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LTE Communications and Networks
LTE Communications and Networks
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To my parents, Khalil Ur Rehman and Ilfaz Begum
and my siblings, Habib Ur Rehman, Waheed Ur Rehman and
Tahera Kalsoom.
Masood Ur Rehman
Contents
List of Contributors xv
Preface xvi
1 Introduction 1
Ghazanfar Ali Safdar and Masood Ur Rehman
1.1 Evolution of Wireless and Cellular Communication 2
1.1.1 1G 3
1.1.2 2G 3
1.1.3 2.5 G 3
1.1.4 2.75 G 4
1.1.5 3G 4
1.1.6 3.5 G 4
1.1.7 4 G/LTE 5
1.2 LTE Architecture 5
1.2.1 Communications Perspective Challenges in LTE
Networks 8
1.2.1.1 Signalling System 8
1.2.1.2 Backward Compatibility 9
1.2.1.3 BS Efficiency 9
1.2.2 LTE Radio Frame 10
1.3 LTE Antennas 11
1.4 LTE Applications 11
1.4.1 Communications 11
1.4.2 Public Safety 12
1.4.3 Device‐to‐Device Communications 12
1.4.4 Video Streaming 12
1.4.5 Voice over LTE (VoLTE) 12
1.4.6 Internet of Things 13
viii Contents
2 LTE Femtocells 21
Ghazanfar Ali Safdar
2.1 Introduction 21
2.1.1 Cross‐Tier Interference 22
2.1.2 Co‐Tier Interference 24
2.1.3 Downlink Interference Modelling 24
2.1.4 Uplink Interference Modelling 25
2.2 Platform for Femtocell Deployment 26
2.3 LTE Architecture Overview 26
2.3.1 LTE Downlink Transmission 27
2.3.2 LTE Uplink Transmission 27
2.4 LTE Femtocell Interference Analysis 28
2.4.1 Scenario 1: Cross‐Tier Interference Analysis 28
2.4.2 Scenario 2: Effects of Femtocell Access Mode Deployment 28
2.4.3 Scenario 3: Co‐Tier Interference Analysis 29
2.4.4 Scenario 4: Effects of Varying FAP Transmit Power Levels
on MUEs 29
2.5 Interference Mitigation: Current State of the Art 31
2.5.1 Spectrum Access/Frequency Assignment 31
2.5.2 Power Control 32
2.5.3 Antenna Schemes 33
2.6 Cognitive Femtocells: A Smart Solution to a Complex
Problem 33
2.7 Summary 35
References 36
Index 332
xv
List of Contributors
Preface
Masood Ur Rehman
Ghazanfar Ali Safdar
1
Introduction
Ghazanfar Ali Safdar and Masood Ur Rehman
School of Computer Science and Technology, University of Bedfordshire, Luton, UK
1.1.1 1G
1G stands for the first generation of wireless mobile communication,
which was first implemented in North America in the early 1980s.
The technology was also known as Analogue Mobile Phone Systems
(AMPS) based on an analogue system; that is, where information is
transmitted by controlling a continuous transmission signal, such as
amplifying signal strength or varying its frequency in relation to
actual data. This system mainly provided services such as voice over
a set radio frequency. In order for users to communicate, they would
have to maintain a large distance from communicating points and
use sufficiently large handsets. A mobile user would have to connect
to the mobile base station that connects to the MTSO (Mobile
Telecommunication Switching Office) that contains an MSC (Mobile
Switching Centre) for routing mobile calls. The MTSO is then con‑
nected to the PSTN (Public Switch Telephony Network), which is a
collection of unified voice‐oriented public telephone networks [11].
1.1.2 2G
2G stands for the second generation of wireless mobile communica‑
tion and finished its establishment in the late 1990s. It was based on
the Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM). GSM is a digi‑
tal cellular phone system and it uses a variation of TDMA (time‐division
multiple access). 2G introduced digital traffic and voice encoded into
digital signals. From its predecessor, it evolved and brought features
such as SMS (short messaging service) and the quality of service for
voice communication considerably improved [11].
1.1.3 2.5 G
2.5G GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) is a bridge between the
second and third generations of wireless technology. GPRS supports
MMS (multimedia messaging service), WAP (Wireless Application
Protocol) Access and connects to the Internet. The first major step in
the advancement of GSM networks to 3G (3rd Generation) of wireless
4 LTE Communications and Networks
mobile technology is GPRS. The service has added value to the GSM
network by transmitting data by overlaying a packet based air inter‑
face on the existing circuit‐switch‐based GSM network. The voice
traffic with this carrier is circuit switched, whereas the data is packet
switched [12].
