Gardners Art Through The Ages A Global History Volume I 16Th Edition Fred S Kleiner Full Chapter

Gardner’s Art Through the Ages: A
Global History, Volume I 16th Edition

Fred S. Kleiner
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Gardner’s
Art 16th Edition
through
the Ages
Fred S. Kleiner
696593_cvr_se_ptg01.indd 2 08/08/18 11:38 am

G a r d n e r’ s
Art
Thro u g h th e
Ages
A Gl oba l H is tory
VOLUME I
sixteenth edition
fred s. kleiner
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
96593_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 1 13/08/18 12:44 pm

Gardner’s Art through the Ages: © 2020, 2016, 2013 Cengage Learning, Inc.
A Global H
istory, Sixteenth Edition, Volume I
Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage
Fred S. Kleiner
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2018
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about the cover art
Blanche of Castile, Louis IX, a monk, and a lay scribe, dedication page (folio 8 recto) of a moralized Bible,
from Paris, France, 1226–1234. Ink, tempera, and gold leaf on vellum, 1′ 3″ × 10 12 ″. Pierpont Morgan
Library, New York.
The Florentine poet Dante Alighieri (1265–1321) referred to Paris in his Divine Comedy (ca. 1310–1320) as
the city famed for the art of illumination. During the 13th century, book production shifted from monasteries to
urban workshops of professional artists—and Paris boasted the most and best. These new for-profit secular
businesses sold their products to the royal family, scholars, and prosperous merchants. The Parisian shops
were the forerunners of modern publishing houses.
Not surprisingly, some of the finest extant Gothic books belonged to the French monarchy. One of the
many books the royal family commissioned is a moralized Bible now in the Pierpont Morgan Library. Moralized
Bibles are heavily illustrated, each page pairing paintings of Old and New Testament episodes with explana-
tions of their moral significance. Louis’s mother, Blanche of Castile, ordered the Morgan Bible during her
regency (1226–1234) for her teenage son. The dedication page has a costly gold background and depicts
Blanche and Louis enthroned beneath triple-lobed arches and miniature cityscapes. With vivid gestures,
Blanche instructs the young Louis, underscoring her superior position. Below Blanche and Louis are a monk
and a professional lay scribe. The older clergyman instructs the scribe, who already has divided his page into
two columns of four roundels each, a format often used for the paired illustrations of moralized Bibles.
The identity of the painter of this royal moralized Bible is unknown, but that is the norm in the history
of Western art before the Renaissance of the 14th century, when the modern notion of individual artistic genius
took root. Art through the Ages surveys the art of all periods from prehistory to the present, and worldwide,
and examines how artworks of all kinds have always reflected the historical contexts in which they were
created.
Contents iii
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Brief Contents
Preface xi Chapter 11
Early Medieval Europe 319
Introduction
What Is Art History? 1 Chapter 12
Romanesque Europe 347
Chapter 1
Art in the Stone Age 15 Chapter 13
Gothic Europe North of the Alps 381
Chapter 2
Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia 31 Chapter 14
Late Medieval Italy 419
Chapter 3
Egypt from Narmer to Cleopatra 57 Chapter 15
South and Southeast Asia before 1200 443
Chapter 4
Chapter 16
The Prehistoric Aegean 85
China and Korea to 1279 471
Chapter 5
Chapter 17
Ancient Greece 105
Japan before 1333 501
Chapter 6
Chapter 18
The Etruscans 165
Native American Cultures before 1300 519
Chapter 7
Chapter 19
The Roman Empire 181
Africa before 1800 551
Chapter 8
Late Antiquity 237 Notes 566
Chapter 9 Glossary 567
Byzantium 263 Bibliography 582
Chapter 10 Credits 595
The Islamic World 293 Index 599
iv
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Contents
Preface xi Mesopotamia 32
Persia 50
Introduction ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Gods and Goddesses
of Mesopotamia 34
What Is Art History? 1
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Sumerian Votive Statuary 35
Art History in the 21st Century 2
■ materials and techniques: Mesopotamian Seals 37
Different Ways of Seeing 13 ■ a second opinion: The Standard of Ur 38
■ art and society: Enheduanna, Priestess and Poet 42
1 Art in the Stone Age 15 ■ the patron’s voice: Gudea of Lagash 43
■ art and society: Hammurabi’s Laws 45

FRAMING THE ERA The Dawn of Art 15
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: How Many Legs Does
Timeline 16
a Lamassu Have? 47
Paleolithic Art 16 ■ written sources: Babylon, City of Wonders 50
Neolithic Art 23 Map 2-1 Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia 32
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: How to Represent an

THE BIG PICTURE 5 5
Animal 17
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Painting in the Dark 20
■ a second opinion: The Meaning of Paleolithic Art 21

3 Egypt from Narmer
■ art and society: The Neolithic Temple at Göbekli Tepe 24
to Cleopatra 57
Map 1-1 Stone Age sites in Europe 16 FRAMING THE ERA Life after Death in
Map 1-2 Neolithic sites in Anatolia and Mesopotamia 24 Ancient Egypt 57
Timeline 58
THE BIG PICTURE 2 9
Egypt and Egyptology 58
Predynastic and Early Dynastic Periods 58
2 Ancient Mesopotamia
Old Kingdom 62
and Persia 31
Middle Kingdom 69
FRAMING THE ERA Pictorial Narration
in Ancient Sumer 31 New Kingdom 71
Timeline 32 First Millennium bce 81
v
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■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Gods and Goddesses ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Gods and Goddesses
of Egypt 60 of Mount Olympus 107
■ art and society: Mummification and Immortality 61 ■ materials and techniques: Greek Vase Painting 110
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Building the Pyramids ■ Architectural basics: Greek Temple Plans 115
of Gizeh 64
■ Architectural basics: Doric and Ionic Orders 116
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: How to Portray a God-King 66
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: The Invention of Red-Figure
■ art and society: Hatshepsut, the Woman Who Would Painting 121
Be King 72
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Herakles, the Greatest Greek
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Illuminating Buildings Hero 126
before Lightbulbs 75
■ materials and techniques: Hollow-Casting Life-Size
■ a second opinion: Akhenaton 77 Bronze Statues 129
Map 3-1 Ancient Egypt 58 ■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Polykleitos’s Prescription
for the Perfect Statue 131
THE BIG PICTURE 8 3
■ art and society: The Hegeso Stele 141
■ materials and techniques: White-Ground Painting 142
4 The Prehistoric Aegean 85 ■ a second opinion: The Alexander Mosaic 150
■ Architectural basics: The Corinthian Capital 152

FRAMING THE ERA Greece in the Age of Heroes 85
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Hippodamos’s Plan for the
Timeline 86
Ideal City 154
Greece before Homer 86 Map 5-1 The Greek world 106
Cycladic Art 87 THE BIG PICTURE 1 6 3

Minoan Art 88
Mycenaean Art 97 6 The Etruscans 165
■ a second opinion: Cycladic Statuettes 87
FRAMING THE ERA The Portal to the Etruscan
■ art and society: The Theran Eruption and the Chronology Afterlife 165
of Aegean Art 92
Timeline 166
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Fortified Palaces for a Hostile
World 96 Etruria and the Etruscans 166
■ Architectural basics: Corbeled Arches, Vaults, and Early Etruscan Art 166
Domes 97
Map 4-1 The prehistoric Aegean 86 Later Etruscan Art 173

■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Etruscan Counterparts
THE BIG PICTURE 1 0 3 of Greco-Roman Gods and Heroes 167
■ written sources: Etruscan Artists in Rome 168
■ art and society: The “Audacity” of Etruscan Women 169

5 Ancient Greece 105
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Houses of the Dead in a City
FRAMING THE ERA The Perfect Temple 105 of the Dead 170
Timeline 106 ■ a second opinion: The Capitoline Wolf 174
Map 6-1 Italy in Etruscan times 166

The Greeks and Their Gods 106
Geometric and Orientalizing Periods 108 THE BIG PICTURE 1 7 9
Archaic Period 111
7 The Roman Empire 181
Early and High Classical Periods 125
Late Classical Period 144 FRAMING THE ERA The Roman Emperor as World
Conqueror 181
Hellenistic Period 153
Timeline 182
vi Contents
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Rome, Caput Mundi 182 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Life of Jesus in
Art 244
Republic 183
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Early Christian Saints and
Pompeii and the Cities of Vesuvius 189 Their Attributes 246
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: What Should a Church

Early Empire 201 Look Like? 249
High Empire 211 ■ materials and techniques: Manuscript
Illumination 252
Late Empire 223
■ materials and techniques: Ivory Carving 253
■ art and society: Who’s Who in the Roman World 183
■ materials and techniques: Mosaics 256
■ Architectural basics: Roman Concrete Construction 186
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Picturing the Spiritual
■ art and society: Roman Ancestor Portraits 187 World 260
■ art and society: Art for Freed Slaves 190 Map 8-1 The Mediterranean world in Late Antiquity 238
■ written sources: An Eyewitness Account of the Eruption of
Mount Vesuvius 191 THE BIG PICTURE 2 6 1
■ art and society: The Roman House 193
■ art and society: Role Playing in Roman Portraiture 200

9 Byzantium 263
■ the patron’s voice: The Res Gestae of Augustus 202
FRAMING THE ERA Church and State United 263
■ written sources: Vitruvius’s Ten Books on
Architecture 204 Timeline 264
■ written sources: The Golden House of Nero 206 The Christian Roman Empire 264
■ art and society: Spectacles in the Colosseum 207
Early Byzantine Art 265
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: The Ancient World’s Largest
Dome 216 Middle Byzantine Art 279
■ written sources: Hadrian and Apollodorus of Late Byzantine Art 287
Damascus 217
■ written sources: The Emperors of New Rome 267
■ materials and techniques: Iaia of Cyzicus and the Art
of Encaustic Painting 223 ■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Placing a Dome over a
Square 270
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Tetrarchic Portraiture 229
■ a second opinion: The Vienna Genesis 276
■ a second opinion: The Arch of Constantine 233
■ art and society: Icons and Iconoclasm 278
Map 7-1 The Roman Empire at the death of Trajan in
117 ce 182 ■ art and society: Born to the Purple: Empress Zoe 282
Map 9-1 The Byzantine Empire at the death of Justinian

THE BIG PICTURE 2 3 5 in 565 264
THE BIG PICTURE 2 9 1

8 Late Antiquity 237
FRAMING THE ERA Polytheism and Monotheism 10 The Islamic World 293
at Dura-Europos 237
FRAMING THE ERA The Rise and Spread
Timeline 238
of Islam 293
The Late Antique World 238 Timeline 294
From the Soldier Emperors to the Sack Early Islamic Art 294
of Rome 238
Later Islamic Art 306
From the Sack of Rome to Justinian 254
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Muhammad and Islam 295
■ a second opinion: The Via Latina Catacomb 240
■ a second opinion: The Rock of the Dome of the Rock 296
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Old Testament Subjects in
Christian Art 242 ■ art and society: Major Muslim Dynasties 297
Contents vii
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■ Architectural basics: The Mosque 299 Timeline 348
■ written sources: A Venetian Visitor to the Alhambra 307 European Culture in the New Millennium 348
■ written sources: Sinan the Great and the Mosque
of Selim II 310
France and Northern Spain 348
■ materials and techniques: Islamic Tilework 311 Holy Roman Empire 364
■ art and society: Christian Patronage of Islamic Art 316 Italy 370
Map 10-1 The Islamic world around 1500 294 Normandy and England 372
THE BIG PICTURE 3 1 7 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Veneration of Relics 349
■ art and society: Pilgrimage Roads in France and Spain 350
■ written sources: The Burning of Canterbury Cathedral 353

11 Early Medieval Europe 319
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Stone Vaulting in Romanesque
FRAMING THE ERA Missionaries and the Beauty Churches 354
of God’s Words 319 ■ a second opinion: The Rebirth of Large-Scale Sculpture
in Romanesque Europe 355
Timeline 320
■ written sources: Bernard of Clairvaux on Cloister
Europe After the Fall of Rome 320 Sculpture 356
Merovingians and Anglo-Saxons 320 ■ Architectural basics: The Romanesque Church Portal 358
Vikings 323 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Crusades 360
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: How to Illuminate a Nave 365

Hiberno-Saxon Monasteries 324
■ art and society: Romanesque Countesses, Queens, and
Visigothic and Mozarabic Art 327 Nuns 367
Carolingian Empire 328 ■ materials and techniques: Embroidery and Tapestry 377
Map 12-1 Western Europe around 1100 350

Ottonian Empire 337
■ materials and techniques: Cloisonné 321 THE BIG PICTURE 3 7 9
■ art and society: Early Medieval Ship Burials 322
■ art and society: Medieval Books 324
■ a second opinion: The Lindisfarne Saint Matthew 326

13 Gothic Europe North
■ art and society: Charlemagne’s Renovatio Imperii
of the Alps 381
Romani 329
FRAMING THE ERA The Birth of Gothic 381
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Four Evangelists 331
Timeline 382
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: How to Illustrate a Psalm 332
“Gothic” 382
■ written sources: Charlemagne’s Palatine Chapel at
Aachen 334 France 382
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Medieval Monasteries and
Opus Francigenum outside France 407
Benedictine Rule 336
■ the patron’s voice: Abbot Suger and the Rebuilding
■ art and society: Theophanu, a Byzantine Princess at the
of Saint-Denis 383
Ottonian Court 342
■ Architectural basics: The Gothic Rib Vault 387
Map 11-1 The Carolingian Empire at the death of Charlemagne
in 814 328 ■ art and society: Paris, the New Center of Medieval
Learning 388
■ Architectural basics: High Gothic Cathedrals 389
■ materials and techniques: Stained-Glass Windows 392

12 Romanesque Europe 347 ■ art and society: Louis IX, the Saintly King 398
■ a second opinion: Gothic Cathedrals and Gothic Cities 400

FRAMING THE ERA The Blessed and the Damned
on Judgment Day 347 ■ art and society: Gothic Book Production 402
viii Contents
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■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: The Scissors Arches of Wells ■ Architectural basics: Hindu Temples 460
Cathedral 409
Map 15-1 South and Southeast Asian sites before 1200 444
Map 13-1 Europe around 1200 382
16 China and Korea to 1279 471

