to vary parameters of the active devices, which results in
the linear relationship between input and output of the amplifier.
When the conditions satisfy the requirements of the linear approximation, ampli-
fiers can be analyzed using two-port parameters and network methods. The type of
the amplifiers in this group are called as small signal amplifiers. The efficiency of
small signal amplifiers is not critical. The design for this type of amplifiers use com-
plex conjugate matching method.
For high-power applications, large signal levels are applied for amplification, and
this causes distortion in the amplifier due to variation of the active device param-
eters. Hence, small signal analysis and techniques cannot be applied anymore for
these types of amplifiers. The type of the amplifiers in this group are called as large
signal amplifiers. The conventional conjugate matching method also does not deliver

1
2 Linear and Switch-Mode RF Power Amplifiers

Vdc

Rchoke

Zg

Input Output
Vg matching matching ZL
network network

FIGURE 1.1 Basic block diagram of RF power amplifiers.

the maximum power to the load connected at the output of the amplifier. Hence, the
technique called load line matching [1] needs to be implemented to overcome the
limitations due to physical rating of active device and have the maximum voltage and
current swing. The optimum load impedance that will give the practical maximum
power can be obtained from the maximum swing points for voltage and current from

Vmax_ swing
Ropt = . (1.1)
I max_ swing

The difference between conjugate matching used in small signal amplifier design
and load matching used in large signal amplifier design can be better understood
using the simplified circuit given in Figure 1.2.
The maximum power transfer in the circuit shown in Figure 1.2 occurs when

Rg = RL and Bg = − BL.. (1.2)

If we assume that there are no device or component limitations in the circuit, then
this will hold true, and the maximum power will be transferred as indicated for small

IL

Ig Rg Bg RL BL VL

FIGURE 1.2 Simplified circuit for large signal and small signal analysis.
Radio Frequency Amplifier Basics 3

signal analysis. However, if there is limitation for voltage or current, this cannot be
applied. For instance, for the circuit in Figure 1.2, let us assume Rg = 50 [Ω] and the
maximum operating voltage and current are Vmax = 20 [V ], I max = 2 [ A].
Then, the maximum power transfer using conjugate method dictates that

RL = RL = 50 [Ω].

Since, RL and Rg are in parallel, the equivalent impedance is Req = 25 [Ω]. The output
voltage is then calculated to be

VL = I max Req = ( 2 )( 25 ) = 50 [V ] > Vmax ,

which is more than the amount of maximum voltage that can be handled in the cir-
cuit. Hence, the maximum current that can be obtained with this configuration by
staying within the given operating limit of the voltage is I L,max = 0.8 [A]. Then, the
maximum power without exceeding the operating limit is

PL,max = I L,maxVL,max = ( 0.8 )( 20 ) = 16 [W].

Now, let us assume, we would like to use the load line matching method, which is the
viable design method for large signal amplifiers. Then, the optimum load resistance
is calculated to be

Vmax 20
RL = = = 10 [ Ω ] .
I max 2

Then, the power that can be obtained with this configuration is

PL,max = I L,maxVL,max = (2)(20) = 40 [W] .

This is the method that can now utilize the ratings of devices and gives maximum
power attainable in practice.
Large signal amplifiers can be classified as Class A, Class B, and Class AB for
linear mode of operation and Class C, Class D, Class E, and Class F for nonlinear
mode of operation. Classes D, E, and F are also known as switch-mode amplifiers.

1.3 LINEAR AMPLIFIERS
Consider the amplifier voltage transfer characteristics illustrated in Figure 1.3. The
output of the amplifier is linearly proportional to the input of the amplifier via volt-
age gain β. The output voltage will be identical to the input voltage. The relationship
between input and output of the amplifier can be expressed mathematically as

vo (t ) = βvi (t ). (1.3)
4 Linear and Switch-Mode RF Power Amplifiers

Vin Vin

t t
PA

Vout
Slope = β
Vin

FIGURE 1.3 Linear amplifier voltage transfer characteristics.

Vdc

RFchoke IDC

Io
+ Cd
Vo

ID VCd
+ IL
Vds
C L
RL

ZtLn

FIGURE 1.4 Equivalent circuit representation of linear amplifier mode of operation.

When the transistor is operated as a voltage-dependent current source, linear opera-

tional mode for the amplifiers can be obtained. The conduction angle, θ, is then
used to determine the class of the amplifier [2]. The conduction angle varies up to
2π based on the amplifier class. The use of transistor as a dependent current source
represents linear mode of operation, which is shown in Figure 1.4.
The conduction angles, bias, and quiescent points for linear amplifier are illus-
trated in Table 1.1. Conduction angle, θ, is defined as the duration of the period in
which the given transistor is conducting. The full cycle of conduction is considered
to be 360°. The points of intersection with the load line are known as the “quiescent”
Radio Frequency Amplifier Basics 5

TABLE 1.1
Conduction Angles, Bias, and Quiescent Points for
Linear Amplifiers
Class Bias Point Quiescent Point Conduction Angle
A 0.5 0.5 2π
AB 0–0.5 0–0.5 π–2π
B 0 0 π
C <0 0 0–π

ID

Imax

Class A

Class AB

Class B VDS
Vsat Vmax
Class C

FIGURE 1.5 Load lines and bias points for linear amplifiers.

conditions or “Q points” or the dc bias conditions for the transistor, which represent
the operational device voltages and drain current as shown in Figure 1.5.
Classes A, AB, and B amplifiers have been used for linear applications where ampli-
tude modulation (AM), single-sideband modulation (SSB), and quadrate amplitude
modulation (QAM) might be required. The summary of the operational characteristics
of linear amplifiers and Class C nonlinear amplifiers is given in Tables 1.2 and 1.3.

