Introduction To Probability 2nd Edition

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LECTURE NOTES

Course 6.041-6.431

M.I.T.

FALL 2000

Introduction to Probability

Dimitri P. Bertsekas and John N. Tsitsiklis

Professors of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Cambridge, Massachusetts

These notes are copyright-protected but may be freely distributed

for

instructional nonprofit pruposes.

Contents

1. Sample Space and Probability

................

1.1. Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2. Probabilistic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3. Conditional Probability

.....................

1.4. Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5. Total Probability Theorem and Bayes’ Rule

............

1.6. Counting

...........................

1.7. Summary and Discussion

....................

2. Discrete Random Variables

.................
2.1. Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2. Probability Mass Functions

...................

2.3. Functions of Random Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4. Expectation, Mean, and Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.5. Joint PMFs of Multiple Random Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6. Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.7. Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.8. Summary and Discussion

....................

3. General Random Variables

.................

3.1. Continuous Random Variables and PDFs

.............

3.2. Cumulative Distribution Functions

................

3.3. Normal Random Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.4. Conditioning on an Event

....................

3.5. Multiple Continuous Random Variables

..............

3.6. Derived Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.7. Summary and Discussion

....................

4. Further Topics on Random Variables and Expectations . . . . . .

4.1. Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2. Sums of Independent Random Variables - Convolutions

.......

iii

iv

Contents

4.3. Conditional Expectation as a Random Variable . . . . . . . . . . .

4.4. Sum of a Random Number of Independent Random Variables

....

4.5. Covariance and Correlation

...................

4.6. Least Squares Estimation

....................

4.7. The Bivariate Normal Distribution

................
5. The Bernoulli and Poisson Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.1. The Bernoulli Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.2. The Poisson Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6. Markov Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.1. Discrete-Time Markov Chains

..................

6.2. Classification of States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.3. Steady-State Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.4. Absorption Probabilities and Expected Time to Absorption

.....

6.5. More General Markov Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7. Limit Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.1. Some Useful Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.2. The Weak Law of Large Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.3. Convergence in Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.4. The Central Limit Theorem

...................

7.5. The Strong Law of Large Numbers

................

Preface
These class notes are the currently used textbook for “Probabilistic
Systems Analysis,” an introductory probability course at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The text of the notes is quite
polished and complete, but the problems are less so.

The course is attended by a large number of undergraduate and

graduate

students with diverse backgrounds. Acccordingly, we have tried to

strike a balance between simplicity in exposition and sophistication
in analytical reasoning.

Some of the more mathematically rigorous analysis has been just

sketched or intuitively explained in the text, so that complex proofs
do not stand in the way of an otherwise simple exposition. At the
same time, some of this analysis and the necessary mathematical
results are developed (at the level of advanced calculus) in
theoretical problems, which are included at the end of the
corresponding chapter. The theoretical problems (marked by *)
constitute an important component of the text, and ensure that the
mathematically oriented reader will find here a smooth development
without major gaps.

We give solutions to all the problems, aiming to enhance the utility

of

the notes for self-study. We have additional problems, suitable for

homework assignment (with solutions), which we make available to
instructors.

Our intent is to gradually improve and eventually publish the notes

as a

textbook, and your comments will be appreciated

Dimitri P. Bertsekas
bertsekas@lids.mit.edu

John N. Tsitsiklis

jnt@mit.edu

Sample Space and

Probability

Contents

1.1. Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 3

1.2. Probabilistic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 6

1.3. Conditional Probability

.................

p. 16

1.4. Total Probability Theorem and Bayes’ Rule

........

p. 25

1.5. Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 31

1.6. Counting

.......................
p. 41

1.7. Summary and Discussion

................

p. 48

Sample Space and Probability

Chap. 1

“Probability” is a very useful concept, but can be interpreted in a

number of ways. As an illustration, consider the following.

A patient is admitted to the hospital and a potentially life-saving

drug is administered. The following dialog takes place between the
nurse and a

concerned relative.

RELATIVE: Nurse, what is the probability that the drug will work?

NURSE: I hope it works, we’ll know tomorrow.

RELATIVE: Yes, but what is the probability that it will?

NURSE: Each case is different, we have to wait.

RELATIVE: But let’s see, out of a hundred patients that are treated
under similar conditions, how many times would you expect it to
work?
NURSE (somewhat annoyed): I told you, every person is different,
for some it works, for some it doesn’t.

RELATIVE (insisting): Then tell me, if you had to bet whether it will
work or not, which side of the bet would you take?

NURSE (cheering up for a moment):

I’d bet it will work.

RELATIVE (somewhat relieved):

OK, now, would you be willing to lose

two dollars if it doesn’t work, and gain one dollar if it does?

NURSE (exasperated):

What a sick thought! You are wasting my time!