14 Late Medieval Italy 419
FRAMING THE ERA China’s First Emperor 471
FRAMING THE ERA Duccio di Buoninsegna 419 Timeline 472
Timeline 420
China 472
Duecento (13th Century) 420
Korea 496
Trecento (14th Century) 424 ■ materials and techniques: Chinese Earthenwares
■ art and society: Italian Artists’ Names 421 and Stonewares 473
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Great Schism, Mendicant ■ materials and techniques: Shang Bronze-Casting 474
Orders, and Confraternities 423 ■ a second opinion: Sanxingdui 475
■ a second opinion: Pietro Cavallini 425 ■ materials and techniques: Chinese Jade 476
■ materials and techniques: Fresco Painting 428 ■ materials and techniques: Silk and the Silk Road 477
■ the patron’s voice: Artists’ Guilds, Artistic Commissions, ■ Architectural basics: Chinese Wood Construction 480
and Artists’ Contracts 430
■ artists on aRT: Xie He’s Six Canons 482
■ art and society: Artistic Training in Renaissance
Italy 434 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Daoism and Confucianism 486
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Cityscapes and Landscapes as ■ materials and techniques: Chinese Painting Materials
Allegories 436 and Formats 489
Map 14-1 Italy around 1400 420 ■ the patron’s voice: Emperor Huizong’s Auspicious
Cranes 491
THE BIG PICTURE 4 4 1 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Chan Buddhism 495
Map 16-1 China during the Tang dynasty 472
15 South and Southeast THE BIG PICTURE 4 9 9

Asia before 1200 443
FRAMING THE ERA The Great Stupa at Sanchi 443 17 Japan before 1333 501
Timeline 444
FRAMING THE ERA Horyuji, Japan’s Oldest Buddhist
South Asia 444 Temple 501
Timeline 502
Southeast Asia 462
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Buddha, Buddhism, Japan Before Buddhism 502
and Buddhist Iconography 447
Buddhist Japan 506
■ the patron’s voice: Ashoka’s Sponsorship
of Buddhism 448 ■ a second opinion: Kofun Haniwa 504
■ Architectural basics: The Stupa 450 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Shinto 505
■ materials and techniques: The Painted Caves ■ written sources: Woman Writers and Calligraphers at the
of Ajanta 455 Heian Imperial Court 511
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Hinduism and Hindu ■ art and society: Heian and Kamakura Artistic Workshops 514
Iconography 456 Map 17-1 Japan before 1333 502
■ a second opinion: The Ganges River or the Penance
of Arjuna? 459 THE BIG PICTURE 5 1 7
Contents ix
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18 Native American 19 Africa before 1800 551
Cultures before 1300 519 FRAMING THE ERA The Art of the Benin
FRAMING THE ERA Ancient Cities in a Kingdom 551
New World 519 Timeline 552
Timeline 520 African Peoples and Art Forms 552

The Ancient Americas 520 Prehistory and Early Cultures 553
Mesoamerica 520 11th to 18th Centuries 556
Central America and Northern Andes 536 ■ art and society: Dating African Art and Identifying African
Artists 554
South America 536
■ art and society: Art and Leadership in Africa 557
North America 544 ■ art and society: Ife Ruler Portraiture 558
■ materials and techniques: Mural Painting at
■ a second opinion: The Seated Man from Tada 559
Teotihuacán 526
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: King Lalibela’s New Jerusalem
■ art and society: The Mesoamerican Ball Game 528
in Ethiopia 561
■ art and society: Human Sacrifice at Bonampak 531
Map 19-1 Precolonial African peoples and sites 552
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: The Underworld, the Sun,
and Mesoamerican Pyramid Design 533 THE BIG PICTURE 5 6 5
■ materials and techniques: Andean Weaving 539
■ art and society: Nasca Lines 540 Notes 566

■ a second opinion: Serpent Mound 546
Glossary 567
Map 18-1 Early sites in Mesoamerica 521
Bibliography 582
Map 18-2 Early sites in Andean South America 537
Map 18-3 Early Native American sites in North America 544 Credits 595
THE BIG PICTURE 5 4 9 Index 599
x Contents
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Preface
I take great pleasure in introducing the extensively revised and (following similar forays into France, Tuscany, Rome, and Germany
expanded 16th edition of Gardner’s Art through the Ages: A Global for the 14th and 15th editions). MindTap also includes custom vid-
History, which, like the 15th edition, is a hybrid art history eos made on these occasions at each site by Sharon Adams Poore.
textbook—the first, and still the only, introductory survey of the This extraordinary proprietary Cengage archive of visual material
history of art of its kind. This innovative new kind of “Gardner” ranges from ancient temples and aqueducts in Rome and France; to
retains all of the best features of traditional books on paper while medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque churches in England, France,
harnessing 21st-century technology to increase by 25% the number Germany, and Italy and 18th-century landscape architecture in
of works examined—without increasing the size or weight of the England; to such postmodern masterpieces as the Pompidou Center
book itself and at only nominal additional cost to students. and the Louvre Pyramide in Paris, the Neue Staatsgalerie in Stutt-
When Helen Gardner published the first edition of Art through gart, and the Gherkin in London. The 16th edition also features the
the Ages in 1926, she could not have imagined that nearly a century highly acclaimed architectural drawings of John Burge prepared
later, instructors all over the world would still be using her textbook exclusively for Cengage, as well as Google Earth coordinates for all
(available even in a new Chinese edition, the third time this clas- buildings and sites and all known provenances of portal objects.
sic textbook has been translated into Chinese) in their classrooms. Together, these exclusive photographs, videos, and drawings pro-
Indeed, if she were alive today, she would not recognize the book vide readers with a visual feast unavailable anywhere else.
that, even in its traditional form, long ago became—and remains— Once again, scales accompany the photograph of every paint-
the world’s most widely read introduction to the history of art and ing, statue, or other artwork discussed—another innovative feature
architecture. I hope that instructors and students alike will agree of the Gardner text. The scales provide students with a quick and
that this new edition lives up to the venerable Gardner tradition and effective way to visualize how big or small a given artwork is and its
even exceeds their high expectations. relative size compared with other objects in the same chapter and
The 16th edition follows the 15th in incorporating an innova- throughout the book—especially important given that the illus-
tive new online component called MindTaptm, which includes, in trated works vary in size from tiny to colossal.
addition to a host of other features (enumerated below), MindTap Also retained in this edition are the Quick-Review Captions
Bonus Images (with zoom capability) and descriptions of more than (brief synopses of the most significant aspects of each artwork or
300 additional important works of all eras, from prehistory to the building illustrated) that students have found invaluable when pre-
present and worldwide. The printed and online components of the paring for examinations. These extended captions accompany not
hybrid 16th edition are very closely integrated. For example, each only every image in the printed book but also all the digital images
MindTap Bonus Image appears as a thumbnail in the traditional in MindTap, where they are also included in a set of interactive
textbook, with abbreviated caption, to direct readers to MindTap electronic flashcards. Each chapter also again ends with the highly
for additional content, including an in-depth discussion of each popular full-page feature called The Big Picture, which sets forth
image. The integration extends also to the maps, index, glossary, in bullet-point format the most important characteristics of each
and chapter summaries, which seamlessly merge the printed and period or artistic movement discussed in the chapter. Also retained
online information. from the 15th edition are the timelines summarizing the major
artistic and architectural developments during the era treated (again
in bullet-point format for easy review) and a chapter-opening essay
Key Features of called Framing the Era, which discusses a characteristic painting,
sculpture, or building and is illustrated by four photographs.
the 16th Edition Another pedagogical tool not found in any other introductory
In this new edition, in addition to revising the text of every chapter art history textbook is the Before 1300 section that appears at the
to incorporate the latest research and methodological developments beginning of the second volume of the paperbound version of the
and dividing the former chapter on European and American art book. Because many students taking the second half of a survey
from 1900 to 1945 into two chapters, I have added several important course will not have access to Volume I, I have provided a special
features while retaining the basic format and scope of the previous (expanded) set of concise primers on architectural terminology
edition. Once again, the hybrid Gardner boasts roughly 1,700 pho- and construction methods in the ancient and medieval worlds,
tographs, plans, and drawings, nearly all in color and reproduced and on mythology and religion—information that is essential for
according to the highest standards of clarity and color fidelity, understanding the history of art after 1300 in both the West and
including hundreds of new images, among them a new series of the East. The subjects of these special essays are Greco-Roman
superb photos taken by Jonathan Poore exclusively for Art through Temple Design and the Classical Orders; Arches and Vaults; Basili-
the Ages during a photographic campaign in England in 2016 can Churches; Central-Plan Churches; the Gods and Goddesses
xi
96593_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 11 13/08/18 12:44 pm

of Mount Olympus; the Life of Jesus in Art; Early Christian Saints ensure that the text lives up to the Gardner reputation for accuracy
and Their Attributes; Buddhism and Buddhist Iconography; and as well as readability. I take great pleasure in acknowledging here
Hinduism and Hindu Iconography. Before 1300 also is included in the important contributions to the 16th edition made by the follow-
MindTap for all courses. ing: Bradley Bailey, Saint Louis University; Amy Bloch, University
Feature boxes once again appear throughout the book as well. at Albany; Anne-Marie Bouché, Florida Gulf Coast University;
These features fall under nine broad categories, one of which is new Betty Brownlee, Macomb Community College; Caroline Bruzelius,
to the 16th edition: Duke University; Petra Chu, Seton Hall University; Kathy Curnow,
Architectural Basics boxes provide students with a sound foun- Cleveland State University; Paola Demattè, Rhode Island School of
dation for the understanding of architecture. These discussions are Design; Sarah Dillon, Kingsborough City College, City University of
concise explanations, with drawings and diagrams, of the major New York; Eduardo de Jesús Douglas, University of North Carolina-
aspects of design and construction. The information included is essen- Chapel Hill; Sonja Drimmer, University of Massachusetts Amherst;
tial to an understanding of architectural technology and terminology. Ingrid Furniss, Lafayette College; Karen Hope Goodchild, Wofford
Materials and Techniques essays explain the various media that College; Christopher Gregg, George Mason University; Melinda
artists have employed from prehistoric to modern times. Because Hartwig, Emory University; Joe Hawkins, Hagley Park; Peter Hol-
materials and techniques often influence the character of artworks, liday, California State University, Long Beach; Craig Houser, City
these discussions contain essential information on why many mon- College of New York/City University of New York; Margaret Jack-
uments appear as they do. son, University of New Mexico; Mark J. Johnson, Brigham Young
Religion and Mythology boxes introduce students to the princi- University; Lynn Jones, Florida State University; Tanja L. Jones,
pal elements of the world’s great religions, past and present, and to University of Alabama Tuscaloosa; Nancy Klein, Texas A&M;
the representation of religious and mythological themes in painting Peri Klemm, California State University, Northridge; Yu Bong Ko,
and sculpture of all periods and places. These discussions of belief Dominican College; Paul Lavy, University of Hawai’i at Manoa; John
systems and iconography give readers a richer understanding of Listopad, California State University, Sacramento; Gary Liu Jr., Uni-
some of the greatest artworks ever created. versity of Hawaii at Manoa; Nancy Bea Miller, Montgomery County
Art and Society essays treat the historical, social, political, cul- Community College; Michelle Moseley-Christian, Virginia Tech
tural, and religious context of art and architecture. In some instances, University; Evan Neely, Pratt Institute; Huiping Pang, University of
specific monuments are the basis for a discussion of broader themes. Iowa; Benjamin Paul, Rutgers University; Julie-Anne Plax, Univer-
Written Sources boxes present and discuss key historical docu- sity of Arizona; Stephanie Porras, Tulane University; Sharon Pruitts,
ments illuminating important monuments of art and architecture East Carolina University; Kurt Rahmlow, University of North Texas;
throughout the world. The passages quoted permit voices from the Julie Risser, Minneapolis College of Art and Design; Robyn Roslak,
past to speak directly to the reader, providing vivid and unique University of Minnesota-Duluth; Susan Elizabeth Ryan, Louisiana
insights into the creation of artworks in all media. State University; Nicholas Sawicki, Lehigh University; Nancy Ser-
In the Artists on Art boxes, artists and architects throughout wint, Arizona State University; Kerri Cox Sullivan, University of
history discuss both their theories and individual works. Texas, Austin; James R. Swensen, Brigham Young University; David
The Patron’s Voice essays underscore the important roles played S. Whitley, University of California, Los Angeles/ASM Affiliates;
by the individuals and groups who paid for the artworks and build- Margaret L. Woodhull, University of Colorado Denver.
ings in determining the character of those monuments. I am especially indebted to the following for creating the
Problems and Solutions essays are designed to make students instructor and student materials for the 16th edition: Anne
think critically about the decisions that went into the making of McClanan, Portland State University; Kerri Cox Sullivan, Univer-
every painting, sculpture, and building from the Old Stone Age to sity of Texas, Austin.
the present. These discussions address questions of how and why I am also happy to have this opportunity to express my grat-
various forms developed; the problems that painters, sculptors, and itude to the extraordinary group of people at Cengage involved
architects confronted; and the solutions they devised to resolve them. with the editing, production, and distribution of Art through the
New to the 16th edition are boxes titled A Second Opinion, in Ages. Some of them I have now worked with on various projects
which an individual work of art that is the subject of current debate for two decades and feel privileged to count among my friends.
or has recently been reinterpreted is discussed. These essays under- The success of the Gardner series in all of its various permutations
score for students that the history of art and architecture is not a static depends in no small part on the expertise and unflagging commit-
discipline and that scholars are constantly questioning and rethinking ment of these dedicated professionals, especially Vanessa Manter,
traditional interpretations of paintings, sculptures, and buildings. senior product manager; Laura Hildebrand, senior content man-
Other noteworthy features retained from the 15th edition are ager; Lianne Ames, senior content manager; Paula Dohnal,
the extensive (updated) bibliography of books in English; a glos- learning designer; Ann Hoffman, intellectual property analyst;
sary containing definitions of all italicized terms introduced in both Betsy Hathaway, senior intellectual property project manager;
the printed and online texts; and a complete museum index listing Laura Kuhlman, marketing manager; Sarah Cole, senior designer;
all illustrated artworks by their present location. The host of state- as well as Sharon Adams Poore, former product manager for art;
of-the-art resources in the 16th edition version of MindTap for Art Cate Barr, former senior art director; Jillian Borden, former senior
through the Ages are enumerated on page xxix). marketing manager; and Sayaka Kawano, former product assis-
tant. I also express my deep gratitude to the incomparable group
of learning consultants who have passed on to me the welcome
Acknowledgments advice offered by the hundreds of instructors they speak to daily.
A work as extensive as a global history of art could not be undertaken It is a special pleasure also to acknowledge my debt to the fol-
or completed without the counsel of experts in all areas of world lowing out-of-house contributors to the 16th edition: the peerless
art. As with previous editions, Cengage has enlisted dozens of art quarterback of the entire production process, Joan Keyes, Dovetail
historians to review every chapter of Art through the Ages in order to Publishing Services; Michele Jones, copy editor extraordinaire; Susan
xii Preface
96593_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 12 13/08/18 12:44 pm