1.4 SWITCH-MODE AMPLIFIERS
When the transistor is used as switch, then the amplifier operates in nonlinear mode
of operation, and it can be illustrated with the equivalent circuit in Figure 1.6. Classes
C, D, E, and F are usually implemented for narrowband-tuned amplifiers when high
efficiency is desired with high power. Classes A, B, AB, and C are operated as trans-
conductance amplifiers, and the mode of operation depends on the conduction angle.
6 Linear and Switch-Mode RF Power Amplifiers

TABLE 1.2
Summary of Linear Amplifier Operational Characteristics
Amplifier Transistor (Q)
Class Mode Operation Pros Cons
A Linear Always conducting Most linear, lowest Poor efficiency
distortion
B Linear Each device is on ηB > ηA Worse linearity than
half cycle Class A
AB Linear Mid conduction Improved linearity with Power dissipation for
respect to Class B low signal levels
higher than Class B
C Nonlinear Each device is on High Po Inherent harmonics
half cycle

TABLE 1.3
Summary of Linear Amplifier Performance Parameters
Normalized RF Power
Max Output Power Normalized Normalized Capability
Amplifier Efficiency Po,max Vm Im Po,max
Vds,max I d,max
Class ηmax [%] Vdc2 /2RL Vdc I dc VmI m
A 50 1 2 2 0.125
B 78.5 1 2 π = 3.14 0.125
C 86 (θ = 71°) 1 2 3.9 0.11

RF, radio frequency.

Vdc

RFchoke IDC

Io
Cd
+
Vo
ID VCd
IL
+
Vds
C L RL

ZtLn

FIGURE 1.6 Equivalent circuit representation of nonlinear amplifier mode of operation.

Radio Frequency Amplifier Basics 7

TABLE 1.4
Summary of Switch-Mode Amplifier Operational Characteristics
Normalized RF Power
Max Output Power Normalized Normalized Capability
Amplifier Efficiency Po,max Vds,max Vm I d,max
Im Po,max
Class ηmax [%] Vdc2 /2RL Vdc I dc VmI m
D 100 16/π = 1.624
2 2 π/2 = 1.57 1/π = 0.318
E 100 4/(1 + π2/4) = 1.154 3.6 2.86 0.098
F 100 16/π2 = 1.624 2 π = 3.14 1/2π = 0.318

TABLE 1.5
Summary of Switch-Mode Amplifier Performance Parameters
Amplifier Transistor (Q)
Class Mode Operation
D Switch mode Q1 and Q2 switched
on/off alternately
E Switch-mode Transistor is switched
on/off
F Switch mode Transistor is switched
on/off
S Switch mode Q1 and Q2 are switched
on/off with modulated
signal
Pros Cons
Max efficiency and Device parasitics
best power are issue at high
frequencies
Max efficiency, no High-voltage stress
loss due to parasitics on transistor
Max efficiency and Power loss due to
no harmonic power discharge of output
delivered capacitance
Wider dynamic range Upper frequency
and high efficiency range is limited

In switch-mode amplifiers such as Classes D, E, and F, the active device is inten-

tionally driven into saturation region, and it is operated as a switch rather than a cur-
rent source unlike Class A, AB, B, or C amplifiers as shown in Figure 1.4. In theory,
power dissipation in the transistor can be totally eliminated, and hence, 100% effi-
ciency can be achieved for switch-mode amplifiers.
The summary of some of the switch-mode amplifier performance parameters
including efficiency, normalized RF power, normalized maximum drain voltage
swing, and power capability are given in Table 1.4. Table 1.5 compares each ampli-
fier class based on transistor operation and application and gives the advantages and
disadvantages of each class.

1.5 POWER TRANSISTORS
The selection of a transistor that will be used for amplification in RF amplifier is very
critical, because it can affect the performance of the amplifier parameters including
efficiency, dissipation, power delivery, stability, linearity, etc. Once the transistor is
8 Linear and Switch-Mode RF Power Amplifiers

TABLE 1.6
Typical Parameter Values for Semiconductor Materials
Thermal
RF High-Power Conductivity Ebr JM =
Material μ [cm2/Vs] εr Eg [eV] [W/cmK] [MV/cm] Ebrvsat/2π Tmax [°C]
Si 1350 11.8 1.1 1.3 0.3 1.0 300
GaAs 8500 13.1 1.42 0.46 0.4 2.7 300
SiC 700 9.7 3.26 4.9 3.0 20 600
GaN 1200 (Bulk) 9.0 3.39 1.7 3.3 27.5 700
2000 (2DEG)

RF, radio frequency.

selected for the corresponding amplifier topology, size of the transistor, die place-
ment, bond pads, bonding of the wires, and lead connections will determine the lay-
out of the amplifier and the thermal management of the system. The most commonly
used RF and microwave power devices for commercial purposes are based on silicon
(Si), gallium arsenide (GaAs), and its compounds. There is an intense research in the
development of high-power density devices using materials that have a wide bandgap
such as silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN). Fundamentally, the device
performance is determined by several parameters including material energy band-
gap, breakdown field, electrons and holes transport properties, thermal conductivity,
saturated electron velocity, and conductivity. The typical values of these parameters
for various types of semiconductor materials are given in Table 1.6.
The power device family tree can be simplified and is shown in Figure 1.7.

1.5.1 BJT and HBTs

A typical npn bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is formed out of silicon and the emit-
ter and collector regions that are implanted with donors. There are differences in the
characteristics of field effect transistor (FET) and heterojunction bipolar transistor
(HBT) devices. The main difference between BJT and HBT is the introduction of
heterojunction at the emitter–base interface in the HBT device [3]. This can be illus-
trated in Figure 1.8.
FET is a planar device, whereas HBT is a vertical device. The HBT device is
an enhanced version of conventional BJTs, as a result of the exploitation of hetero-
structure junctions [4]. Unlike conventional BJTs, in HBTs the bandgap difference
between the emitter and the base materials results in higher common emitter gain.
Base sheet resistance is lower than that in ordinary BJTs, and the resulting operating
frequency is accordingly higher [5].