In this conversation, the relative attempts to use the concept of

probability to discuss an uncertain situation. The nurse’s initial
response indicates that the meaning of “probability” is not uniformly
shared or understood, and the relative tries to make it more
concrete. The first approach is to define probability in terms of
frequency of occurrence, as a percentage of successes in a
moderately large number of similar situations. Such an interpretation
is often natural. For example, when we say that a perfectly
manufactured coin lands on heads “with probability 50%,” we
typically mean “roughly half of the time.” But the nurse may not be
entirely wrong in refusing to discuss in such terms. What if this was
an experimental drug that was administered for the very first time in
this hospital or in the nurse’s experience?

While there are many situations involving uncertainty in which the

fre-
quency interpretation is appropriate, there are other situations in
which it is not. Consider, for example, a scholar who asserts that the
Iliad and the Odyssey were composed by the same person, with
probability 90%. Such an assertion conveys some information, but
not in terms of frequencies, since the subject is a one-time event.
Rather, it is an expression of the scholar’s subjective belief. One
might think that subjective beliefs are not interesting, at least from a
mathematical or scientific point of view. On the other hand, people
often have to make choices in the presence of uncertainty, and a
systematic way of making use of their beliefs is a prerequisite for
successful, or at least consistent, decision

Sec. 1.1

Sets

making.

In fact, the choices and actions of a rational person, can reveal a lot
about the inner-held subjective probabilities, even if the person does
not make conscious use of probabilistic reasoning. Indeed, the last
part of the earlier dialog was an attempt to infer the nurse’s beliefs
in an indirect manner. Since the nurse was willing to accept a one-
for-one bet that the drug would work, we may infer that the
probability of success was judged to be at least 50%. And had the
nurse accepted the last proposed bet (two-for-one), that would have
indicated a success probability of at least 2/3.

Rather than dwelling further into philosophical issues about the

appropriateness of probabilistic reasoning, we will simply take it as a
given that the theory of probability is useful in a broad variety of
contexts, including some where the assumed probabilities only
reflect subjective beliefs. There is a large body of successful
applications in science, engineering, medicine, management, etc.,
and on the basis of this empirical evidence, probability theory is an
extremely useful tool.

Our main objective in this book is to develop the art of describing

un-

certainty in terms of probabilistic models, as well as the skill of

probabilistic reasoning. The first step, which is the subject of this
chapter, is to describe the generic structure of such models, and
their basic properties. The models we consider assign probabilities to
collections (sets) of possible outcomes. For this reason, we must
begin with a short review of set theory.

1.1 SETS

Probability makes extensive use of set operations, so let us introduce

at the outset the relevant notation and terminology.

A set is a collection of objects, which are the elements of the set.

If S is a set and x is an element of S, we write x ∈ S. If x is not an
element of S, we write x /

∈ S. A set can have no elements, in which case it is called the

empty set, denoted by Ø.

Sets can be specified in a variety of ways. If S contains a finite

number of elements, say x 1 , x 2 , . . . , xn, we write it as a list of
the elements, in braces: S = {x 1 , x 2 , . . . , xn}.

For example, the set of possible outcomes of a die roll is { 1 , 2 , 3 ,

4 , 5 , 6 }, and the set of possible outcomes of a coin toss is {H, T },
where H stands for “heads”

and T stands for “tails.”

If S contains infinitely many elements x 1 , x 2 , . . . , which can be

enumerated in a list (so that there are as many elements as there
are positive integers) we write

S = {x 1 , x 2 , . . .},

Sample Space and Probability

Chap. 1

and we say that S is countably infinite. For example, the set of

even integers can be written as { 0 , 2 , − 2 , 4 , − 4 , . . .}, and is
countably infinite.

Alternatively, we can consider the set of all x that have a certain

property P , and denote it by

{x | x satisfies P }.

(The symbol “|” is to be read as “such that.”) For example the set of
even integers can be written as {k | k/ 2 is integer }. Similarly, the
set of all scalars x in the interval [0 , 1] can be written as {x | 0 ≤ x
≤ 1 }. Note that the elements x of the latter set take a continuous
range of values, and cannot be written down in a list (a proof is
sketched in the theoretical problems); such a set is said to be
uncountable.

If every element of a set S is also an element of a set T , we say

that S

is a subset of T , and we write S ⊂ T or T ⊃ S. If S ⊂ T and T ⊂ S,

the two sets are equal, and we write S = T . It is also expedient to
introduce a universal set, denoted by Ω, which contains all objects
that could conceivably be of interest in a particular context. Having
specified the context in terms of a universal set Ω, we only consider
sets S that are subsets of Ω.
Set Operations

The complement of a set S, with respect to the universe Ω, is the

set {x ∈

Ω|x/

∈ S} of all elements of Ω that do not belong to S, and is denoted by

Sc.

Note that Ω c = Ø.