Gall, eagle-eyed proofreader; Alisha Webber, text and cover designer; thenaic procession frieze of the Parthenon; the Temple of Athena
Lumina Datamatics, photo researchers; Jay and John Crowley, Jay’s Nike and the caryatids of the Erechtheion on the Athenian Acrop-
Publisher Services; Cenveo Publisher Services; and Jonathan Poore olis; the Tomb of the Diver, Paestum; the Farnese Hercules; and the
and John Burge, for their superb photos and architectural drawings. Stoa of Attalos in the Athenian agora.
I conclude this long (but no doubt incomplete) list of acknowl- 6: The Etruscans. New Framing the Era essay “The Portal to the Etrus-
edgments with an expression of gratitude to my colleagues at Boston can Afterlife.” New A Second Opinion essay “The Capitoline Wolf.”
University and to the thousands of students and hundreds of teach- New photographs of the Tomb of the Augurs and the Capitoline Wolf.
ing fellows in my art history courses since I began teaching in 1975.
From them I have learned much that has helped determine the form 7: The Roman Empire. Added the portraits of a Republican priest
and content of Art through the Ages and made it a much better book in the Vatican Museums and of Pompey the Great in Venice.
than it otherwise might have been. New Framing the Era essay “The Roman Emperor as World Con-
Fred S. Kleiner queror.” New A Second Opinion essay “The Arch of Constantine.”
New photographs of the Temple of Portunus, Rome; the Temple of
Vesta, Tivoli; the funerary relief of the Gessii in Boston; the funer-
ary procession relief from Amiternum; the gardenscape from the
Chapter-by-Chapter Changes Villa of Livia at Primaporta; the Ara Pacis Augustae, Rome (gen-
in the 16th Edition eral view and Tellus panel); the Pont-du-Gard, Nîmes; the Porta
Maggiore, Rome; the facade of the Colosseum, Rome; the portrait
The 16th edition is extensively revised and expanded, as detailed of a Flavian woman in the Museo Capitolino; the spoils relief of
below. Instructors will find a very helpful figure number transition the Arch of Titus, Rome; four details of the spiral frieze of the
guide on the online instructor companion site. Column of Trajan, Rome; the portrait of Hadrian in the Palazzo
Introduction: What Is Art History? Added the head of the portrait Massimo; the exterior of the Pantheon, Rome; the apotheosis and
of Augustus as pontifex maximus from the Via Labicana, Rome. decursio reliefs of the Column of Antoninus Pius, Rome; the por-
1: Art in the Stone Age. Revised and expanded discussion of trait of Caracalla in Berlin; the portrait of Trajan Decius in the
chronology and current theories about Paleolithic art, includ- Museo Capitolino; the portrait of Philip the Arabian in the Vatican
ing a new A Second Opinion essay “The Meaning of Paleolithic Museums; the Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus; the Temple of Venus,
Art.” New Art and Society essay “The Neolithic Temple at Göbekli Baalbek; and the Arch of Constantine, Rome.
Tepe.” New photographs of the passage grave at Newgrange and 8: Late Antiquity. Added the baptistery of the Christian commu-
the circles of trilithons at Stonehenge. nity house at Dura-Europos, the Anastasis Rotunda of the Church
2: Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia. Added the Babylonian of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, and the mosaics of the chan-
Queen of the Night, the Kalhu panel of Assyrians besieging a cita- cel arch of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. New Framing the Era
del, and a bull protome capital from Achaemenid Susa. Revised essay “Polytheism and Monotheism at Dura-Europos.” New A Sec-
chronology of Sumerian art and expanded discussion of the Royal ond Opinion essay “The Via Latina Catacomb.” New photographs
Cemetery at Ur with a new A Second Opinion essay “The Stan- of the Dura-Europos baptistery, the Santa Maria Antiqua sarcoph-
dard of Ur.” Revised discussion and dating of the Sasanian palace agus, two details of the Catacomb of Commodilla in Rome, and
at Ctesiphon. New photographs of the cylinder seal of Puabi, the the ivory diptych of the Symmachi.
portrait head of an Akkadian ruler, the lamassu from the palace of 9: Byzantium. Added the pedestal of the Theodosian obelisk in
Sargon II, and the Nineveh panel of Ashurbanipal hunting lions. the Constantinople hippodrome. New A Second Opinion essay
3: Egypt from Narmer to Cleopatra. Added the colossal head “The Vienna Genesis.” New photographs of the apse of San Vitale
of Senusret III in Kansas City. New A Second Opinion essay at Ravenna, the interior of the Cappella Palatina at Palermo, and
“Akhenaton.” New photographs of the columnar entrance corri- the exterior of the church of Saint Catherine at Thessaloniki.
dor of the funerary precinct of Djoser at Saqqara, the exterior and 10: The Islamic World. New A Second Opinion essay “The Rock
interior of the Temple of Ramses II at Abu Simbel, the Temple of of the Dome of the Rock.” New photographs of the exterior and
Amen-Re and the hypostyle hall at Karnak, Thutmose’s portrait of interior of the Dome of the Rock, the Umayyad palace at Mshatta,
Nefertiti, the sunken relief in Berlin of the family of Akhenaton, and the pyxis of al-Mughira.
and the sphinx of Taharqo in the British Museum. 11: Early Medieval Europe. New Framing the Era essay “Mis-
4: The Prehistoric Aegean. New A Second Opinion essay “Cycladic sionaries and the Beauty of God’s Words.” New A Second Opinion
Statuettes.” New photographs of the Hagia Triada sarcophagus, the essay “The Lindisfarne Saint Matthew.” New Problems and Solu-
Akrotiri Spring Fresco, the corbel-vaulted gallery in the fortifica- tions essay “How to Illustrate a Psalm.” New photographs of the
tion walls of Tiryns, the Lion Gate and the interior of the Treasury Oseberg ship, San Juan Bautista at Baños de Cerrato, and the
of Atreus at Mycenae, and the Mycenaean painted female head in bronze doors of St. Michael’s at Hildesheim.
the Athens National Archaeological Museum. 12: Romanesque Europe. New Framing the Era essay “The Blessed
5: Ancient Greece. Added a second centauromachy metope, the and the Damned on Judgment Day.” New Written Sources essay
horse of Selene from the east pediment, the river god Ilissos and “The Burning of Canterbury Cathedral.” Two new Problems and
Iris from the west pediment, and the peplos ceremony of the east Solutions essays “Stone Vaulting in Romanesque Churches” and
frieze of the Parthenon; and the lion hunt pebble mosaic from “How to Illuminate a Nave.” New A Second Opinion essay “The
Pella. New A Second Opinion essay “The Alexander Mosaic.” Rebirth of Large-Scale Sculpture in Romanesque Europe.” New
New photographs of the west pediment of the Temple of Arte- photographs of the west tympanum Last Judgment at Autun (three
mis, Corfu; the Charioteer of Delphi; the herm of Pericles in the new details), the Tower of Babel on the nave vault of Saint-Savin-sur-
Vatican; metope 28, Helios and Dionysos and the three goddesses Gartempe, the interior and atrium of Sant’Ambrogio at Milan, and
of the east pediment, and the horsemen and maidens of the Pana- the nave of Durham Cathedral.
Preface xiii
96593_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 13 13/08/18 12:44 pm

13: Gothic Europe North of the Alps. Added the head of Moses 16: China and Korea to 1279. Extensive text revisions. Added
from the west facade of Saint-Denis; Wells and Exeter Cathedrals; the Nanchan Temple on Mount Wutai. New A Second Opinion
and a discussion of the Decorated style of English Gothic architec- essay “Sanxingdui.” New photographs of the terracotta army of
ture. New Framing the Era essay “The Birth of Gothic.” New Art and Shi Huangdi (general view and three details), the Vairocana Bud-
Society essay “Louis IX, the Saintly King.” New A Second Opinion dha of the Fengxian Temple at Luoyang, the Fogong Si Pagoda at
essay “Gothic Cathedrals and Gothic Cities.” New photographs of Yingxian, and the United Silla cave temple at Seokguram.
Chartres Cathedral (aerial view and nave), Reims Cathedral (west 17: Japan before 1333. Revised Framing the Era essay “Horyuji,
facade), Sainte-Chapelle in Paris (interior), Salisbury Cathedral Japan’s Oldest Buddhist Temple.” New A Second Opinion essay
(west facade, statue of Bishop Poore, and nave), Gloucester Cathe- “Kofun Haniwa.” New photographs of a haniwa warrior from
dral (choir and tomb of Edward II), the exterior of the Chapel of Gunma Prefecture, the honden of the Ise Jingu, the kondo and
Henry VII in Westminster Abbey, Nicholas of Verdun’s Shrine of Amida triad mural at Horyuji, the Daibutsuden and Unkei’s Agyo
the Three Kings, and the choir of Cologne Cathedral. at Todaiji, and the Phoenix Hall of the Byodoin at Uji.
14: Late Medieval Italy. New Framing the Era essay “Duccio di 18: Native American Cultures before 1300. Added a Moche
Buoninsegna.” New A Second Opinion essay “Pietro Cavallini.” portrait-head vessel in Houston and Lintel 25 of Structure 23,
New Problems and Solutions essay “Cityscapes and Landscapes as Yaxchilán. New Framing the Era essay “Ancient Cities in a New
Allegories.” Two new photographs of Pietro Cavallini’s Last Judg- World.” New Art and Society essay “Human Sacrifice at Bonam-
ment in Santa Cecilia in Trastevere. pak.” New photographs of the Temple of the Sun and the Temple of
15: South and Southeast Asia before 1200. Extensively revised text the Feathered Serpent at Teotihuacán, the ball court at Copán, and
with expansion of the section on Southeast Asia, especially Borobu- the Castillo, Caracol, and ball court at Chichén Itzá.
dur. New A Second Opinion essay “The Ganges River or the Penance 19: Africa before 1800. Added a Nok culture fragmentary figure
of Arjuna?” New photographs of the Great Stupa at Sanchi (general of a woman in Houston. Revised Framing the Era essay “The Art
view and yakshi of the east torana), the Bodhisattva Padmapani of the Benin Kingdom.” New A Second Opinion essay “The Seated
mural painting in cave 1 at Ajanta, Borobudur (aerial view, relief of Man from Tada.” New photographs of the copper statuette from
Sudhana visiting Manjushri, and seated Buddha and hollow stupas of Tada, Beta Giorghis at Lalibela, and the circuit walls and bird-and-
the highest circular terrace), and Angkor Wat (aerial view). crocodile monolith of Great Zimbabwe.
about the author
Fred S. Kleiner
Fred S. Kleiner (Ph.D., Columbia University) has been the author or coauthor of Gardner’s Art through the
Ages beginning with the 10th edition in 1995. He has also published more than a hundred books, articles,
and reviews on Greek and Roman art and architecture, including A History of Roman Art, also published by
Cengage Learning. Both Art through the Ages and the book on Roman art have been awarded Texty prizes as the
outstanding college textbook of the year in the humanities and social sciences, in 2001 and 2007, respectively. Pro-
fessor Kleiner has taught the art history survey course since 1975, first at the University of Virginia and, since 1978,
at Boston University, where he is currently professor of the history of art and architecture and classical archaeology
and has served as department chair for five terms, most recently from 2005 to 2014. From 1985 to 1998, he was
editor-in-chief of the American Journal of Archaeology.
Long acclaimed for his inspiring lectures and devotion to students, Professor Kleiner won Boston University’s
Metcalf Award for Excellence in Teaching as well as the College Prize for Undergraduate Advising in the Humanities
in 2002, and he is a two-time winner of the Distinguished Teaching Prize in the College of Arts & Sciences Honors
Program. In 2007, he was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London, and, in 2009, in recognition of
lifetime achievement in publication and teaching, a Fellow of the Text and Academic Authors Association.
Also by Fred Kleiner: A History of Roman Art, Second Edition (Cengage Learning 2018; ISBN
9781337279505), winner of the 2007 Texty Prize for a new college textbook in the humanities and social sciences.
In this authoritative and lavishly illustrated volume, Professor Kleiner traces the development of Roman art and
architecture from Romulus’s foundation of Rome in the eighth century bce to the death of Constantine in the fourth
century ce, with special chapters devoted to Pompeii and Herculaneum, Ostia, funerary and provincial art and
architecture, and the earliest Christian art, with an introductory chapter on the art and architecture of the Etruscans
and of the Greeks of South Italy and Sicily.
xiv Preface
96593_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 14 13/08/18 12:44 pm

RESOURCES FOR STUDENTS
AND INSTRUCTORS
MindTap for MindTap Mobile

Art through the Ages Gardner’s Art through the Ages: A Global History, 16th edition, is
now more accessible than ever with the MindTap Mobile App,
MindTap for Gardner’s Art through the Ages: A Global History, 16th
empowering students to learn on their terms—anytime, anywhere,
edition, helps students engage with course content and achieve
online or off.
greater comprehension. Highly personalized, fully online, and com-
pletely mobile-optimized, the MindTap learning platform presents •• The MindTap eReader provides convenience as students can
authoritative Cengage content, assignments, and services. read or listen to their eBook on their smartphone, take notes,
and highlight important passages.
Students
•• Flashcards and quizzing cultivate confidence. Students have in-
MindTap guides you through your course via a learning path where stant access to readymade flashcards, study games, and quizzes
you can annotate readings and take quizzes. Concepts are brought to engage key concepts and confidently prepare for exams.
to life with zoomable versions of close to 1,700 images; videos to •• Notifications keep students connected. Due dates are never for-
reinforce concepts and expand knowledge of particular works or art gotten with MindTap Mobile course notifications, which push
trends; numerous study tools, including mobile-optimized image assignment reminders, score updates, and instructor messages
flashcards; a glossary complete with an audio pronunciation guide; directly to students’ smartphones.
and more!
Instructors Lecture Notes & Study Guides

You can easily tailor the presentation of each MindTap course The Lecture Notes & Study Guide for each chapter is a lecture
and integrate activities into a learning management system. The companion that allows students to take notes alongside the images
Resources for Teaching folder in MindTap and the Instructor Com- shown in class. This resource includes reproductions of the images
panion Site hold resources such as instructions on how to use the from the reading, with full captions and space for note-taking either
online test bank; Microsoft PowerPoint slides with high-resolution on a computer or on a printout. It also includes a chapter summary,
images, which can be used as is or customized by importing per- key terms list, and learning objectives checklist.
sonal lecture slides or other material; YouTube playlists organized
by chapter; course learning objectives; and more. Google Earth
Take a virtual tour of art through the ages! Resources for the 16th
edition include Google Earth coordinates for all works, monu-
ments, and sites discussed in the reading, encouraging students to
make geographical connections between places and sites. Instruc-
tors can use these coordinates to start lectures with a virtual journey
to locations all over the globe or take aerial screenshots of important
sites to incorporate into lecture materials.
xv
96593_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 15 13/08/18 12:44 pm

 I-1a Art historians seek to understand not only why artworks
appear as they do but also why those works exist at all. Who paid
this African artist to make this altar? Can the figures represented
provide the answer?
1 in.
I-1 Altar to the Hand (ikegobo), from Benin, Nigeria,

ca. 1735–1750. Bronze, 19 5 21 0 high. British Museum,
London (gift of Sir William Ingram).
 I-1b What tools and techniques did this sculptor employ to transform molten
bronze into this altar representing a Benin king and his attendants projecting in
high relief from the background plane?
 I-1c At the bottom of the altar is a band

with hands and other symbols, but no art-
ist’s signature or date. How can art historians
determine when an unlabeled work such as
this one was made and by and for whom?
30702_intro_rev03_xxxii-013.indd 32 12/06/18 12:38 pm

introduction
WHAT IS ART HISTORY?