1.5.2 FETs
The FET family includes a variety of structures, among which are metal-semiconductor
field-effect transistors (MESFETs), MOSFETs, HEMTS, etc. They typically consist
Radio Frequency Amplifier Basics 9

Power devices

BJT FET

HBT
MOSFET MESFET JFET

GaAs MESFET
GaAs MOSFET

Si MOSFET

Heterostructure MESFET

InP MESFET

Si MESFET

Si JFET
GaAs JFET
NMOS, PMOS
CMOS
HMOS
DMOS, DIMOS
VMOS
SOS, SOI

Di used
Grown

Single channel
V-groove
Multi channel
Hetrojunction
Single gate

Interdigital structure
Dual gate

FIGURE 1.7 Family tree for power devices.

(a) (b)

E B C Emitter cap B r-type InGaAs

Emitter N-type InF

r-type silicon Base p-type InGaAs C
p-type silicon Collector r-type InGaAs
r-type silicon
Sub-collector r-type InGaAs
Semi-insulating InP substrate

FIGURE 1.8 Typical layer structure of (a) silicon BJT and (b) InP/InGaAs HBT transistor.

of a conductive channel accessed by two ohmic contacts, acting as source (S) and
drain (D) terminals, respectively. The third terminal, the gate (G), forms a rectify-
ing junction with the channel or a metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) structure. A
simplified structure of a metal–semiconductor n-type FET is depicted in Figure 1.9
[5]. FET devices ideally do not draw current through the gate terminal, unlike the
BJTs, which conversely require a significant base current, thus simplifying the bias-
ing arrangement. FET devices exhibit a negative temperature coefficient, resulting
10 Linear and Switch-Mode RF Power Amplifiers

Depletion
region
Gate
Source Drain

n+ n+

n-channel

Semi-insulating substrate

FIGURE 1.9 Simplified structure of FET.

TABLE 1.7
RF Power Transistors and Their Applications and Frequency of Operations
RF Transistor Drain BV [V] Frequency [GHz] Major Applications
RF power FET 65 0.001–0.4 VHF power amplifier
GaAs MesFET 16–22, 60 1–30 Radar, satellite, defense
SiC MesFET 100 0.5–2.3 Base station
GaN MesFET 160 1–30 Replacement for GaAs
Si LDMOS (FET) 65 0.5–2 Base station
Si VDMOS (FET) 65–1200 0.001–0.5 High power amplifiers, FM broadcasting,
and magnetic resonance imaging

BV, breakdown voltage; RF, radio frequency; HF, high frequency; LDMOS, laterally diffused MOSFET;
MESFET, metal-semiconductor field-effect transistor; VHF, very high frequency.

in a decreasing drain current as the temperature increases. This prevents thermal

runaway and allows multiple FETs to be connected in parallel without ballasting, a
useful property if a corporate or combined device concept has to be adopted for high-
power amplifier design.
RF MOSFET power transistors and their major applications and frequency of
operation are given in Table 1.7.

1.5.2.1 MOSFETs
MOSFETs are widely used in RF power amplifier applications, and their param-
eters are identified by manufacturers at different static and dynamic conditions.
Therefore, each MOSFET device has been manufactured with different char-
acteristics. The designer selects the appropriate device for the specific circuit
under consideration. One of the standard ways commonly used by designers for
selection of right MOSFET device is called figure of merit (FOM) [1]. There are
different types of FOMs that are used. FOM in its simplest form compares the
Radio Frequency Amplifier Basics 11

gate charge, Qg, against RdsON. The multiplication of gate charge and drain to
source on resistance relates to a certain device technology as it can be related to
the required Qg and RdsON to achieve the right scale for MOSFET. The challenge
is the relation between Qg and RdsON because MOSFET has inherent trade-offs
between ON resistance and gate charge i.e., the lower the 12 dsON, the higher
the gate charge will be. In device design, this is trade-off between conduction
loss versus switching loss. The new generation MOSFETs are manufactured to
have an improved FOM [2,6–8]. The comparison of FOM on MOSFETs manufac-
tured with different processes can be illustrated on planar MOSFET structure and
trench MOSFET structure. MOSFET with trench structure has seven times better
FOM versus planar structure as shown in Figure 1.10.
Two variations of the trench power MOSFET are shown Figure 1.11. The trench
technology has the advantage of higher cell density but is more difficult to manufac-
ture than the planar device.

Source Source
Polysilicon Source
Source gate metalization Gate
Gate oxide Oxide Gate
oxide
n+ n+
p+ Body p p
region p+
Channels n– Epi layer Channel
Higher density cell
Drift region n– Epi layer

n+ Substrate n+ Substrate

Drain
metalization Drain Drain

FIGURE 1.10 FOM comparison of planar and trench MOSFET structures.

(a) (b)
Source Source Source Source
Gate
Gate
Oxide Gate
oxide

n– Epi layer Channel

Electron flow
n+ Substrate

Drain Drain

FIGURE 1.11 Trench MOSFET. (a) Current crowding in V-Groove trench MOSFET and
(b) truncated V-Groove.
12 Linear and Switch-Mode RF Power Amplifiers

1.6 PASSIVE DEVICES
Passive components used in the design of amplifiers are inductors, capacitors, and
resistors. Their size, ratings, and packages vary depending on the operational param-
eters of the amplifier. Most of the time, capacitors and resistors need to be purchased
as off-the-shelf part, whereas inductors can be designed by the amplifier designer.

1.6.1 Inductor
Inductors can be implemented as discrete component or distributed element depend-
ing on the frequency of application. If a current flows through a wire wound, a
flux is produced through each turn as a result of magnetic flux density as shown in
Figure 1.12. The relation between the flux density and flux through each turn can be
represented as

Ψ=
∫ B ⋅ds. (1.4)

If there are N turns, then we define the flux linkage as

∫
λ = NΨ = N B ⋅ d s. (1.5)

Inductance is defined as the ratio of flux linkage to current flowing through the
windings as defined by

λ NΨ
L= = . (1.6)
I I

The inductance defined by Equation 1.6 is also known as self-inductance of the core
that is formed by the windings. The core can be an air core or a magnetic core.
Inductors can be formed as air-core inductors or magnetic-core inductors
depending on the application. When air-core inductors are formed through wind-
ings and operated at high frequency (HF), the inductor presents high-frequency

Ι Ι
+ –

FIGURE 1.12 Flux through each turn.