1.1.4 2.75 G
2.75G is based on an Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)
and was the major breakthrough before the evolution of 3G. EDGE
technology allows fast transmission of data and information and one
of its major advantages is that the existing GSM networks can also
support this technology and be upgraded. EDGE is preferred over
GSM due to its flexibility and the provision of capacity, global roam‑
ing and data size as compared to GPRS [12].
1.1.5 3G
3G stands for the third generation of mobile technology, which
was introduced in 2005. It is based on set standards that are used
for mobile devices meeting the terms of the ITU (International
Telecommunication Union). 3G features CDMA (code division
multiple access), a channel access method where a single channel
can be used by multiple users to transmit data on the same
frequency. The most common form of 3G usually identified as
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System/Standards)
is WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access). It can use
both voice and data services consecutively and offers faster data
rates compared to EDGE. Data is sent through packet switching
while video traffic is managed through circuit switching. 3G pro‑
vides services like web browsing, multimedia, navigation and
smartphone applications that require higher data rates. It has back‑
ward compatibility with 2G mobile technology, which means a user
is able to use services such as voice and SMS alongside data [13].
1.1.6 3.5 G
3.5G is an improvement of UMTS and also known as CDMA2000
and High Rate Packet Data (HRPD) or Evolution Data Optimised
(EV‑DO). With 3.5G technology, there is improved capacity featuring
Introduction 5
1.1.7 4 G/LTE
LTE is a standard introduced by the 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership
project). There are a number of factors that LTE has helped to over‑
come with its following characteristics.
●● High throughput – high data rates, which can be achieved in uplink
and downlink
●● Low Latency – unnoticeable delays between an input being processed
and the corresponding output providing real time characteristics; for
example, establishing a connection to a nearby network within a few
milliseconds
●● Improved Quality of Service
●● Smooth handover across heterogeneous networks
●● High network capacity to accommodate user demands for high
bandwidth.
LTE is based on OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple
Access) in which the system transmits large amount of data; that is, large
bandwidths up to 20 Mbps. Multiple access is achieved in OFDMA by
assigning subnets of subcarriers to individual users. Table 1.1 briefly
compares different generations of mobile technologies.
1.2 LTE Architecture
The LTE systems usually provide low latency, high data rate and
packet optimized radio access. Compared to 3G, LTE additionally
provides international roaming and compatibility with other legacy
Table 1.1 Comparison of mobile technologies.
Features ● Makes use of ● Uses digital radio signals ● Fast data transfer ● Converged data and
analogue radio ● Voice encoded to digital rate, improved voice over IP
signals signals spectral efficiency, ● Entirely packet switched
● Analogue voice ● GSM Supports digital voice greater network network,
service service, SMS messaging, capacity ● Higher bandwidth to
● No data service improved voice clarity, ● Enhanced audio video provide multimedia
Comparatively secure streaming, video services at lower cost
● GPRS Supports MMS, Internet conferencing support, ● Enhanced audio, video
● Web browsing at streaming, IP telephony,
higher speeds, IPTV HD mobile TV
support
Standards MTS, AMTS, IMTS 2G: GSM IMT‐2000 Single unified standard
2.5: GPRS 3.5G‐HSDPA LTE, LTE adv. Mobile
2.75: EDGE 3.75G: HSUPA WiMAX
Web — www www (IPv4) www (IPv4)
Standards
Technology Analogue cellular Digital narrow band Digital Broadband Digital Broadband Packet,
Technology circuit data, Packet data Packet data Very high throughput
14.4 Kbps 171.2 Kbps (peak). 3.1 Mbps (peak) 100–300 Mbps (peak)
20–40 Kbps 500–700 Kbps 3–5 Mbps
3.5G:14.4 Mbps (peak) 100 Mbps (Wi‐Fi)
1–3 Mbps
Service Voice Calls 2G: Digital voice, SMS Integrated high‐quality Dynamic information
2.5: Higher capacity packetized audio, video and data access, wearable devices
with AI capabilities
Switching Circuit switching 2G: Circuit Packet except for circuit Packet switching,
2.5G: Circuit for access network for air interface message switching
and air interface, packet for core
network
Handoff Horizontal only Horizontal only Horizontal and vertical Horizontal and vertical
Shortfall Low capacity, Reliant on location and Requires higher network Being deployed
unreliable handoff, proximity, required strong digital capacity to accommodate
poor QoS for voice, signals to help mobile phones growing consumers
less secure
8 LTE Communications and Networks
S.GW
MME HnodeB GW
EPC
S1 S1
S1
S1
X2
X2
eNodeB
E-UTRAN eNodeB X2
X2 eNodeB
X2
USERS
eNodeB
Components Description
1.2.1.3 BS Efficiency
Due to the employment of OFDMA in LTE, signals have high ampli-
tude variability known as Peak‐to‐Average Power Ratio (PAPR), which
reduces transmitter efficiency. Furthermore, the BS provides high data
rate at the cost of high dynamic transmission power. Since high
transmission power results in increased energy consumption and
10 LTE Communications and Networks
TF = 10ms
FUE Framen MBS
TFS = 1ms
FS1 FS2 FS10
TS = 0.5ms
Data
Reference Symbol
Frequency
RBs
L1/L2 signalling
Time
Figure 1.2 Downlink resource block and sub‐frame structure in downlink LTE.