What is art history? Except when referring to the modern academic discipline, people do not often
juxtapose the words art and history. They tend to think of history as the record and interpretation of
past human events, particularly social and political events. By contrast, most think of art, quite cor-
rectly, as part of the present—as something people can see and touch. Of course, people cannot see or
touch history’s vanished human events, but a visible, tangible artwork is a kind of persisting event. One
or more artists made it at a certain time and in a specific place, even if no one now knows who, when,
where, or why. Although created in the past, an artwork continues to exist in the present, long surviv-
ing its times. The earliest known paintings and sculptures were created almost 40,000 years ago, but
they can be viewed today, often in glass cases in museums built only during the past few years.
Modern museum visitors can admire these objects from the remote past and countless others pro-
duced over the millennia—whether a large painting on canvas by a 17th-century French artist (fig. I-12),
a wood portrait from an ancient Egyptian tomb (fig. I-15), an illustrated book by a medieval German
monk (fig. I-8), or an 18th-century bronze altar glorifying an African king (fig. I-1)—without any
knowledge of the circumstances leading to the creation of those works. The beauty or sheer size of an
object can impress people, the artist’s virtuosity in the handling of ordinary or costly materials can
dazzle them, or the subject depicted can move them emotionally. Viewers can react to what they see,
interpret the work in the light of their own experience, and judge it a success or a failure. These are all
valid aesthetic responses. (Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy that addresses the nature of beauty,
especially in art.) But the enjoyment and appreciation of artworks in museum settings are relatively
recent phenomena, as is the creation of artworks solely for museum-going audiences to view.
Today, it is common for artists to work in private studios and to create paintings, sculptures, and
other objects to be offered for sale by commercial art galleries. This is what American artist Clyfford
Still (1904–1980) did when he created his series of paintings (fig. I-2) of pure color titled simply with
the year of their creation. Usually, someone whom the artist has never met will purchase the artwork
and display it in a setting that the artist has never seen. This practice is not a new phenomenon in
the history of art—an ancient potter decorating a vase for sale at a village market stall probably did
not know who would buy the pot or where it would be housed—but it is not at all typical. In fact, it is
exceptional. Throughout history, most artists created paintings, sculptures, and other objects for specific
patrons and settings and to fulfill a specific purpose, even if today no one knows the original contexts
of those artworks. A museum visitor can appreciate the visual and tactile qualities of these objects, but
without knowing the circumstances of their creation, that modern viewer cannot understand why they
were made or why they appear as they do. Art appreciation and aesthetic judgments in general do not
require knowledge of the historical context of an artwork (or a building). Art history does.
1

ART HISTORY IN THE 21ST CENTURY
Art historians study the visual and tangible objects that humans
make and the structures they build. Scholars traditionally have
classified these works as architecture, sculpture, the pictorial arts
(painting, drawing, printmaking, and photography), and the craft
arts, or arts of design. The craft arts comprise utilitarian objects,
such as ceramics, metalwork, textiles, jewelry, and similar acces-
sories of ordinary living—but the fact that these objects were used
does not mean that they are not works of art. In fact, in some times
and places, these so-called minor arts were the most prestigious
artworks of all. Artists of every age have blurred the boundaries
among these categories, but this is especially true today, when mul-
timedia works abound.
Beginning with the earliest Greco-Roman art critics, scholars
have studied objects that their makers consciously manufactured as
“art” and to which the artists assigned formal titles. But today’s art
historians also study a multitude of objects that their creators and
owners almost certainly did not consider to be “works of art”—for
example, the African altar illustrated on the opening page of this
introductory chapter (fig. I-1). Likewise, few ancient Romans
1 ft.
would have regarded a coin bearing their emperor’s portrait as any-
thing but money. Today, an art museum may exhibit that coin in
a locked case in a climate-controlled room, and scholars may sub-
ject it to the same kind of art historical analysis as a portrait by an
acclaimed Renaissance or modern sculptor or painter.
The range of objects that art historians study is constantly
I-2 Clyfford Still, 1948-C, 1948. Oil on canvas, 6′ 8 78 ″ × 5′ 8 34 ″. expanding and now includes, for example, computer-generated
Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, images, whereas in the past almost anything produced using a
Washington, D.C. (purchased with funds of Joseph H. Hirshhorn, machine would not have been regarded as art. Most people still
1992). consider the performing arts—music, drama, and dance—as out-
Clyfford Still painted this abstract composition without knowing who would
side art history’s realm because these arts are fleeting, imperma-
purchase it or where it would be displayed, but throughout history, most art- nent media. But during the past few decades, even this distinction
ists created works for specific patrons and settings. between “fine art” and “performance art” has become blurred. Art
historians, however, generally ask the same kinds of questions
about what they study, whether they employ a restrictive or expan-
sive definition of art.
Thus a central aim of art history is to determine the original
context of artworks. Art historians seek to achieve a full under-
standing not only of why these “persisting events” of human history
The Questions Art Historians Ask
look the way they do but also of why the artistic events happened How Old Is It? Before art historians can write a history of art,
at all. What unique set of circumstances gave rise to the construc- they must be sure that they know the date of each work they study.
tion of a particular building or led an individual patron to com- Thus an indispensable subject of art historical inquiry is chronology,
mission a certain artist to fashion a singular artwork for a specific the dating of art objects and buildings. If researchers cannot deter-
place? The study of history is therefore vital to art history. And art mine a monument’s age, they cannot place the work in its historical
history is often indispensable for a thorough understanding of his- context. Art historians have developed many ways to establish, or at
tory. In ways that other historical documents may not, art objects least approximate, the date of an artwork.
and buildings can shed light on the peoples who made them and Physical evidence often reliably indicates an object’s age. The
on the times of their creation. Furthermore, artists and architects material used for a statue or painting—bronze, plastic, or oil-based
can affect history by reinforcing or challenging cultural values and pigment, to name only a few—may not have been invented before a
practices through the objects they create and the structures they certain time, indicating the earliest possible date (the terminus post
build. Although the two disciplines are not the same, the analysis of quem: Latin, “point after which”) that someone could have fash-
art and architecture is inseparable from the study of history. ioned the work. Or artists may have ceased using certain materi-
The following pages introduce some of the distinctive subjects als—such as specific kinds of inks and papers for drawings—at a
that art historians address and the kinds of questions they ask, and known time, providing the latest possible date (the terminus ante
explain some of the basic terminology they use when answering quem: Latin, “point before which”) for objects made of those mate-
these questions. Readers armed with this arsenal of questions and rials. Sometimes the material (or the manufacturing technique) of
terms will be ready to explore the multifaceted world of art through an object or a building can establish a very precise date of produc-
the ages—and to form their own opinions and write knowledgably tion or construction. The study of tree rings, for instance, usually
about artworks and buildings in all places and at all times. This is can determine within a narrow range the date of a wood statue or a
the central aim of this book. timber roof beam.
2 introduction What Is Art History?


I-4 Interior of Santa Croce (looking east), Florence, Italy, begun 1294.
In contrast to Beauvais Cathedral (fig. I-3), this contemporaneous Florentine

church conforms to the quite different regional style of Italy. The building has
a low timber roof and small windows.
I-3 Choir of Beauvais Cathedral (looking east), Beauvais, France,

“Archaic Greek” or “High Renaissance.” But many periods do not
rebuilt after 1284.
display any stylistic unity at all. How would someone define the
The style of an object or building often varies from region to region. This artistic style of the second or third decade of the new millennium in
cathedral has towering stone vaults and large colored-glass windows North America? Far too many crosscurrents exist in contemporary
typical of 13th-century French architecture. art for anyone to describe a period style of the early 21st century—
even in a single city such as New York.
Documentary evidence can help pinpoint the date of an object Regional style is the term that art historians use to describe
or building when a dated written document mentions the work. For variations in style tied to geography. Like an object’s date, its prov-
example, official records may note when church officials commis- enance, or place of origin, can significantly determine its character.
sioned a new altarpiece—and how much they paid to which artist. Very often two artworks from the same place made centuries apart
Internal evidence can play a significant role in dating an art- are more similar than contemporaneous works from two different
work. A painter or sculptor might have depicted an identifiable per- regions. To cite one example, usually only an expert can distinguish
son or a kind of hairstyle or garment fashionable only at a certain between an Egyptian statue carved in 2500 bce (fig. 3-13) and one
time. If so, the art historian can assign a more accurate date to that created 2,000 years later (fig. 3-37). But no one would mistake an
painting or sculpture. Egyptian statue of 500 bce for one of the same date made in Greece
Stylistic evidence is also very important. The analysis of style— (fig. 5-35) or Africa (fig. 19-4).
an artist’s distinctive manner of producing an object—is the art Considerable variations in a given area’s style are possible, how-
historian’s special sphere. Unfortunately, because it is a subjective ever, even during a single historical period. In late medieval Europe,
assessment, an artwork’s style is by far the most unreliable chrono- French architecture differed significantly from Italian architecture.
logical criterion. Still, art historians find stylistic evidence a very The interiors of Beauvais Cathedral (fig. I-3) and the church of
useful tool for establishing chronology. Santa Croce (Holy Cross, fig. I-4) in Florence typify the architec-
tural styles of France and Italy, respectively, at the end of the 13th
What Is Its Style? Defining artistic style is one of the key ele- century. The rebuilding of the east end of Beauvais Cathedral began
ments of art historical inquiry, although the analysis of artworks in 1284. Construction commenced on Santa Croce only 10 years
solely in terms of style no longer dominates the field the way it once later. Both structures employ the pointed arch characteristic of this
did. Art historians speak of several different kinds of artistic styles. era, yet the two churches differ strikingly. The French church has
Period style refers to the characteristic artistic manner of a spe- towering stone ceilings and large expanses of colored-glass win-
cific era or span of years, usually within a distinct culture, such as dows, whereas the Italian building has a low timber roof and small,


1 ft.
I-5 Georgia O’Keeffe, Jack-in-the-Pulpit No. 4, 1930. Oil on canvas,

3′ 4″ × 2′ 6″. National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. (Alfred Stieg-
1 ft.
litz Collection, bequest of Georgia O’Keeffe).
O’Keeffe’s paintings feature close-up views of petals and leaves in which

the organic forms become powerful abstract compositions. This approach
to painting typifies the artist’s distinctive personal style.
widely separated clear windows. Because the two contemporaneous

churches served similar purposes, regional style mainly explains I-6 Ben Shahn, The Passion of Sacco and Vanzetti, 1931–1932. Tem-
their differing appearance. pera on canvas, 7′ 12″ × 4′. Whitney Museum of American Art, New
Personal style, the distinctive manner of individual artists or York (gift of Edith and Milton Lowenthal in memory of Juliana Force).
architects, often decisively explains stylistic discrepancies among O’Keeffe’s contemporary, Shahn developed a style markedly different from
paintings, sculptures, and buildings of the same time and place. For hers. His paintings are often social commentaries on recent events and
example, in 1930, American painter Georgia O’Keeffe (1887–1986) incorporate readily identifiable people.
produced a series of paintings of flowering plants. One of them—
Jack-in-the-Pulpit No. 4 (fig. I-5)—is a sharply focused close-up
view of petals and leaves. O’Keeffe captured the growing plant’s wearing academic cap and gown) who declared that the original
slow, controlled motion while converting the plant into a power- trial was fair and cleared the way for the executions. Behind, on the
ful abstract composition of lines, forms, and colors (see the discus- wall of a stately government building, hangs the framed portrait of
sion of art historical vocabulary in the next section). Only a year the judge who pronounced the initial sentence. Personal style, not
later, another American artist, Ben Shahn (1898–1969), painted period or regional style, sets Shahn’s canvas apart from O’Keeffe’s.
The Passion of Sacco and Vanzetti (fig. I-6), a stinging commentary The contrast is extreme here because of the very different subjects
on social injustice inspired by the trial and execution of two Ital- that the artists chose. But even when two artists depict the same
ian anarchists, Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti. Many people subject, the results can vary widely. The way that O’Keeffe painted
believed that Sacco and Vanzetti had been unjustly convicted of flowers and the way that Shahn painted faces are distinctive and
killing two men in a robbery in 1920. Shahn’s painting compresses unlike the styles of their contemporaries. (See the “Who Made It?”
time in a symbolic representation of the trial and its aftermath. The discussion on page 6.)
two executed men lie in their coffins. Presiding over them are the The different kinds of artistic styles are not mutually exclusive.
three members of the commission (headed by a college president For example, an artist’s personal style may change dramatically


I-7 Gislebertus, weighing of souls, detail of Last Judgment
(fig. 12-1), west tympanum of Saint-Lazare, Autun, France,
ca. 1120–1135.
In this high relief portraying the weighing of souls on Judgment

Day, Gislebertus used disproportion and distortion to dehumanize
the devilish figure yanking on the scales of justice.
during a long career. Art historians then must distinguish

among the different period styles of a particular artist,
such as the “Rose Period” (fig. 29-10A) and the “Cub-
ist Period” (fig. 29-14) of the prolific 20th-century artist
Pablo Picasso.
What Is Its Subject? Another major concern of art

historians is, of course, subject matter, encompassing the
story or narrative; the scene presented; the action’s time
and place; the persons involved; and the environment and
its details. Some artworks, such as modern abstract paint-
ings (fig. I-2), have neither traditional subjects nor even
settings. The “subject” is the artwork itself—its colors,
textures, composition, and size. But when artists repre-
sent people, places, or actions, viewers must identify these
features to achieve a complete understanding of the work.
Art historians traditionally separate pictorial subjects into
various categories, such as religious, historical, mythologi-
cal, genre (daily life), portraiture, landscape (a depiction of
a place), still life (an arrangement of inanimate objects),
and their numerous subdivisions and combinations.
Iconography—literally, the “writing of images”—
refers both to the content, or subject, of an artwork, and
to the study of content in art. By extension, it also includes
the study of symbols, images that stand for other images or
encapsulate ideas. In Christian art, two intersecting lines
of unequal length or a simple geometric cross can serve
as an emblem of the religion as a whole, symbolizing the
cross of Jesus Christ’s crucifixion. A symbol also can be
a familiar object that an artist has imbued with greater
meaning. A balance or scale, for example, may symbolize
justice or the weighing of souls on Judgment Day (fig. I-7).
Artists may depict figures with unique attributes
identifying them. In Christian art, for example, each of the
authors of the biblical Gospel books, the four evangelists
(fig. I-8), has a distinctive attribute. People can recognize
Saint Matthew by the winged man associated with him,
John by his eagle, Mark by his lion, and Luke by his ox.
Throughout the history of art, artists have used
personifications—abstract ideas codified in human form.
Because of the fame of the colossal statue set up in New
York City’s harbor in 1886, people everywhere visualize
Liberty as a robed woman wearing a rayed crown and
holding a torch. Four different personifications appear
I-8 The four evangelists, folio 14 verso of the Aachen