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softening party asperities and aiding very materially in the
restoration of better feeling between the North and South. Its
conservatism, always manifested save on extraordinary occasions,
did that much good at least.
 The Campaign of 1880.

The Republican National Convention met June 5th, 1880, at

Chicago, in the Exposition building, capable of seating 20,000
people. The excitement in the ranks of the Republicans was very
high, because of the candidacy of General Grant for what was
popularly called a “third term,” though not a third consecutive term.
His three powerful Senatorial friends, in the face of bitter protests,
had secured the instructions of their respective State Conventions for
Grant. Conkling had done this in New York, Cameron in
Pennsylvania, Logan in Illinois, but in each of the three States the
opposition was so impressive that no serious attempts were made to
substitute other delegates for those which had previously been
selected by their Congressional districts. As a result there was a large
minority in the delegations of these States opposed to the
nomination of General Grant, and the votes of them could only be
controlled by the enforcement of the unit rule. Senator Hoar of
Massachusetts, the President of the Convention, decided against its
enforcement, and as a result all of the delegates were free to vote
upon either State or District instructions, or as they chose. The
Convention was in session three days. We present herewith the

BALLOTS.
 Ballots. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Grant, 304 305 305 305 305 305
Blaine, 284 282 282 281 281 281
Sherman, 93 94 93 95 95 95
Edmunds, 34 32 32 32 32 31
Washburne, 30 32 31 31 31 31
Windom, 10 10 10 10 10 10
Garfield, 1 1 1 2 2
Harrison, 1
Ballots. 7 8 9 10 11 12
Grant, 305 306 308 305 305 304
Blaine, 281 284 282 282 281 283
Sherman, 94 91 90 91 62 93
Edmunds, 32 31 31 30 31 31
Washburne, 31 32 32 22 32 33
Windom, 10 10 10 10 10 10
Garfield, 1 1 1 2 2 1
Hayes, 1 2
Ballots, 13 14 15 16 17 18
Grant, 305 305 309 306 303 305
Blaine, 285 285 281 283 284 283
Sherman, 89 89 88 88 90 92
Edmunds, 31 31 31 31 31 31
Washburne, 33 35 36 36 34 35
Windom, 10 10 10 10 10 10
Garfield, 1
Hayes, 1 1
Davis, 1
McCrary, 1
Ballots, 19 20 21 22 23 24
Grant, 305 308 305 305 304 305
Blaine, 279 276 276 275 274 279
Sherman, 95 93 96 95 98 93
Edmunds, 31 31 31 31 31 31
Washburne, 31 35 35 35 36 35
Windom, 10 10 10 10 10 10
 Garfield, 1 1 1 1 2 2
Hartranft, 1 1 1 1
Ballots, 25 26 27
Grant, 302 303 306
Blaine, 281 280 277
Sherman, 94 93 93
Edmunds, 31 31 31
Washburne, 36 35 36
Windom, 10 10 10
Garfield, 2 2 2

There was little change from the 27th ballot until the 36th and
final one, which resulted as follows:

Whole number of votes 755

Necessary to a choice 378
Grant 306
Blaine 42
Sherman 3
Washburne 5
Garfield 399

As shown, General James A. Garfield, of Ohio, was nominated on

the 36th ballot, the forces of General Grant alone remaining solid.
The result was due to a sudden union of the forces of Blaine and
Sherman, it is believed with the full consent of both, for both
employed the same wire leading from the same room in Washington
in telegraphing to their friends at Chicago. The object was to defeat
Grant. After Garfield’s nomination there was a temporary
adjournment, during which the friends of the nominee consulted
Conkling and his leading friends, and the result was the selection of
General Chester A. Arthur of New York, for Vice-President. The
object of this selection was to carry New York, the great State which
was then almost universally believed to hold the key to the
Presidential position.
The Democratic National Convention met at Cincinnati, June 22d.
Tilden had up to the holding of the Pennsylvania State Convention
been one of the most prominent candidates. In this Convention there
was a bitter struggle between the Wallace and Randall factions, the
former favoring Hancock, the latter Tilden. Wallace, after a contest
far sharper than he expected, won, and bound the delegation by the
unit rule. When the National Convention met, John Kelly, the
Tammany leader of New York, was again there, as at St. Louis four
years before, to oppose Tilden, but the latter sent a letter disclaiming
that he was a candidate, and yet really inviting a nomination on the
issue of “the fraudulent counting in of Hayes.” There were but two
ballots, as follows:
 FIRST BALLOT.

Hancock 171
Bayard 153½
Payne 81
Thurman 63½
Field 66
Morrison 62
Hendricks 46½
Tilden 38
Ewing 10
Seymour 8
Randall 6
Loveland 5
McDonald 3
McClellan 3
English 1
Jewett 1
Black 1
Lothrop 1
Parker 1

SECOND BALLOT.