Introduction 11
1.3 LTE Antennas
The antenna acts as a transducer between the guided electromagnetic
wave travelling in a radio frequency circuit or transmission line and
the unguided electromagnetic wave travelling in free space. It is the
fundamental building block in the development of any wireless com‑
munications system.
The requirements for LTE antennas depend on the specific applica‑
tion or where it will be used since there is a need to meet the increased
demand for a high data rate. Varying LTE applications consideration
of a number of specific factors in antenna selection such as polari‑
zation, multi‐frequency or multi‐mode operation, multiple‐input
multiple‐output (MIMO) structure, reconfigurability, directionality
and certain specific absorption rate on top of common requirements
of size, bandwidth, gain, radiation pattern and efficiency. The antenna
can be put on mobile handheld terminal, laptop, BS, access points,
high‐speed trains or cars, aeroplanes and so on.
Antenna selection and design is a challenging task that necessitates
the utmost care as a poorly chosen antenna can severely affect the cost
and performance of the overall LTE system.
1.4 LTE Applications
LTE has become a global wireless foundation supporting continual
enhancements. Its applications range from communications to
health monitoring, surveillance to public safety and smart homes
to entertainment.
1.4.1 Communications
The major application area of LTE technology is cellular communica‑
tions. It carries inherent benefits of reduced latency and increased
data rates offering peak downlink data rates of 300 Mbps, peak uplink
rates of 75 Mbps and QoS measures allowing latency of less than 5 ms
in the radio access networks. It can manage moving devices and sup‑
ports multicast and broadcast streams. Both frequency division
duplexing (FDD) and time‐division duplexing (TDD) can be used in
LTE. These advantages have made LTE the front‐runner in mobile
communications standards.
12 LTE Communications and Networks
Borbonne
Ne bat personne ;
Cependant il me bâtonne, etc.
De tous les beaux esprits d’alors, celui qui eut le plus souvent
peut-être maille à partir avec les donneurs d’étrivières, ce fut l’illustre
Montmaur, professeur de grec, poëte, pédant et parasite. Je
n’essayerai même pas d’énumérer toutes les rencontres fâcheuses
auxquelles furent exposés le dos et les épaules de ce fameux
personnage, dont, grâce à la multitude infinie d’épigrammes en vers
et en prose, en français et en latin, dirigées contre lui par ses
contemporains, l’intrépide gloutonnerie est devenue historique. Tout
n’était pas profit dans son rude métier, et plût à Dieu que les
inconvénients s’en fussent bornés à des satires, contre lesquelles
l’avait cuirassé l’habitude, et qu’il savait, à l’occasion, renvoyer à son
adversaire, en homme d’esprit, sinon en homme de cœur. Il lui fallut
plus d’une fois acheter son dîner au prix d’une bastonnade
vaillamment reçue, et il ne s’en plaignait pas, pourvu qu’il dînât bien.
Suivant Scarron, dans la Requête de Fainmort (comme il le
nommait), le malheureux n’était pas même épargné par la
hallebarde des suisses préposés à la garde des hôtels dont il
assiégeait la porte aux heures des repas, et, s’il ne faut pas
admettre littéralement tout ce que la verve burlesque du cul-de-jatte
amène sous sa plume, le fond de son récit, confirmé par des
centaines d’autres témoignages analogues, n’en reste pas moins
d’une indiscutable vérité. C’est Fainmort qui parle, dans les vers
suivants, (si ce sont des vers), pour supplier un président de lui
rouvrir sa salle à manger :
Écoutez encore l’abbé Cotin, qui avait bien ses petites raisons
pour en vouloir à Boileau. Leur destin, écrit-il en parlant des
satiriques, est :