Gospels, ca. 810. Ink and tempera on vellum, 1′ × 9 12″.
Domschatzkammer, Aachen.
1 in. Artists depict figures with attributes in order to identify them
for viewers. The authors of the four Gospels have distinctive
attributes—winged man (Matthew), eagle (John), lion (Mark),
and ox (Luke).


common (but by no means universal) today, in the history of art,
countless works exist whose artists remain unknown. Because per-
sonal style can play a major role in determining the character of
an artwork, art historians often try to attribute anonymous works
to known artists. Sometimes they assemble a group of works all
thought to be by the same person, even though none of the objects
in the group is the known work of an artist with a recorded name.
Art historians thus reconstruct the careers of artists such as the
“Achilles Painter” (fig. 5-58), the anonymous ancient Greek artist
whose masterwork is a depiction of the hero Achilles. Scholars base
their attributions on internal evidence, such as the distinctive way
that an artist draws or carves drapery folds, earlobes, or flowers. It
requires a keen, highly trained eye and long experience to become
a connoisseur, an expert in assigning artworks to “the hand” of one
artist rather than another. Attribution is subjective, of course, and
ever open to doubt. For example, for a half-century through 2014,
scholars involved with the Rembrandt Research Project debated
attributions to the famous 17th-century Dutch painter Rembrandt
van Rijn (fig. 25-15)—and the debate continues today.
Sometimes a group of artists works in the same style at the
same time and place. Art historians designate such a group as a
school. “School” in this sense does not mean an educational insti-
tution or art academy. The term connotes only shared chronol-
ogy, style, and geography. Art historians speak, for example, of the
Dutch school of the 17th century and, within it, of subschools such
as those of the cities of Haarlem, Utrecht, and Leyden.
1 in. Who Paid for It? The interest that many art historians show
in attribution reflects their conviction that the identity of an art-
work’s maker is the major reason why the object looks the way it
does. For them, personal style is of paramount importance. But
I-9 Albrecht Dürer, The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse,
in many times and places, artists had little to say about what form
ca. 1498. Woodcut, 1′ 3 14″ × 11″. Metropolitan Museum of Art,
their work would take. They toiled in obscurity, doing the bidding
New York (gift of Junius S. Morgan, 1919).
of their patrons, those who paid them to make individual works or
Personifications are abstract ideas codified in human form. Here, Albrecht employed them on a continuing basis. The role of patrons in dictat-
Dürer represented Death, Famine, War, and Pestilence as four men on ing the content and shaping the form of artworks is also an impor-
charging horses, each one carrying an identifying attribute. tant subject of art historical inquiry.
In the art of portraiture, to name only one category of painting
in The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (fig. I-9) by German art- and sculpture, the patron has often played a dominant role in decid-
ist Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528). The late-15th-century print is ing how the artist represented the subject, whether that person was
a terrifying depiction of the fateful day at the end of time when, the patron or another individual, such as a spouse, son, or mother.
according to the Bible’s last book, Death, Famine, War, and Pesti- Many Egyptian pharaohs (for example, fig. 3-13) and some Roman
lence will annihilate the human race. Dürer personified Death as an emperors insisted that artists depict them with unlined faces and per-
emaciated old man with a pitchfork. Famine swings the scales for fect youthful bodies no matter how old they were when portrayed. In
weighing human souls (compare fig. I-7). War wields a sword, and these cases, the state employed the sculptors and painters, and the
Pestilence draws a bow. artists had no choice but to portray their patrons in the officially
Even without considering style and without knowing a work’s approved manner. This is why Augustus, who lived to age 76, looks
maker, informed viewers can determine much about the work’s so young in his portraits (fig. I-10; compare fig. 7-27). Although
period and provenance by iconographical and subject analysis alone. Roman emperor for more than 40 years, Augustus demanded that
In The Passion of Sacco and Vanzetti (fig. I-6), for example, the two artists always represent him as a young, godlike head of state.
coffins, the trio headed by an academic, and the robed judge in the All modes of artistic production reveal the impact of patron-
background are all pictorial clues revealing the painting’s subject. The age. Learned monks provided the themes for the sculptural decora-
work’s date must be after the trial and execution (the terminus post tion of medieval church portals (fig. I-7). Renaissance princes and
quem), probably while the event was still newsworthy. And because popes dictated the subject, size, and materials of artworks destined
the two men’s deaths caused the greatest outrage in the United States, for display in buildings also constructed according to their specifica-
the painter–social critic was probably an American. tions. An art historian could make a very long list of commissioned
works, and it would indicate that patrons have had diverse tastes
Who Made It? If Ben Shahn had not signed his painting of Sacco and needs throughout history and consequently have demanded
and Vanzetti, an art historian could still assign, or attribute (make different kinds of art. Whenever a patron contracts with an artist or
an attribution of), the work to him based on knowledge of the art- architect to paint, sculpt, or build in a prescribed manner, personal
ist’s personal style. Although signing (and dating) works is quite style often becomes a very minor factor in the ultimate appearance


Form and Composition. Form refers to an object’s shape and
structure, either in two dimensions (for example, a portrait painted
on canvas) or in three dimensions (such as a statue carved from a
marble block). Two forms may take the same shape but differ in
their color, texture, and other qualities. Composition refers to how
an artist composes (organizes) forms in an artwork, either by plac-
ing shapes on a flat surface or by arranging forms in space.
Material and Technique. To create art forms, artists shape

materials (pigment, clay, marble, gold, and many more) with tools
(pens, brushes, chisels, and so forth). Each of the materials and
tools available has its own potentialities and limitations. Part of all
artists’ creative activity is to select the medium and instrument most
suitable to the purpose—or to develop new media and tools, such
as bronze and concrete in antiquity and cameras and computers in
modern times. The processes that artists employ, such as applying
paint to canvas with a brush, and the distinctive, personal ways that
they handle materials constitute their technique. Form, material, and
technique interrelate and are central to analyzing any work of art.
Line. Among the most important elements defining an artwork’s

shape or form is line. A line can be understood as the path of a point
moving in space, an invisible line of sight. More commonly, however,
artists and architects make a line visible by drawing (or chiseling)
it on a plane, a flat surface. A line may be very thin, wirelike, and
delicate. It may be thick and heavy. Or it may alternate quickly from
1 in.
broad to narrow, the strokes jagged or the outline broken. When a
continuous line defines an object’s outer shape, art historians call it
a contour line. All of these line qualities are present in Dürer’s Four
I-10 Head of the statue of Augustus as pontifex maximus, from Horsemen of the Apocalypse (fig. I-9). Contour lines define the basic
Via Labicana, Rome, Italy, late first century bce. Marble, statue shapes of clouds, human and animal limbs, and weapons. Within the
6′ 10″ high; detail 1′ 4 12″. Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Museo forms, series of short broken lines create shadows and textures. An
Nazionale Romano, Rome. overall pattern of long parallel strokes suggests the dark sky on the
frightening day when the world is about to end.
Patrons frequently dictate the form that their portraits will take. Emperor
Augustus demanded that he always be portrayed as a young, godlike head
Color. Light reveals all colors. Light in the world of the painter
of state even though he lived to age 76.
and other artists differs from natural light. Natural light, or sun-
light, is whole or additive light. As the sum of all the wavelengths
of the painting, statue, or building. In these cases, the identity of composing the visible spectrum, it may be disassembled or frag-
the patron reveals more to art historians than does the identity mented into the individual colors of the spectral band. The paint-
of the artist or school. The portrait of Augustus illustrated here er’s light in art—the light reflected from pigments and objects—is
(fig. I-10)—showing the emperor wearing a hooded toga in his offi- subtractive light. Paint pigments produce their individual colors by
cial capacity as pontifex maximus (chief priest of the Roman state reflecting a segment of the spectrum while absorbing all the rest.
religion)—was the work of a virtuoso sculptor, a master wielder of Green pigment, for example, subtracts or absorbs all the light in the
hammer and chisel. But scores of similar portraits of this Roman spectrum except that seen as green.
emperor also exist today. They differ in quality but not in kind from Hue is the property giving a color its name. Although the spec-
this one. The patron, not the artist, determined the character of trum colors merge into each other, artists usually conceive of their
these artworks. Augustus’s public image never varied. Art through hues as distinct from one another. Color has two basic variables—
the Ages highlights the involvement of patrons in the design and the apparent amount of light reflected and the apparent purity. A
production of sculptures, paintings, and buildings throughout the change in one must produce a change in the other. Some terms for
text and in a series of boxed essays called The Patron’s Voice. these variables are value or tonality (the degree of lightness or dark-
ness) and intensity or saturation (the purity of a color, its brightness
or dullness).
The Words Art Historians Use Artists call the three basic colors—red, yellow, and blue—the
As in all fields of study, art history has its own specialized vocab- primary colors. The secondary colors result from mixing pairs of pri-
ulary consisting of hundreds of words, but certain basic terms maries: orange (red and yellow), purple (red and blue), and green
are indispensable for describing artworks and buildings of any (yellow and blue). Complementary colors represent the pairing of
time and place. They make up the essential vocabulary of formal a primary color and the secondary color created from mixing the
analysis, the visual analysis of artistic form, and are used whenever two other primary colors—red and green, yellow and purple, and
one talks or writes about art and architecture. Definitions and dis- blue and orange. They “complement,” or complete, each other, one
cussions of the most important art historical terms follow. absorbing the colors that the other reflects.


as when painters depict an object as having a certain texture even
though the pigment is the true texture. Sometimes artists combine
different materials of different textures on a single surface, juxta-
posing paint with pieces of wood, newspaper, fabric, and so forth.
Art historians refer to this mixed-media technique as collage. Tex-
ture is, of course, a key determinant of any sculpture’s character.
People’s first impulse is usually to handle a work of sculpture—even
though museum signs often warn “Do not touch!” Sculptors plan
for this natural human response, using surfaces varying in texture
from rugged coarseness to polished smoothness. Textures are often
intrinsic to a material, influencing the type of stone, wood, plastic,
clay, or metal that a sculptor selects.
Space, Mass, and Volume. Space is the bounded or bound-

less “container” of objects. For art historians, space can be the real
1 ft. three-dimensional space occupied by a statue or a vase or contained
within a room or courtyard. Or space can be illusionistic, as when
painters depict an image (or illusion) of the three-dimensional spa-
tial world on a two-dimensional surface.
Mass and volume describe three-dimensional objects and
space. In both architecture and sculpture, mass is the bulk, den-
sity, and weight of matter in space. Yet the mass need not be solid.
It can be the exterior form of enclosed space. Mass can apply to a
I-11 Josef Albers, Homage to the Square: “Ascending,” 1953. Oil on
solid Egyptian pyramid or stone statue; to a church, synagogue, or
composition board, 3′ 7 12″ × 3′ 7 12″. Whitney Museum of American
mosque (architectural shells enclosing sometimes vast spaces); and
Art, New York.
to a hollow metal statue or baked clay pot. Volume is the space that
Albers created hundreds of paintings using the same composition but mass organizes, divides, or encloses. It may be a building’s interior
employing variations in hue, saturation, and value in order to reveal the spaces, the intervals between a structure’s masses, or the amount of
relativity and instability of color perception. space occupied by a three-dimensional object such as a statue, pot,
or chair. Volume and mass describe both the exterior and interior
forms of a work of art—the forms of the matter of which it is com-
Artists can manipulate the appearance of colors, however. One posed and the spaces immediately around the work and interacting
artist who made a systematic investigation of the formal aspects of with it.
art, especially color, was Josef Albers (1888–1976), a German-
born artist who emigrated to the United States in 1933. In con- Perspective and Foreshortening. Perspective is one of the
nection with his studies, Albers created the series Homage to the most important pictorial devices for organizing forms in space.
Square—hundreds of paintings, most of which are color variations Throughout history, artists have used various types of perspective
on the same composition of concentric squares, as in the illus- to create an illusion of depth or space on a two-dimensional sur-
trated example (fig. I-11). The series reflected Albers’s belief that face. The French painter Claude Lorrain (1600–1682) employed
art originates in “the discrepancy between physical fact and psy- several perspective devices in Embarkation of the Queen of Sheba
chic effect.”1 Because the composition in most of these paintings (fig. I-12), a painting of a biblical episode set in a 17th-century
remains constant, the works succeed in revealing the relativity European harbor with an ancient Roman ruin in the left fore-
and instability of color perception. Albers varied the hue, satura- ground—an irrationally anachronistic combination that the art his-
tion, and value of each square in the paintings in this series. As a torian can explain only in the context of the cultural values of the
result, the sizes of the squares from painting to painting appear to artist’s time and place. In Claude’s painting, the figures and boats on
vary (although they remain the same), and the sensations emanat- the shoreline are much larger than those in the distance, because
ing from the paintings range from clashing dissonance to delicate decreasing the size of an object makes it appear farther away. The
serenity. Albers explained his motivation for focusing on color top and bottom of the port building at the painting’s right side are
juxtapositions: not parallel horizontal lines, as they are in a real building. Instead,
the lines converge beyond the structure, leading the viewer’s eye
They [the colors] are juxtaposed for various and changing visual toward the hazy, indistinct sun on the horizon. These three per-
effects. . . . Such action, reaction, interaction . . . is sought in order spective devices—the reduction of figure size, the convergence of
to make obvious how colors influence and change each other; that diagonal lines, and the blurring of distant forms—have been famil-
the same color, for instance—with different grounds or neighbors— iar features of Western art since they were first employed by the
looks different. . . . Such color deceptions prove that we see colors ancient Greeks. It is important to state, however, that all kinds of
almost never unrelated to each other.2 perspective are only pictorial conventions, even when one or more
types of perspective may be so common in a given culture that peo-
ple accept them as “natural” or as “true” means of representing the
Texture. The term texture refers to the quality of a surface, such natural world.
as rough or shiny. Art historians distinguish between true texture— These perspective conventions are by no means universal. In
that is, the tactile quality of the surface—and represented texture, Waves at Matsushima (fig. I-13), a Japanese seascape painting on


I-12 Claude Lorrain, Embarka-
tion of the Queen of Sheba, 1648.
Oil on canvas, 4′ 10″ × 6′ 4″.
National Gallery, London.
To create the illusion of a deep land-

scape, Claude Lorrain employed
perspective, reducing the size of and
blurring the most distant forms. All
diagonal lines converge on a single
point.
1 ft.
a six-part folding screen, Ogata Korin (1658–1716) ignored these less concerned with locating the boulders and waves and clouds in
Western “tricks” for representing deep space on a flat surface. A space than with composing shapes on a surface, playing the swell-
Western viewer might interpret the left half of Korin’s composi- ing curves of waves and clouds against the jagged contours of the
tion as depicting the distant horizon, as in the French painting, but rocks. Neither the French nor the Japanese painting can be said to
the sky is an unnatural gold, and the clouds filling that unnaturally project “correctly” what viewers “in fact” see. One painting is not
colored sky are almost indistinguishable from the waves below. a “better” picture of the world than the other. The European and
The rocky outcroppings decrease in size with distance, but all are Asian artists simply approached the problem of picture making
in sharp focus, and there are no shadows. The Japanese artist was differently.
1 ft.
I-13 Ogata Korin, Waves at Matsushima, Edo period, Japan, ca. 1700–1716. Six-panel folding screen, ink, colors,
and gold leaf on paper, 4′ 11 18″ × 12′ 78″. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (Fenollosa-Weld Collection).
Asian artists rarely employed Western perspective (fig. I-12). Korin was more concerned with creating an intriguing composition
of shapes on a surface than with locating boulders, waves, and clouds in space.