Hancock 705
Tilden 1
Bayard 2
Hendricks 30

Thus General Winfield S. Hancock, of New York, was nominated

on the second ballot. Wm. H. English, of Indiana, was nominated for
Vice-President.
The National Greenback-Labor Convention, held at Chicago, June
11, nominated General J. B. Weaver, of Iowa, for President, and
General E. J. Chambers, of Texas, for Vice-President.
 In the canvass which followed, the Republicans were aided by such
orators as Conkling, Blaine, Grant, Logan, Curtis, Boutwell, while the
Camerons, father and son, visited the October States of Ohio and
Indiana, as it was believed that these would determine the result,
Maine having in September very unexpectedly defeated the
Republican State ticket by a small majority. The Democrats were
aided by Bayard, Voorhees, Randall, Wallace, Hill, Hampton, Lamar,
and hosts of their best orators. Every issue was recalled, but for the
first time in the history of the Republicans of the West, they accepted
the tariff issue, and made open war on Watterson’s plank in the
Democratic platform—“a tariff for revenue only.” Iowa, Ohio, and
Indiana, all elected the Republican State tickets with good margins;
West Virginia went Democratic, but the result was, notwithstanding
this, reasonably assured to the Republicans. The Democrats,
however, feeling the strong personal popularity of their leading
candidate, persisted with high courage to the end. In November all of
the Southern States, with New Jersey, California,[36] and Nevada in
the North, went Democratic; all of the others Republican. The
Greenbackers held only a balance of power, which they could not
exercise, in California, Indiana, and New Jersey. The electoral vote of
Garfield and Arthur was 214, that of Hancock and English 155. The
popular vote was Republican, 4,442,950; Democratic, 4,442,035;
Greenback or National, 306,867; scattering, 12,576. The
Congressional elections in the same canvass gave the Republicans
147 members; the Democrats, 136; Greenbackers, 9; Independents, 1.
Fifteen States elected Governors, nine of them Republicans and six
Democrats.
General Garfield, November 10, sent to Governor Foster, of Ohio,
his resignation as a Senator, and John Sherman, the Secretary of the
Treasury, was in the winter following elected as his successor.
The third session of the Forty-sixth Congress was begun December
6. The President’s Message was read in both Houses. Among its
recommendations to Congress were the following: To create the
office of Captain-General of the Army for General Grant; to defend
the inviolability of the constitutional amendments; to promote free
popular education by grants of public lands and appropriations from
the United States Treasury; to appropriate $25,000 annually for the
expenses of a Commission to be appointed by the President to devise
a just, uniform, and efficient system of competitive examinations,
and to supervise the application of the same throughout the entire
civil service of the government; to pass a law defining the relations of
Congressmen to appointments to office, so as to end Congressional
encroachment upon the appointing power; to repeal the Tenure-of-
office Act, and pass a law protecting office-holders in resistance to
political assessments; to abolish the present system of executive and
judicial government in Utah, and substitute for it a government by a
commission to be appointed by the President and confirmed by the
Senate, or, in case the present government is continued, to withhold
from all who practice polygamy the right to vote, hold office, and sit
on juries; to repeal the act authorizing the coinage of the silver dollar
of 412½ grains, and to authorize the coinage of a new silver dollar
equal in value as bullion with the gold dollar; to take favorable action
on the bill providing for the allotment of lands on the different
reservations.
Two treaties between this country and China were signed at Pekin,
November 17, 1881, one of commerce, and the other securing to the
United States the control and regulation of the Chinese immigration.
President Hayes, February 1, 1881, sent a message to Congress
sustaining in the main the findings of the Ponca Indian Commission,
and approving its recommendation that they remain on their
reservation in Indian Territory. The President suggested that the
general Indian policy for the future should embrace the following
ideas: First, the Indians should be prepared for citizenship by giving
to their young of both sexes that industrial and general education
which is requisite to enable them to be self-supporting and capable
of self-protection in civilized communities; second, lands should be
allotted to the Indians in severalty, inalienable for a certain period;
third, the Indians should have a fair compensation for their lands not
required for individual allotments, the amount to be invested, with
suitable safeguards, for their benefit; fourth, with these prerequisites
secured, the Indians should be made citizens, and invested with the
rights and charged with the responsibilities of citizenship.
The Senate, February 4, passed Mr. Morgan’s concurrent
resolution declaring that the President of the Senate is not invested
by the Constitution of the United States with the right to count the
votes of electors for President and Vice-President of the United
States, so as to determine what votes shall be received and counted,
or what votes shall be rejected. An amendment was added declaring
in effect that it is the duty of Congress to pass a law at once providing
for the orderly counting of the electoral vote. The House concurred
February 5, but no action by bill or otherwise has since been taken.
Senator Pendleton, of Ohio, December 15, 1881, introduced a bill
to regulate the civil service and to promote the efficiency thereof, and
also a bill to prohibit Federal officers, claimants, and contractors
from making or receiving assessments or contributions for political
purposes.
The Burnside Educational Bill passed the Senate December 17,
1881. It provides that the proceeds of the sale of public land and the
earnings of the Patent Office shall be funded at four per cent., and
the interest divided among the States in proportion to their illiteracy.
An amendment by Senator Morgan provides for the instruction of
women in the State agricultural colleges in such branches of
technical and industrial education as are suited to their sex. No
action has yet been taken by the House.
On the 9th of February the electoral votes were counted by the
Vice-President in the presence of both Houses, and Garfield and
Arthur were declared elected President and Vice-President of the
United States. There was no trouble as to the count, and the result
previously stated was formally announced.
 The Three Per Cent. Funding Bill.

The 3 per cent. Funding Bill passed the House March 2, and was
on the following day vetoed by President Hayes on the ground that it
dealt unjustly with the National Banks in compelling them to accept
and employ this security for their circulation in lieu of the old bonds.
This feature of the bill caused several of the Banks to surrender their
circulation, conduct which for a time excited strong political
prejudices. The Republicans in Congress as a rule contended that the
debt could not be surely funded at 3 per cent.; that 3½ was a safer
figure, and to go below this might render the bill of no effect. The
same views were entertained by President Hayes and Secretary
Sherman. The Democrats insisted on 3 per cent., until the veto, when
the general desire to fund at more favorable rates broke party lines,
and a 3½ per cent. funding bill was passed, with the feature
objectionable to the National Banks omitted.
The Republicans were mistaken in their view, as the result proved.
The loan was floated so easily, that in the session of 1882 Secretary
Sherman, now a Senator, himself introduced a 3 per cent. bill, which
passed the Senate Feb. 2d, 1882, in this shape:—
Be it enacted, &c. That the Secretary of the Treasury is hereby
authorized to receive at the Treasury and at the office of any
Assistant Treasurer of the United States and at any postal money
order office, lawful money of the United States to the amount of fifty
dollars or any multiple of that sum or any bonds of the United States,
bearing three and a half per cent, interest, which are hereby declared
valid, and to issue in exchange therefore an equal amount of
registered or coupon bonds of the United States, of the denomination
of fifty, one hundred, five hundred, one thousand and ten thousand
dollars, of such form as he may prescribe, bearing interest at the rate
three per centum per annum, payable either quarterly or semi-
annually, at the Treasury of the United States. Such bonds shall be
exempt from all taxation by or under state authority, and be payable
at the pleasure of the United States. “Provided, That the bonds
herein authorized shall not be called in and paid so long as any bonds
of the United States heretofore issued bearing a higher rate of
interest than three per centum, and which shall be redeemable at the
pleasure of the United States, shall be outstanding and uncalled. The
last of the said bonds originally issued and their substitutes under
this act shall be first called in and this order of payment shall be
followed until all shall have been paid.”