I-14 Peter Paul Rubens, Lion
Hunt, 1617–1618. Oil on canvas,
8′ 2″ × 12′ 5″. Alte Pinakothek,
Munich.
Foreshortening—the representation
of a figure or object at an angle to the
picture plane—is a common device
in Western art for creating the illusion
of depth. Foreshortening is a type of
perspective.
Artists also represent single

figures in space in varying ways.
When Flemish artist Peter Paul
Rubens (1577–1640) painted Lion 1 ft.
Hunt (fig. I-14), he used fore-

shortening for all the hunters and
animals—that is, he represented
their bodies at angles to the pic-
ture plane. When in life one views
a figure at an angle, the body appears to contract as it extends back in figures, constituent parts of buildings, and so forth. In ancient Greece,
space. Foreshortening is a kind of perspective. It produces the illusion many sculptors formulated canons of proportions so strict and all-
that one part of the body is farther away than another, even though encompassing that they calculated the size of every body part in
all the painted forms are on the same plane. Especially noteworthy advance, even the fingers and toes, according to mathematical ratios.
in Lion Hunt are the gray horse at the left, seen from behind with the Proportional systems can differ sharply from period to period,
bottom of its left rear hoof facing viewers and most of its head hidden culture to culture, and artist to artist. Part of the task that art history
by its rider’s shield, and the fallen hunter at the painting’s lower right
corner, whose barely visible legs and feet recede into the distance. I-15 Hesire, relief
The artist who carved the portrait of the ancient Egyptian official from his tomb at
Hesire (fig. I-15) for display in Hesire’s tomb did not employ fore- Saqqara, Egypt,
shortening. That artist’s purpose was to present the various human Dynasty III, ca.
body parts as clearly as possible, without overlapping. The lower part 2650 bce. Wood,
of Hesire’s body is in profile to give the most complete view of the 3′ 9″ high. Egyptian
legs, with both the heel and toes of each foot visible. The frontal torso, Museum, Cairo.
however, enables viewers to see its full shape, including both shoul-
Egyptian artists
ders, equal in size, as in nature. (Compare the shoulders of the hunter
combined frontal and
on the gray horse or those of the fallen hunter in Lion Hunt’s left fore-
profile views to give a
ground.) The result—an “unnatural” 90-degree twist at the waist— precise picture of the
provides a precise picture of human body parts, if not an accurate parts of the human
picture of how a standing human figure really looks. Rubens and the body, as opposed
Egyptian sculptor used very different means of depicting forms in to depicting how
space. Once again, neither is the “correct” manner. an individual body
appears from a spe-
Proportion and Scale. Proportion concerns the relationships (in cific viewpoint.
terms of size) of the parts of persons, buildings, or objects. People
can judge “correct proportions” intuitively (“that statue’s head seems
the right size for the body”). Or proportion can be a mathematical
relationship between the size of one part of an artwork or building
and the other parts within the work. Proportion in art implies using 1 ft.
a module, or basic unit of measure. When an artist or architect uses

a formal system of proportions, all parts of a building, body, or other
entity will be fractions or multiples of the module. A module might
be the diameter of a column, the height of a human head, or any other
component whose dimensions can be multiplied or divided to deter-
mine the size of the artwork’s or building’s other parts.
In certain times and places, artists have devised canons, or sys-
tems, of “correct” or “ideal” proportions for representing human


students face is to perceive and adjust to these differences. In fact, at approximately the same size on the page. Readers of Art through
many artists have used disproportion and distortion deliberately for the Ages can learn the exact size of all artworks from the dimensions
expressive effect. In the medieval French depiction of the weigh- given in the captions and, more intuitively, from the scales positioned
ing of souls on Judgment Day (fig. I-7), the devilish figure yanking at the lower left or right corner of each illustration.
down on the scale has distorted facial features and stretched, lined
limbs with animal-like paws for feet. Disproportion and distortion Carving and Casting. Sculptural technique falls into two basic
make him appear “inhuman,” precisely as the sculptor intended. categories, subtractive and additive. Carving is a subtractive tech-
In other cases, artists have used disproportion to focus attention nique. The final form is a reduction of the original mass of a
on one body part (often the head) or to single out a group member block of stone, a piece of wood, or another material. Wood stat-
(usually the leader). These intentional “unnatural” discrepancies in ues were once tree trunks, and stone statues began as blocks pried
proportion constitute what art historians call hierarchy of scale, the from mountains. The unfinished marble statue illustrated here
enlarging of elements considered the most important. On the bronze (fig. I-16) by renowned Italian artist Michelangelo Buonarroti
altar from Nigeria illustrated here (fig. I-1), the sculptor varied the (1475–1564) clearly reveals the original shape of the stone block.
size of each figure according to the person’s social status. Largest, and Michelangelo thought of sculpture as a process of “liberating” the
therefore most important, is the Benin king, depicted twice, each statue within the block. All sculptors of stone or wood cut away
time flanked by two smaller attendant figures and shown wearing a (subtract) “excess material.” When they finish, they “leave behind”
multistrand coral necklace emblematic of his high office. The king’s the statue—in this example, a twisting nude male form whose head
head is also disproportionately large compared to his body, consis- Michelangelo never freed from the stone block.
tent with one of the Benin ruler’s praise names: Great Head. In additive sculpture, the artist builds up the forms, usually in
One problem that students of art history—and professional art clay around a framework, or armature. Or a sculptor may fashion a
historians too—confront when studying illustrations in art history mold, a hollow form for shaping, or casting, a fluid substance such as
books is that although the relative sizes of figures and objects in a bronze or plaster. The ancient Greek sculptor who made the bronze
painting or sculpture are easy to discern, it is impossible to determine statue of a warrior found in the sea near Riace, Italy, cast the head
the absolute size of the work reproduced because they all are printed (fig. I-17) as well as the limbs, torso, hands, and feet (fig. 5-36)
1 in.
1 ft.
I-17 Head of a warrior, detail of a statue (fig. 5-36) from the sea off
I-16 Michelangelo Buonarroti, unfinished statue, 1527–1528. Riace, Italy, ca. 460–450 bce. Bronze, full statue 6′ 6″ high. Museo
Marble, 8′ 7 12″ high. Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence. Archeologico Nazionale, Reggio Calabria.
Carving a freestanding figure from stone or wood is a subtractive process. The sculptor of this life-size statue of a bearded Greek warrior cast the
Michelangelo thought of sculpture as a process of “liberating” the statue head, limbs, torso, hands, and feet in separate molds, then welded the
contained within the block of marble. pieces together and added the eyes in a different material.


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PERSONAL POLITICS
‘Ay, every inch a king!’
Many persons are surprised at the conduct of Charles X. in pushing

things to extremities: the wonder would have been, if he had not. All
the time of the Restoration under a charter, he was employed in
thinking how to get rid of that charter, to throw off that incubus, to
cancel that juggle, to breathe once more the air of divine right. Till
this were done—no matter by what delays, after what length of time,
by what jesuitical professions, by what false oaths, by what
stratagems, by what unmasked insolence, by what loud menaces, by
what violence, by what blood—the French monarch (whether Charles
or Louis), felt himself ‘cooped, confined, and cabined in, by saucy
doubts and fears;’ but this phantom of a constitution once out of the
way he would be ‘himself again.’ He would then first cry Vive la
Charte! without a pang—with his eyes running over, and his heart
bursting with laughter. If he had a right to be where he was, he had a
right to be what he was, and what he was born to be. This was the
first idea instilled into his mind, the last he would forget. All else was
a compromise with circumstances, a base surrender of an inalienable
claim, a concession extorted under duresse, so much the more
eagerly to be retracted, as an appearance of compliance had been the
longer and more studiously kept up. A throne not founded on
inherent right was a mockery and insult. All power shared with the
people, supposed to be derived from them, for which the possessor
was accountable to them, held during pleasure or good behaviour,
was pollution to his thoughts, odious to him as the leprosy. Be sure of
this, popular right coiled round the sceptre of hereditary kings is like
the viper clinging to our hands, which we shake off with fear and
loathing. There is in despots (born and bred) a natural and
irreconcilable antipathy to the people, and to all obligations to them.
The very name of freedom is a screech-owl in their ears. They have
been brought up with the idea that they were entitled to absolute
power, that there was something in their blood that gave them a right
to it without condition or reserve, or being called to account for the
use or abuse of it; and they reject with scorn and impatience
anything short of this. They will either be absolute or they will be
nothing. The Bourbons for centuries had been regarded as the gods
of the earth, as a superior race of beings, who had a sovereign right to
trample on mankind, and crush them in their wrath or spare them in
their mercy. Would Charles X. derogate from his ancestors, would he
be the degenerate scion of that royal line, to wear a tarnished and
dishonoured crown, to be raised by the shout of a mob, to wait the
assent of a Chamber of Deputies, to owe every thing to the people, to
be a king on liking and on sufferance, a sort of state prisoner in his
own kingdom, shut up and spell-bound in the nickname of a
Constitution? He would as soon consent to go on all-fours. The latter
would not shock his pride and prejudices more: would not be a
greater degradation in his eyes, or a more total inversion of the order
of nature. It is not that the successor to a despotic throne will not,
but he cannot be the king of a free people: the very supposition is in
his mind a contradiction in terms. It is something base and
mechanical, not amounting even to the rank of a private gentleman
who does what he pleases with his estate; and kings consider
mankind as their estate. If a herd of overloaded asses were to turn
against their drivers and demand their liberty and better usage, these
could not be more astonished than the Bourbons were when the
French people turned against them and demanded their rights. Will
these same Bourbons, who have been rocked and cradled in the
notion of arbitrary power, and of their own exclusive privileges as a
separate and sacred race, who have sucked it in with their mothers’
milk, who inherit it in their blood, who have nursed it in exile and in
solitude, and gloated over it once more, since their return, as within
their reach, ever be brought to look Liberty in the face except as a
mortal and implacable foe, or ever give up the hope of removing that
obstacle to all that they have been or still have a fancied right to be?
The last thing that they can be convinced of will be to make them
comprehend that they are men. This is a discovery of the last forty
years, that has been forced upon them in no very agreeable manner;
by the beheading of more than one of their race, the banishment of
the rest, by their long wanderings and unwelcome return to their
own country, from whence they have been driven twice since—but up
to that period they find no such levelling doctrine inscribed either in
the records of history or on their crest and coat of arms or in the
forms of religion or in the ancient laws and institutions of the
kingdom. Which version will they then believe or turn a deaf ear to:
that which represents them as God’s vicegerents upon earth, or that
which holds them up as the enemies of the human race and the scoff
and outcasts of their country? Every, the meanest individual has a
standard of estimation in his own breast, which is that he is of more
importance than all the rest of the world put together; but a king is
the only person with respect to whom all the rest of the world join or
have ever joined in the same conclusion; and be assured that having
encouraged him in this opinion, he will do every thing in his power to
keep them to it till his last gasp. You have sworn to a man that he is a
god: this is indeed the most solemn of compacts. Any attempt to
infringe it, any breath throwing a doubt upon it, is treason, rebellion,
impiety. Would you be so unjust as to retract the boon, he will not be
so unjust to himself as to let you. He would sooner suffer ten deaths
and forfeit twenty kingdoms than patiently submit to the indignity of
having his right called in question. It is said, Charles X. is a good-
natured man: it may be so, and that he would not hurt a fly; but in
that quarrel he would shed the blood of millions of men. If he did not
do so, he would consider himself as dead to honour, a recreant to
fame, and a traitor to the cause of kings. Touch but that string, the
inborn dignity of kings and their title to ‘solely sovereign sway and
masterdom,’ and the milk of human kindness in the best-natured
monarch turns to gall and bitterness. You might as well present a
naked sword to his breast, as be guilty of a word or look that can bear
any other construction than that of implicit homage and obedience.
There is a spark of pride lurking at the bottom of his heart, however
glozed over by smiles and fair speeches, ever ready (with the smallest
opposition to his will) to kindle into a flame, and desolate kingdoms.
Let but the voice of freedom speak, and to resist ‘shall be in him
remorse, what bloody work soever’ be the consequence. Good-
natured kings, like good-natured men, are often merely lovers of
their own ease who give themselves no trouble about other people’s
affairs: but interfere in the slightest point with their convenience,
interest, or self-love, and a tigress is not more furious in defence of
her young. While the Royal Guards were massacring the citizens of
Paris, Charles X. was partridge-shooting at St. Cloud, to show that the
shooting of his subjects and the shooting of game were equally
among the menus plaisirs of royalty. This is what is meant by mild
paternal sway, by the perfection of a good-natured monarch, when
he orders the destruction of as great a number of people as will not
do what he pleases, without any discomposure of dress or features.
Away with such trifling! There is no end of the confusion and
mischief occasioned by the application of this mode of arguing from
personal character and appearances to public measures and
principles. If we are to believe the fashionable cant on this subject, a
man cannot do a dirty action because he wears a clean shirt: he
cannot break an oath to a nation, because he pays a gambling debt;
and because he is delighted with the universal homage that is paid
him, with having every luxury and every pomp at his disposal, he
cannot, under the mask of courtesy and good humour, conceal
designs against a Constitution, or ‘smile and smile and be a tyrant!’
Such is the logic of the Times. This paper, ‘ever strong upon the
stronger side,’ laughs to scorn the very idea entertained by our
‘restless and mercurial neighbours’ (as if the Times had nothing of
the tourniquet principle in its composition) that so amiable, so well-
meaning and prosperous a gentleman as Charles X. should nourish
an old and inveterate grudge against the liberties of his country or
wish to overturn that happy order of things which the Times had so
great a share in establishing. But he no sooner verifies the
predictions of the French journalists and is tumbled from his throne,
than the Times with its jolly, swaggering, thrasonical air falls upon
him and calls him all the vagabonds it can get its tongue to. We do
not see the wit of this, any more than of its assuring us, with
unabated confidence, that there is not the least shadow of foundation
for the apprehensions of those who are perverse enough to think,
that a Ministry that have set up and countenanced the Continental
despotisms, and uniformly shown themselves worse than indifferent
to the blood and groans of thousands of victims in foreign countries
(sacrificed under their guarantee of the deliverance of mankind) may
have an arrière-pensée against the liberties of their own. We grant
the premises of the Times in either case, that the French king was
good-humoured and that the Duke has a vacant face; but these
favourable appearances have not prevented a violent catastrophe in
the one case and may not in the other. Mr. Brougham a short time
ago, in a speech at a public meeting, gave his hearty approbation of
the late Revolution in France, and clenched his argument by asking
what fate an English monarch would merit, and probably meet, who
acted in the same manner as the besotted Charles; who annulled the
liberty of the press, who prevented the meeting of the representatives
of the people, who disfranchised four-fifths of the electors by an
arbitrary decree, and proposed to reign without law, and raise the
taxes without a Parliament? This is not exactly the point at issue. A
more home question would be, what fate a king of England would
deserve, not who did or attempted all this in his own person, but who
fearing to do that, as the next best thing and to show which way his
inclinations tended, aided and abetted with all the might and
resources of a people calling itself free, and tried to force back upon a
neighbouring state, by a long and cruel war and with the ruin of his
own subjects, a king like Charles X., who by every act and
circumstance of his life had shown himself hostile to the welfare and
freedom of his country, and whose conduct, if repeated here, would
justly incur the forfeiture of his own crown? It would be ‘premature,’
in the judgment of some, to give an opinion on this subject till after
the thing has happened, and then it would be neither loyal nor
patriotic to condemn the conduct of our own cabinet; but we hope at
least that the next time the English government undertake to force a
king upon the French people, they will send them a baboon instead
of a Bourbon, as the less insult of the two!—To return to the question
of personal politics. Our last king but one was a good domestic
character; but this had little or nothing to do with the wisdom or folly
of his public measures. He might be faithful to his conjugal vows, but
might put a construction on some clause in his Coronation-oath fatal
to the peace and happiness of a large part of his subjects. He might
be an exceedingly well-meaning, moral man, but might have notions
instilled into him in early youth respecting the prerogatives of the
crown and the relation between the sovereign and the people, that
might not quit him to his latest breath, and might embroil his
subjects and the world in disastrous wars and controversies during
his whole reign. His son succeeded him without the same reputation
for domestic virtue, but adopted all the measures of his father’s
ministers. If the private character and the public conduct were to be
submitted to the same test, this could not have happened. But the
late king was cried up for his elegant accomplishments, and as the
fine gentleman of his family; and this, with equally sound logic,
atoned for the absence of less shewy qualities, and stamped his
public proceedings with the character of a wise and liberal policy. We
are already assured of a fortunate and peaceful reign, because the
present king looks pleased and good-humoured on his accession to
the crown; though the smallest cloud in the political horizon may
scatter the ruddy smiles and overcast the whole prospect. Mr.
Coleridge complains, somewhere, of politicians who pretend to guide
the state, and yet have ruined their own affairs. Would the author of
the Ancient Mariner apply the same rule to other things, and affirm
that no one could be a poet or a philosopher who had not made his
fortune? One would suppose, that all the people of sense and worth
were confessedly on one side of the question in the great disputes in
religion or politics that have agitated and torn the world in pieces,
and all the knaves and fools on the other. This is hardly tenable
ground. Charles IX., of happy memory was we believe a good-
tempered man and a most religious prince: this did not hinder him
from authorising the massacre of St. Bartholomew and shooting at
the Huguenots out of the palace-windows with his own hands. This
was the prejudice of his time: we have still certain prejudices to
contend with in ours, which have nothing to do with the looks,
temper, or private character of those who hold them. We wonder at
the cruelties and atrocities of religious fanatics in former times, and
would not have them repeated: were none of these persecutors
honest, conscientious men? Take any twelve inquisitors: six of them
shall be angels and the other six scoundrels, yet they will all agree in
one unanimous verdict, condemning you or me to the flames for not
believing in the infallibility of the Pope. This is the thing to be
avoided by all means; and not to lose our time in idle discussions
about the amiableness of the characters of these pious exterminators,
nor in admiring the fineness of their countenances, nor the
picturesque effect of the scenery and costume. Charles X., the gay and
gallant Count d’Artois, wears a hair-shirt, is fond of partridge-
shooting, and wanted to put a yoke on the necks of his subjects. The
last is that on which issue was joined. Let him go where he chooses,
with a handsome pension; but let him not be sent back again (as he
was once before) at the expense of millions of lives![65]
EMANCIPATION OF THE JEWS
‘Player. We have reformed that indifferently, my lord.
Hamlet. Oh! reform it altogether.’
The emancipation of the Jews is but a natural step in the progress

of civilisation. Laws and institutions are positive things: opinions
and sentiments are variable; and it is in conforming the
stubbornness and perversity of the former to the freedom and
boldness of the latter, that the harmony and beauty of the social
order consist. But it is said, ‘The Jews at present have few grievances
to complain of; they are well off, and should be thankful for the
indulgence they receive.’ It is true, we no longer burn them at a
stake, or plunder them of their goods: why then continue to insult
and fix an idle stigma on them? At Rome a few years ago they made
the Jews run races (naked) in the Corso on Good Friday. At present,
they only oblige them to provide asses to run races on the same day
for the amusement of the populace, and to keep up the spirit of the
good old custom, though by altering it they confess that the custom
was wrong, and that they are ashamed of it. They also shut up the
Jews in a particular quarter of the city (called Il Ghetto Judaico), and
at the same time will not suffer the English as heretics to be buried
within the walls of Rome. An Englishman smiles or is scandalised at
both these instances of bigotry; but if he is asked, ‘Why, then, do you
not yourselves emancipate the Catholics and the Jews?’ he may
answer, ‘We have emancipated the one.’ And why not the other?
‘Because we are intolerant.’ This and this alone is the reason.
We throw in the teeth of the Jews that they are prone to certain
sordid vices. If they are vicious it is we who have made them so. Shut
out any class of people from the path to fair fame, and you reduce
them to grovel in the pursuit of riches and the means to live. A man
has long been in dread of insult for no just cause, and you complain
that he grows reserved and suspicious. You treat him with obloquy
and contempt, and wonder that he does not walk by you with an
erect and open brow.
We also object to their trades and modes of life; that is, we shut
people up in close confinement and complain that they do not live in
the open air. The Jews barter and sell commodities, instead of
raising or manufacturing them. But this is the necessary traditional
consequence of their former persecution and pillage by all nations.
They could not set up a trade when they were hunted every moment
from place to place, and while they could count nothing their own
but what they could carry with them. They could not devote
themselves to the pursuit of agriculture, when they were not allowed
to possess a foot of land. You tear people up by the roots and trample
on them like noxious weeds, and then make an outcry that they do
not take root in the soil like wholesome plants. You drive them like a
pest from city to city, from kingdom to kingdom, and then call them
vagabonds and aliens.
When reason fails, the Christian religion is, as usual, called in aid
of persecution. The admission of the Jews, it is said, to any place of
trust or emolument in the state ought not to be sanctioned, because
they expect the coming of the Messiah, and their restoration, one day
or other, to their own country: and Christianity, it is said, is part of
the law of the land.
As to their exclusion because they expect the coming of the
Messiah, and their restoration, one day or other, to their own
country, a few words will be sufficient. Even if it is too much for a
people, with this reversion in the promised land, to have a ‘stake in
the country’ added to it; and the offer of a seat in the House of
Commons is too much for any one who looks forward to a throne in
the New Jerusalem: this objection comes with but an ill grace from
the followers of him who has declared, ‘My kingdom is not of this
world;’ and who on that plea profess to keep all the power and
authority in their own hands. Suppose an attempt were made to
exclude Christians from serving the office of constable, jury-man, or
knight of the shire, as expressly contrary to the great principle of
their religion, which inculcates an entire contempt for the things of
this life, and a constant preparation for a better. Would not this be
considered as an irony, and not a very civil one? Yet it is the precise
counterpart of this argument. The restoration of the Jews to their
own country, however firmly believed in as an article of faith, has
been delayed eighteen hundred years, and may be delayed eighteen
hundred more. Are they to remain indifferent to the good or evil, to
the respectability or odium that may attach to them all this while?
The world in general do not look so far; and the Jews have not been
accused, more than others, of sacrificing the practical to the
speculative. But according to this objection, there can be no
amalgamation of interests with a people of such fantastic principles
and abstracted ties; they cannot care how soon a country goes to
ruin, which they are always on the point of quitting. Suppose a Jew
to have amassed a large fortune in the last war, and to have laid by
money in the funds, and built himself a handsome house in the
neighbourhood of the metropolis; would he be more likely by his vote
in the House of Commons to promote a revolution, so as to cause a
general bankruptcy; or to encourage the mob to pull down his house,
or root up his favourite walks, because after all, at the end of several
centuries, he and the rest of his nation indulge in the prospect of
returning to their own country? The most clear-sighted John Bull
patriotism hardly reaches beyond ourselves and our heirs.
As to the assertion that Christianity is part of the law of the land,
as Popery is a part of the law of the land at Rome, and a good reason
for hunting Jews and refusing Christian burial to Protestants, by
whom is it made? Not by our Divines. They do not distrust the power
of our religion; and they will tell you that if Christianity, as
sanctioning these cruelties or any miserable remnant of them, is part
of the law of the land, then the law of the land is no part of
Christianity. They do not forget the original character of the Jewish
people, and will not say anything against it. We and modern Europe
derived from them the whole germ of our civilisation, our ideas on
the unity of the Deity, or marriage, on morals,
‘And pure religion breathing household Laws.’
The great founder of the Christian religion was himself born