The money deposited under this act shall be promptly applied

solely to the redemption of the bonds of the United States bearing
three and a half per centum interest, and the aggregate amount of
deposits made and bonds issued under this act shall not exceed the
sum of two hundred million dollars. The amount of lawful money so
received on deposit, as aforesaid, shall not exceed, at any time, the
sum of twenty-five million dollars. Before any deposits are received
at any postal money office under this act, the postmaster at such
office shall file with the Secretary of the Treasury his bond, with
satisfactory security, conditioned that he will promptly transmit to
the Treasury of the United States the money received by him in
conformity with regulations to be prescribed by such secretary; and
the deposit with any postmaster shall not at any time, exceed the
amount of his bond.
Section 2. Any national banking association now organized or
hereafter organized desiring to withdraw its circulating notes upon a
deposit of lawful money with the Treasury or the United States as
provided in section 4 of the Act of June 20, 1874, entitled “An act
fixing the amount of United States notes providing for a
redistribution of National bank currency and for other purposes,”
shall be required to give thirty days’ notice to the Controller of the
Currency of its intention to deposit lawful money and withdraw its
circulating notes; provided that not more than five million of dollars
of lawful money shall be deposited during any calendar month for
this purpose; and provided further, that the provisions of this section
shall not apply to bonds called for redemption by the Secretary of the
Treasury.
 Section 3. That nothing in this act shall be so construed as to
authorize an increase of the public debt.
In the past few years opinions on the rates of interest have
undergone wonderful changes. Many supposed—indeed it was a
“standard” argument—that rates must ever be higher in new than old
countries, that these higher rates comported with and aided the
higher rates paid for commodities and labor. The funding operations
since the war have dissipated this belief, and so shaken political
theories that no party can now claim a monopoly of sound financial
doctrine. So high is the credit of the government, and so abundant
are the resources of our people after a comparatively short period of
general prosperity, that they seem to have plenty of surplus funds
with which to aid any funding operation, however low the rate of
interest, if the government—State or National—shows a willingness
to pay. As late as February, 1882, Pennsylvania funded seven
millions of her indebtedness at 3, 3½ and 4 per cent., the two larger
sums commanding premiums sufficient to cause the entire debt to be
floated at a little more than 3 per cent., and thus floating commands
an additional premium in the money exchanges.
 History of the National Loans.

In Book VII of this volume devoted to Tabulated History, we try to

give the reader at a glance some idea of the history of our National
finances. An attempt to go into details would of itself fill volumes, for
no class of legislation has taken so much time or caused such a
diversity of opinion. Yet it is shown, by an admirable review of the
loans of the United States, by Rafael A. Bayley, of the Treasury
Department published in the February (1882) number of the
International Review, that the “financial system of the government
of the United States has continued the same from its organization to
the present time.” Mr. Bayley has completed a history of our National
Loans, which will be published in the Census volume on “Public
Debts.” From his article in the Review we condense the leading facts
bearing on the history of our national loans.
The financial system of the United States, in all its main features,
is simple and well defined, and its very simplicity may probably be
assigned as the reason why it appears so difficult of comprehension
by many people of intelligence and education. It is based upon the
principles laid down by Alexander Hamilton, and the practical
adoption of the fundamental maxim which he regarded as the true
secret for rendering public credit immortal, viz., “that the creation of
the debt should always be accompanied with the means of
extinguishment.” A faithful adherence to this system by his
successors has stood the test of nearly a century, with the nation at
peace or at war, in prosperity or adversity; so that, with all the
change that progress has entailed upon the people of the age, no
valid grounds exist for any change here.
“During the colonial period, and under the confederation, the
financial operations of the Government were based on the law of
necessity, and depended for success upon the patriotism of the
people, the co-operation of the several States, and the assistance of
foreign powers friendly to our cause.
“It was the willingness of the people to receive the various kinds of
paper money issued under authority of the Continental Congress,
and used in payment for services and supplies, together with the
issue of similar obligations by the different States, for the
redemption of which they assumed the responsibility; aided by the
munificent gift of money from Louis XVI. of France, followed by
loans for a large amount from both France and Holland, that made
victory possible, and laid the foundations for the republic of to-day,
with its credit unimpaired, and with securities commanding a ready
sale at a high premium in all the principal markets of the world.
“Authorities vary as to the amount of paper money issued and the
cost of the war for independence. On the 1st of September, 1779,
Congress resolved that it would ‘on no account whatever emit more
bills of credit than to make the whole amount of such bills two
hundred millions of dollars.’ Mr. Jefferson estimates the value of this
sum at the time of its emission at $36,367,719.83 in specie, and says;
‘If we estimate at the same value the like sum of $200,000,000
supposed to have been emitted by the States, and reckon the Federal
debt, foreign and domestic, at about $43,000,000, and the State
debt at $25,000,000, it will form an amount of $140,000,000, the
total sum which the war cost the United States. It continued eight
years, from the battle of Lexington to the cessation of hostilities in
America. The annual expense was, therefore, equal to about
$17,500,000 in specie.’
“The first substantial aid rendered the colonies by any foreign
power was a free gift of money and military supplies from Louis XVI.
of France, amounting in the aggregate to 10,000,000 livres,
equivalent to $1,815,000.
“These supplies were not furnished openly, for the reason that
France was not in a position to commence a war with Great Britain.
The celebrated Caron de Beaumarchais was employed as a secret
agent, between whom and Silas Deane, as the political and
commercial agent of the United States, a contract was entered into
whereby the former agreed to furnish a large amount of military
supplies from the arsenals of France, and to receive American
produce in payment therefor.
 “Under this arrangement supplies were furnished by the French
Government to the amount of 2,000,000 livres. An additional
1,000,000 was contributed by the Government of Spain for the same
purpose, and through the same agency. The balance of the French
subsidy was paid through Benjamin Franklin. In 1777 a loan of
1,000,000 livres was obtained from the ‘Farmers General of France’
under a contract for its repayment in American tobacco at a
stipulated price. From 1778 to 1783, additional loans were obtained
from the French King, amounting to 34,000,000 livres. From 1782
to 1789, loans to the amount of 9,000,000 guilders were negotiated
in Holland, through the agency of John Adams, then the American
Minister to the Hague.
“The indebtedness of the United States at the organization of the
present form of government (including interest to December 31,
1790) may be briefly stated, as follows:

Foreign debt $11,883,315.96

Domestic debt 40,256,802.45
Debt due foreign officers 198,208.10
Arrears outstanding (since discharged) 450,395.52

Total $52,788,722.03

To this should be added the individual debts of the several States,

the precise amount and character of which was then unknown, but
estimated by Hamilton at that time to aggregate about $25,000,000.
“The payment of this vast indebtedness was virtually guarantied by
the provisions of Article VI. of the Constitution, which says: ‘All
debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adoption
of this Constitution shall be as valid against the United States under
this Constitution as under the confederation.’ On the 21st of
September, 1789, the House of Representatives adopted the
following resolutions:
Resolved, That this House consider an adequate provision for the
support of the public credit as a matter of high importance to the
national honor and prosperity.
 Resolved, That the Secretary of the Treasury be directed to prepare
a plan for that purpose, and to report the same to this House at its
next meeting.
“In reply thereto Hamilton submitted his report on the 9th of
January, 1790, in which he gave many reasons for assuming the
debts of the old Government, and of the several States, and furnished
a plan for supporting the public credit. His recommendations were
adopted, and embodied in the act making provision for the payment
of the debt of the United States, approved August 4, 1790.
This act authorized a loan of $12,000,000, to be applied to the
payment of the foreign debt, principal and interest; a loan equal to
the full amount of the domestic debt, payable in certificates issued
for its amount according to their specie value, and computing the
interest to December 31, 1791, upon such as bore interest; and a
further loan of $21,500,000, payable in the principal and interest of
the certificates or notes which, prior to January 1, 1790, were issued
by the respective States as evidences of indebtedness incurred by
them for the expenses of the late war. ‘In the case of the debt of the
United States, interest upon two-thirds of the principal only, at 6 per
cent., was immediately paid; interest upon the remaining third was
deferred for ten years, and only three per cent. was allowed upon the
arrears of interest, making one-third of the whole debt. In the case of
the separate debts of the States, interest upon four-ninths only of the
entire sum was immediately paid; interest upon two-ninths was
deferred for ten years, and only 3 per cent. allowed on three-ninths.’
Under this authority 6 per cent. stock was issued to the amount of
$30,060,511, and deferred 6 per cent. stock, bearing interest from
January 1, 1800, amounting to $14,635,386. This stock was made
subject to redemption by payments not exceeding, in one year, on
account both of principal and interest, the proportion of eight dollars
upon a hundred of the sum mentioned in the certificates;
$19,719,237 was issued in 3 per cent. stock, subject to redemption
whenever provision should be made by law for that purpose.
“The money needed for the payment of the principal and interest
of the foreign debt was procured by new loans negotiated in Holland
and Antwerp to the amount of $9,400,000, and the issue of new
stock for the balance of $2,024,900 due on the French debt, this
stock bearing a rate of interest one-half of one per cent. in advance of
the rate previously paid, and redeemable at the pleasure of the
Government. Subsequent legislation provided for the establishment
of a sinking fund, under the management of a board of
commissioners, consisting of the President of the Senate, Chief
Justice of the Supreme Court, Secretary of State, Secretary of the
Treasury, and Attorney-General, for the time being, who, or any
three of whom, were authorized, under the direction of the President
of the United States, to make purchases of stock, and otherwise
provide for the gradual liquidation of the entire debt, from funds set
apart for this purpose. On assuming the position of Secretary of the
Treasury, Hamilton found himself entirely without funds to meet the
ordinary expenses of the Government, except by borrowing, until
such time as the revenues from duties on imports and tonnage began
to come into the Treasury. Under these circumstances, he was forced
to make arrangements with the Bank of New York and the Bank of
North America for temporary loans, and it was from the moneys
received from these banks that he paid the first installment of salary
due President Washington, Senators, Representatives and officers of
Congress, during the first session under the Constitution, which
began at the city of New York, March 4, 1789.
“The first ‘Bank of the United States’ appears to have been
proposed by Alexander Hamilton in December, 1790, and it was
incorporated by an act of Congress, approved February 25, 1791, with
a capital stock of $10,000,000 divided into 25,000 shares at $400
each. The government subscription of $2,000,000, under authority
of the act, was paid by giving to the bank bills of exchange on
Holland equivalent to gold, and borrowing from the bank a like sum
for ten years at 6 per cent. interest. The bank went into operation
very soon after its charter was obtained, and declared its first
dividend in July, 1792. It was evidently well managed, and was of
great benefit to the Government and the people at large, assisting the
Government by loans in cases of emergency, and forcing the ‘wildcat’
banks of the country to keep their issues ‘somewhere within
reasonable bounds.’ More than $100,000,000 of Government money
was received and disbursed by it without the loss of a single dollar. It
made semi-annual dividends, averaging about 8½ per cent., and its
stock rose to a high price. The stock belonging to the United States
was sold out at different times at a profit, 2,220 shares sold in 1802
bringing an advance of 45 per cent. The government subscription,
with ten years’ interest amounted to $3,200,600, while there was
received in dividends and for stock sold $3,773,580, a profit of nearly
28.7 per cent. In 1796 the credit of the Government was very low, as
shown by its utter failure to negotiate a loan for the purpose of
paying a debt to the Bank of the United States for moneys borrowed
and used, partly to pay the expenses of suppressing the whisky
insurrection in Pennsylvania and to buy a treaty with the pirates of
Algiers. On a loan authorized for $5,000,000, only $80,000 could be
obtained, and this at a discount of 12½ per cent.; and, there being no
other immediate resource, United States Bank stock to the amount of
$1,304,260 was sold at a premium of 25 per cent.