among that people, and if the Jewish Nation are still to be branded
with his death, it might be asked on what principle of justice ought
we to punish men for crimes committed by their co-religionists near
two thousand years ago? That the Jews, as a people, persist in their
blindness and obstinacy is to be lamented; but it is at least, under the
circumstances, a proof of their sincerity; and as adherents to a losing
cause, they are entitled to respect and not contempt. Is it the
language of Lawyers? They are too intelligent, and, in the present
times, not favourers of hypocrisy. They know that this law is not on
our statute book, and if it were, that it would be law as long as it
remained there and no longer; they know that the supposition
originated in the unadvised dictum of a Judge, and, if it had been
uttered by a Puritan Divine, it would have been quoted at this day as
a specimen of puritanical nonsense and bigotry. Religion cannot take
on itself the character of law without ceasing to be religion; nor can
law recognise the obligations of religion for its principles, nor
become the pretended guardian and protector of the faith, without
degenerating into inquisitorial tyranny.
The proposal to admit Jews to a seat in Parliament in this country
is treated as an irony or a burlesque on the Catholic question. At the
same time, it is said to be very proper and rational in France and
America, Denmark and the Netherlands, because there, though they
are nominally admitted, court influence excludes them in the one,
and popular opinion in the other, so that the law is of no avail: that
is, in other words, in England as there is neither court influence nor
popular prejudice; and as every thing in this country is done by
money alone, the Stock Exchange would soon buy up the House of
Commons, and if a single Jew were admitted, the whole would
shortly be a perfect Sanhedrim. This is a pleasant account of the
spirit of English patriotism, and the texture of the House of
Commons. All the wealth of the Jews cannot buy them a single seat
there; but if a certain formal restriction were taken off, Jewish gold
would buy up the fee simple of the consciences, prejudices and
interests of the country, and turn the kingdom topsy-turvy. Thus the
bed-rid imagination of prejudice sees some dreadful catastrophe in
every improvement, and no longer feeling the ground of custom
under its feet, fancies itself on an abyss of ruin and lawless change.
How truly has it been said of prejudice, ‘that it has the singular
ability of accommodating itself to all the possible varieties of the
human mind. Some passions and vices are but thinly scattered
among mankind, and find only here and there a fitness of reception.
But prejudice, like the spider, makes every where its home. It has
neither taste nor choice of place, and all that it requires is room.
There is scarcely a situation, except fire and water, in which a spider
will not live. So let the mind be as naked as the walls of an empty and
forsaken tenement, gloomy as a dungeon, or ornamented with the
richest abilities of thinking; let it be hot, cold, dark or light, lonely or
inhabited, still prejudice, if undisturbed, will fill it with cobwebs, and
live like the spider, where there seems nothing to live on. If the one
prepares her food by poisoning it to her palate and her use, the other
does the same; and as several of our passions are strongly
characterised by the animal world, prejudice may be denominated
the spider of the mind.’
Three hundred years ago all this was natural and in order, because
it accorded with the prejudices of the time; now it is absurd and
Gothic, because it is contrary to men’s reason and feelings. Hatred is
the food and growth of ignorance. While we know nothing but
ourselves and our own notions, we can conceive of nothing else as
possible; and every deviation from our practice or opinions gives a
shock to our faith that nothing can expiate but blows. Those who
differ from us in the smallest particular are considered as of a
different species, and we treat them accordingly. But this barrier of
prejudice, which is founded on ignorance, is thrown down by the
diffusion of light and knowledge; nor can any thing build it up again.
In the good old times a Jew was regarded by the vulgar and their
betters as a sort of monster, a lusus naturæ whose existence they
could not account for, and would not tolerate. The only way to get rid
of the obnoxious opinion was to destroy the man. Besides, in those
dark ages, they wanted some object of natural antipathy, as in
country places they get a strange dog or an idiot to hunt down and be
the bugbear of the village. But it is the test of reason and refinement
to be able to subsist without bugbears. While it was supposed that
‘the Jews eat little children,’ it was proper to take precautions against
them. But why keep up ill names and the ill odour of a prejudice
when the prejudice has ceased to exist? It has long ceased amongst
the reflecting part of the community; and, although the oldest
prejudices are, it is to be lamented, preserved longest in the highest
places, and governments have been slow to learn good manners, we
cannot but be conscious that these errors are passing away. We begin
to see, if we do not fully see, that we have no superiority to boast of
but reason and philosophy, and that it is well to get rid of vulgar
prejudices and nominal distinctions as fast as possible.
ON THE PUNISHMENT OF DEATH
The view which has been taken of the subject by Beccaria and
other modern writers appears to be erroneous or defective in some of
the most important circumstances relating to this question.
First objection. It is assumed as a general maxim, that, ‘it is not the
intensity of punishment, but its duration, which makes the greatest
impression on the human mind.’
This maxim will be found to be in direct opposition to all
experience, and to every principle of human nature. It supposes that
a number of impressions, feeble in themselves, and dissipated over a
long interval of time, produce a stronger effect upon the mind, than a
single object, however powerful and striking, presented to it at once:
that is, that the passions are excited more by reason than
imagination, by the real, than by the apparent quantity of good or
evil. This principle is indeed, in general, denied by Mr. Bentham, but
admitted by him, as far as relates to the influence of the fear of death
on malefactors. If it be true with respect to them in particular (which
there is reason to doubt,) it is not because the fear of a continued
punishment influences them more than the fear of an intense one,
but because death is to them not an intense punishment.
Again, it has been said, that ‘crimes are more effectually prevented
by the certainty than by the severity of the punishment.’ Now I
cannot think that this is either self-evident, or true universally and in
the abstract. It is not true of human nature in general, and it is still
less so as applied to the more lawless and abandoned classes of the
community. It is evident from the very character of such persons,
that if they are not to be acted upon by violent motives, by what
appeals strongly to their imagination and their passions, they cannot
be acted upon at all, they are out of the reach of all moral discipline.
The dull, sober certainties of common life, and the real consequences
of things when set in competition with any favourite inclination, or
vicious indulgence, they altogether despise. It is only when the
certainty of punishment is immediate, obvious, and connected with
circumstances, which strike upon the imagination, that it operates
effectually in the prevention of crimes. This principle is however
true, as it has been sometimes applied to cases where the law has
become a dead letter. When a moderate punishment is strictly and
vigorously enforced, and a severe punishment is as generally and
systematically evaded, the mind will, undoubtedly, be more affected
by what it considers as a serious reality, than by what it will regard
as an idle threat. So far the principle is true in its application, but no
farther.
First maxim. It is not the real, but the apparent severity of the
punishment which most effectually deters from the commission of
crimes. For this reason, an intense punishment will have more effect
than a continued one, because more easily apprehended. Neither is
the certainty of punishment to be depended on, except when it is
apparent. It is not the calculation of consequences, but their
involuntary and irresistible impression on the mind that produces
action. The laws to prevent crimes must appeal to the passions of
men, and not to their reason: for crimes proceed from passion, and
not from reason. If men were governed by reason, laws would be
unnecessary.
Second objection. It seems to be taken for granted by speculative
writers, (at least the contrary is not stated with sufficient
distinctness) that punishment operates by terror alone, or by the fear
which each individual has of the consequences to himself.
It is indeed a prevailing maxim of philosophy, that self-interest is
the sole spring of action, and it has thus probably been inferred, that
the fear of punishment could only operate on this principle of cool,
calculating self-interest. But it is quite certain that sympathy with
others, whatever may be its origin, is, practically speaking, an
independent and powerful principle of action. The opinions and
feelings of others do actually and constantly influence our conduct,
in opposition to our strongest interests and inclinations. That
punishment, therefore, will not be the most dreaded, nor,
consequently, the most effectual, which is the greatest to the
individual, unless it is at the same time thought so by others, and
expresses the greatest general disapprobation of the crime. Thus,
though a malefactor, consulting only his own inclinations or feelings,
might prefer death to perpetual imprisonment and hard labour, yet
he may regard it as the worst of punishments, in as far as it
demonstrates the greatest abhorrence and indignation in the
community against the crime.
Second maxim. Punishment operates by sympathy, as well as by
terror. Penal laws have a tendency to repress crimes not more by
exciting a dread of the consequences, than by marking the strong
sense entertained by others of their enormity, and the detestation in
which they are held by mankind in general. The most severe laws will
always be the most effectual, as long as they are expressions of the
public sentiment; but they will become ineffectual, in proportion as
the sentiment is wanting. The disproportion between the crime and
the punishment in the public opinion, will then counteract the dread
of the severity of the law. Setting this feeling aside, the most severe
laws will be the most effectual. The argument drawn from the
inefficacy of severe punishments, when inflicted on trifling or
common offences, does not prove that they must be ineffectual, when
applied to great crimes, which rouse the public indignation and
justify the severity.
Third objection. It is farther implied in the foregoing statements,
that the only object of punishment is to prevent actual crimes, or that
those laws are the best, which most effectually answer this end by
deterring criminals.
This I also conceive to be a narrow and imperfect view of the
question, which respects not merely the motives and conduct of
criminals, but the motives and sentiments of the community at large.
It is of the first importance that the ill disposed should be coerced,
but it is also of importance that they should be coerced in such a
manner, and by such means, as it is most consistent with the public
morals to employ. In defending the state, we are not to forget that
the state ought to be worth defending. As the sentiments of society
have a powerful effect in enforcing the laws, so the laws re-act
powerfully on the sentiments of society. This is evident with respect
to barbarous punishments. The evil of a law operating in this way on
manners, by holding out an example of cruelty and injustice,
however effectual it might be found, is not denied. In like manner, a
law falling short of or disappointing the just indignation and moral
sense of the community, is, for the same reason, faulty as one that
exceeds and outrages it. One end of punishment, therefore, is to
satisfy this natural sense of justice in the public mind, and to
strengthen the opinion of the community by its act. As the arm of
justice ought not to be mocked and baffled by the impunity of
offences, so neither ought it to be unnerved by thwarting and
prevaricating with the common sentiments of mankind, or by
substituting remote, indirect, and artificial punishments for obvious
and direct ones. I call a punishment natural when it is dictated by the
passion excited against the crime. A punishment will therefore be the
most beneficial when it arises out of, and co-operates with that
strong sense of right or wrong, that firm and healthy tone of public
sentiment, which is the best preservative against crime.
Illustration. Thus even if it were shewn that perpetual
imprisonment and hard labour would be equally effectual in
deterring malefactors from the commission of murder, it would by
no means necessarily follow, that this mode of punishment would be
preferable to capital punishment, unless it could at the same time be
made to appear that it would equally enforce the principle of the
connexion between the crime and the punishment, or the rule of
natural justice, by which he who shews himself indifferent to the life
of another, forfeits his own. There is a natural and home-felt
connexion between the hardened obduracy which has shewn itself
insensible to the cries of another for mercy and the immediate burst
of indignation which dooms the criminal to feel that he has no claims
on the pity of others: but there is no connexion, because there is no
ascertainable proportion, in the mind either of the criminal or the
public, between the original crime, and the additional half-hour in
the day after the lapse of twenty years, which the malefactor is
condemned to labour, or the lash of the whip which urges him to
complete his heavy task. That reasoning which stops the torrent of
public indignation, and diverts it from its object only to dole it out to
its miserable victim, drop by drop, and day by day, through a long
protracted series of time with systematic, deliberate, unrelenting
severity, is in fact neither wise nor humane. Punishments of this kind
may be so contrived as to intimidate the worst part of mankind, but
they will also be the aversion of the best, and will confound and warp
the plain distinctions between right and wrong.
Third maxim. The end of punishment is not only to prevent actual
crimes, but to form a standard of public opinion, and to confirm and
sanction the moral sentiments of the community. The mode and
degree of the punishment ought, therefore, to be determined with a
view to this object, as well as with a view to the regulation of the
police.
Fourth objection. The theory here alluded to, is farther
objectionable in this, that it makes familiarity with the punishment
essential to its efficacy, and therefore recommends those
punishments, the example of which is the most lasting, and, as it
were, constantly before the eyes of the public, as the most salutary.
On the contrary, those punishments are the best which require the
least previous familiarity with objects of guilt and misery to make
them formidable, which come least into contact with the mind, which
tell at a distance, the bare mention of which startles the ear, which
operate by an imaginary instead of an habitual dread, and which
produce their effect once for all, without destroying the erectness and
elasticity of social feeling by the constant spectacle of the
degradation of the species. No one would wish to have a gibbet
placed before his door, to deter his neighbours from robbing him.
Punishments which require repeated ocular inspection of the evils
which they occasion, cannot answer their end in deterring
individuals, without having first operated as a penance on society.
They are a public benefit only so far as they are a public nuisance.
Laws framed entirely on this principle, would convert the world into
a large prison, and divide mankind into two classes, felons and their
keepers!
Maxim fourth. Those punishments are the best which produce the
strongest apprehension, with the least actual suffering or
contemplation of evil. Such is in general the effect of those
punishments which appeal to the imagination, rather than to our
physical experience; which are immediately connected with a
principle of honour, with the passions in general, with natural
antipathies, the fear of pain, the fear of death, etc. These
punishments are, in Mr. Bentham’s phrase, the most economical;
they do their work with the least expense of individual suffering, or
abuse of public sympathy. Private punishments are, so far, preferable
to public ones.
General inference. There ought to be a gradation of punishments
proportioned to the offence, and adapted to the state of society.
In order to strike the imagination and excite terror, severe
punishments ought not to be common.[66]
To be effectual, from the sympathy of mankind in the justice of the
sentence, the highest punishments ought not to be assigned to the
lowest or to very different degrees of guilt. The absence of the
sanction of public opinion not only deadens the execution of the law,
but by giving confidence to the offender, produces that sort of
resistance to it, which is always made to oppression. The ignominy
attached to the sentence of the law, is thus converted into pity. If the
law is enacted but not enforced, this must either be to such a degree
as to take away the terror of the law, or if the terror still remains, it
will be a terror of injustice, which will necessarily impair the sense of
right and wrong in the community. But if the law is regularly carried
into execution, the effect will be still worse. In general, all laws are
bad which are not seconded by the manners of the people, and laws
are not in conformity with the manners of the people when they are
not executed. This is the case at present with a great proportion of
the English laws. Is it to be wondered at that they should be so?
Manners have changed, and will always change insensibly, and
irresistibly, from the force of circumstances. The laws, as things of
positive institution, remain the same. So that without a constant,
gradual assimilation of the laws to the manners, the manners will, in
time, necessarily become at variance with the laws, and will render
them odious, ineffectual, and mischievous—a clog, instead of a
furtherance to the wheels of justice.
NOTES
FUGITIVE WRITINGS
THE FIGHT
First republished in Literary Remains, vol. II. p. 193. For another
account of the fight and, more particularly, of the journey home, see
P. G. Patmore’s My Friends and Acquaintance, III. 41, et seq. The
fight (between Hickman, the ‘Gas-man’ and Bill Neat) took place on
Dec. 11, 1821. For an account of Tom Hickman (who was thrown
from a chaise and killed in the following December) see Pierce Egan’s
Boxiana, where particulars will be found of all the ‘Fancy’ heroes
referred to by Hazlitt in this essay.
PAG
E ‘The fight,’ etc. Cf. Hamlet, Act II. Sc. 2.
1. Jack Randall’s. Cf. vol. VI. (Table-Talk), note to p. 202.
‘The proverb ... musty.’ Cf. Hamlet, Act III. Sc. 2.

Jo. Toms. Joseph Parkes (1796–1865), the Radical politician,
2. at that time articled to a London solicitor.
‘So carelessly,’ etc. As You Like It, Act I. Sc. 1.
Jack Pigott. P. G. Patmore.
‘What more felicity,’ etc. Spenser, Muiopotmos, st. 27.
Tom Belcher’s. Tom Belcher (1783–1854), a younger brother
of the better known prizefighter, James Belcher, kept the
‘Castle’ tavern in Holborn.
‘Well, we meet at Philippi.’ Cf. Julius Cæsar, Act IV. Sc. 3.
3. ‘I follow Fate,’ etc. Cf. Dryden, The Indian Emperor, IV. 3.
4. Tom Turtle. According to the author’s son (see Literary
Remains, II. 201) this was John Thurtell (1794–1824),
afterwards notorious as the murderer of Weare.
‘Quite chap-fallen.’ Hamlet, Act V. Sc. 1.
Martin. Jack Martin, known as ‘The Master of the Rolls.’
Mr. Richmond. Bill Richmond, presumably, the veteran
coloured hero, who had recently taken to teaching the art of
boxing.
‘Where good digestion,’ etc. Macbeth, Act III. Sc. 4.
5. ‘Follows so,’ etc. Henry V., Act IV. Sc. 1.
‘More figures,’ etc. Cf. Julius Cæsar, Act II. Sc. 1.
‘His dream,’ etc. Cf. Othello, Act III. Sc. 3.
‘Seriously inclined.’ Cf. Ibid. Act I. Sc. 3.
6. ‘A lusty man,’ etc. Cf. Canterbury Tales, Prologue, 167.
7. ‘Standing,’ etc. Henry V., Act III. Sc. 1.
‘He moralised,’ etc. Cf. As You Like It, Act II. Sc. 1.
‘A firebrand like Bardolph’s.’ 1 Henry IV., Act II. Sc. 2.
‘Loud and furious fun.’ Cf. ‘The mirth and fun grew fast and
furious.’ Burns, Tam O’Shanter.
7. Cribb’s beating Jem, etc. Cribb defeated Jem Belcher twice, in
1807 and 1809. Belcher had lost an eye in 1803 through an
accident when playing at rackets.
8. Gully. John Gully (1783–1863), afterwards well known in the
racing world, had retired from the ring in 1808 after two
victories over Bob Gregson.
‘Alas!’ etc. Cf. ‘Alas! Leviathan is not so tamed.’ Cowper, The
Task, II. 322.
9. The Game Chicken. Henry Pearce (1777–1809).

Gardners Art Through The Ages A Global History Volume I 16Th Edition Fred S Kleiner Full Chapter

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Gardner’s Art Through the Ages: A

Global History, Volume I 16th Edition

Art 16th Edition

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■ art and society: Enheduanna, Priestess and Poet 42

1 Art in the Stone Age 15 ■ the patron’s voice: Gudea of Lagash 43

■ art and society: Hammurabi’s Laws 45

Neolithic Art 23 Map 2-1 Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia 32

■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: How to Represent an

■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Painting in the Dark 20

■ a second opinion: The Meaning of Paleolithic Art 21

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■ materials and techniques: White-Ground Painting 142

4 The Prehistoric Aegean 85 ■ a second opinion: The Alexander Mosaic 150

■ Architectural basics: The Corinthian Capital 152

Cycladic Art 87 THE BIG PICTURE 1 6 3

Map 4-1 The prehistoric Aegean 86 Later Etruscan Art 173

■ written sources: Etruscan Artists in Rome 168

■ art and society: The “Audacity” of Etruscan Women 169

Timeline 106 ■ a second opinion: The Capitoline Wolf 174

Map 6-1 Italy in Etruscan times 166

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■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: What Should a Church

■ art and society: The Roman House 193

■ art and society: Role Playing in Roman Portraiture 200

Map 9-1 The Byzantine Empire at the death of Justinian

THE BIG PICTURE 2 9 1

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■ art and society: Pilgrimage Roads in France and Spain 350

■ written sources: The Burning of Canterbury Cathedral 353

Vikings 323 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Crusades 360

■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: How to Illuminate a Nave 365

Carolingian Empire 328 ■ materials and techniques: Embroidery and Tapestry 377

Map 12-1 Western Europe around 1100 350

■ art and society: Medieval Books 324

■ a second opinion: The Lindisfarne Saint Matthew 326

■ materials and techniques: Stained-Glass Windows 392

■ a second opinion: Gothic Cathedrals and Gothic Cities 400

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16 China and Korea to 1279 471

Map 16-1 China during the Tang dynasty 472

15 South and Southeast THE BIG PICTURE 4 9 9

■ Architectural basics: The Stupa 450 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Shinto 505

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Timeline 520 African Peoples and Art Forms 552

■ art and society: Nasca Lines 540 Notes 566

THE BIG PICTURE 5 4 9 Index 599

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about the author

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