“Under an act approved June 30, 1798, the President was
authorized to accept such vessels as were suitable to be armed for the
public service, not exceeding twelve in number, and to issue
certificates, or other evidences of the public debt of the United
States, in payment. The ships George Washington, Merrimack,
Maryland and Patapsco, brig Richmond, and frigates Boston,
Philadelphia, John Adams, Essex and New York, were purchased,
and 6 per cent. stock, redeemable at the pleasure of Congress, was
issued in payment to the amount of $711,700.
“The idea of creating a navy by the purchase of vessels built by
private parties and issuing stock in payment therefor, seems to have
originated with Hamilton.
“In the years 1797 and 1798 the United States, though nominally at
peace with all the world, was actually at war with France—a war not
formally declared, but carried on upon the ocean with very great
virulence. John Marshall, Elbridge Gerry and Charles C. Pinckney
were appointed envoys extraordinary to the French Republic, with
power for terminating all differences and restoring harmony, good
understanding and commercial and friendly intercourse between the
two nations; but their efforts were in vain, and extensive
preparations were made to resist a French invasion. It was evident
that the ordinary revenues of the country would be inadequate for
the increased expenditure, and a loan of $5,000,000 was authorized
by an act approved July 16, 1798, redeemable at pleasure after fifteen
years. The rate of interest was not specified in the act, and the
market rate at the time being 8 per cent. this rate was paid, and it
was thought by a committee of Congress that the loan was negotiated
‘upon the best terms that could be procured, and with a laudable eye
to the public interest.’ A loan of $3,500,000 was authorized by an act
approved May 7, 1800, for the purpose of meeting a large deficit in
the revenues of the preceding year, caused by increased expenditures
rendered necessary on account of the difficulties with France, and
stock bearing 8 per cent. interest, reimbursable after fifteen years,
was issued to the amount of $1,481,700, on which a premium was
realized of nearly 5¾ per cent. These are the only two instances in
which the Government has paid 8 per cent. interest on its bonds.
“The province of Louisiana was ceded to the United States by a
treaty with France, April 30, 1803, in payment for which 6 per cent.
bonds, payable in fifteen years, were issued to the amount of
$11,250,000, and the balance which the Government agreed to pay
for the province, amounting to $3,750,000, was devoted to
reimbursing American citizens for French depredations on their
commerce. These claims were paid in money, and the stock
redeemed by purchases made under the direction of the
Commissioners of the Sinking Fund within twelve years. Under an
act approved February 11, 1807, a portion of the ‘old 6 per cent.’ and
‘deferred stocks’ was refunded into new stock, bearing the same rate
of interest, but redeemable at the pleasure of the United States. This
was done for the purpose of placing it within the power of the
Government to reimburse the amount refunded within a short time,
as under the old laws these stocks could only be redeemed at the rate
of 2 per cent. annually. Stock was issued amounting to $6,294,051,
nearly all of which was redeemed within four years. Under the same
act old ‘3 per cent. stock’ to the amount of $2,861,309 was converted
into 6 per cents., at sixty-five cents on the dollar, but this was not
reimbursable without the assent of the holder until after the whole of
certain other stocks named in the act was redeemed. The stock
issued under this authority amounted to $1,859,871. It would appear
that the great majority of the holders of the “old stock” preferred it to
the new. A loan equal to the amount of the principal of the public
debt reimbursable during the current year was authorized by an act
approved May 1, 1810, and $2,750,000 was borrowed at 6 per cent.
interest from the Bank of the United States, for the purpose of
meeting any deficiency arising from increased expenditures on
account of the military and naval establishments. This was merely a
temporary loan, which was repaid the following year.
 “The ordinary expenses for the year 1812 were estimated by the
Committee of Ways and Means of the House of Representatives at
$1,200,000 more than the estimated receipts for the same period,
and the impending war with Great Britain made it absolutely
necessary that some measures should be adopted to maintain the
public credit, and provide the requisite funds for carrying on the
Government. Additional taxes were imposed upon the people, but as
these could not be made immediately available there was no other
resource but new loans and the issue of Treasury notes. This was the
first time since the formation of the new Government that the issue
of such notes had been proposed, and they were objected to as
engrafting on our system of finance a new and untried measure.
“Under various acts of Congress approved between March 4, 1812,
and February 24, 1815, 6 per cent. bonds were issued to the amount
of $50,792,674. These bonds were negotiated at rates varying from
20 per cent. discount to par, the net cash realized amounting to
$44,530,123. A further sum of $4,025,000 was obtained by
temporary loans at par, of which sum $225,000 was for the purpose
of repairing the public buildings in Washington, damaged by the
enemy on the night of August 24, 1814. These ‘war loans’ were all
made redeemable at the pleasure of the Government after a specified
date, and the faith of the United States was solemnly pledged to
provide sufficient revenues for this purpose. The ‘Treasury note
system’ was a new feature, and its success was regarded as somewhat
doubtful.
“Its subsequent popularity, however, was owing to a variety of
causes. The notes were made receivable everywhere for dues and
customs, and in payment for public lands. They were to bear interest
from the day of issue, at the rate of 5–⅖ per cent. per annum, and
their payment was guaranteed by the United States, principal and
interest, at maturity. They thus furnished a circulating medium to
the country, superior to the paper of the suspended and doubtful
State banks. These issues were therefore considered more desirable
than the issue of additional stock, which could be realized in cash
only by the payment of a ruinous discount. The whole amount of
Treasury notes issued during the war period was $36,680,794. The
Commissioners of the Sinking Fund were authorized to provide for
their redemption by purchase, in the same manner as for other