The union of two sets S and T is the set of all elements that belong
to S

or T (or both), and is denoted by S ∪ T . The intersection of two

sets S and T

is the set of all elements that belong to both S and T , and is

denoted by S ∩ T .

Thus,

S ∪ T = {x | x ∈ S or x ∈ T },
S ∩ T = {x | x ∈ S and x ∈ T }.
In some cases, we will have to consider the union or the intersection
of several, even infinitely many sets, defined in the obvious way. For
example, if for every positive integer n, we are given a set Sn, then

Sn = S 1 ∪S 2 ∪··· = {x|x ∈ Sn for some n}, n=1

and

∞
Sn = S 1 ∩S 2 ∩··· = {x|x ∈ Sn for all n}.
n=1

Two sets are said to be disjoint if their intersection is empty. More

generally, several sets are said to be disjoint if no two of them have
a common element. A collection of sets is said to be a partition of a
set S if the sets in the collection are disjoint and their union is S.

Sec. 1.1

Sets

If x and y are two objects, we use ( x, y) to denote the ordered

pair of x and y.

The set of scalars (real numbers) is denoted by ; the set of pairs (or
triplets) of scalars, i.e., the two-dimensional plane (or three-
dimensional space, respectively) is denoted by 2 (or 3, respectively).

Sets and the associated operations are easy to visualize in terms of

Venn diagrams, as illustrated in Fig. 1.1.

T
T

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)
Figure 1.1: Examples of Venn diagrams. (a) The shaded region is S
∩ T . (b) The shaded region is S ∪ T . (c) The shaded region is S ∩
T c. (d) Here, T ⊂ S.

The shaded region is the complement of S. (e) The sets S, T , and U

are disjoint.

(f) The sets S, T , and U form a partition of the set Ω.

The Algebra of Sets

Set operations have several properties, which are elementary

consequences of the definitions. Some examples are:

S ∪ T = T ∪ S,
S ∪ ( T ∪ U ) = ( S ∪ T ) ∪ U,
S∩(T∪U)=(S∩T) ∪(S∩U),S∪(T∩U)=(S∪T)∩(
S ∪ U ) , ( Sc) c = S,

S ∩ Sc = Ø ,

S ∪Ω=Ω,
S ∩ Ω = S.

Two particularly useful properties are given by de Morgan’s laws

which state that

Sn

=
Scn,

Sn

Scn.

To establish the first law, suppose that x ∈ ( ∪nSn) c. Then, x /

∈ ∪nSn, which
implies that for every n, we have x /

∈ Sn. Thus, x belongs to the complement

6

Sample Space and Probability

Chap. 1

of every Sn, and xn ∈ ∩nScn. This shows that ( ∪nSn) c ⊂ ∩nScn.

The converse inclusion is established by reversing the above
argument, and the first law follows.

The argument for the second law is similar.

1.2 PROBABILISTIC MODELS

A probabilistic model is a mathematical description of an uncertain
situation.

It must be in accordance with a fundamental framework that we

discuss in this section. Its two main ingredients are listed below and
are visualized in Fig. 1.2.

Elements of a Probabilistic Model

• The sample space Ω, which is the set of all possible outcomes of

an experiment.

• The probability law, which assigns to a set A of possible

outcomes (also called an event) a nonnegative number P( A)
(called the probability of A) that encodes our knowledge or belief
about the collective

“likelihood” of the elements of A. The probability law must satisfy

certain properties to be introduced shortly.

Probability

Law

Event B

P( B )

Experiment

P( A )

Event A

Sample Space Ω

(Set of Outcomes)
A

Events

Figure 1.2: The main ingredients of a probabilistic model.

Sample Spaces and Events

Every probabilistic model involves an underlying process, called the

experiment, that will produce exactly one out of several possible
outcomes. The set of all possible outcomes is called the sample
space of the experiment, and is denoted by Ω. A subset of the
sample space, that is, a collection of possible

Sec. 1.2

Probabilistic Models

outcomes, is called an event. † There is no restriction on what

constitutes an experiment. For example, it could be a single toss of a
coin, or three tosses, or an infinite sequence of tosses. However, it is
important to note that in our formulation of a probabilistic model,
there is only one experiment. So, three tosses of a coin constitute a
single experiment, rather than three experiments.

The sample space of an experiment may consist of a finite or an

infinite

number of possible outcomes. Finite sample spaces are conceptually

and mathematically simpler. Still, sample spaces with an infinite
number of elements are quite common. For an example, consider
throwing a dart on a square target and viewing the point of impact
as the outcome.
Choosing an Appropriate Sample Space

Regardless of their number, different elements of the sample space

should be distinct and mutually exclusive so that when the
experiment is carried out, there is a unique outcome. For example,
the sample space associated with the roll of a die cannot contain “1
or 3” as a possible outcome and also “1 or 4” as another possible
outcome. When the roll is a 1, the outcome of the experiment would
not be unique.

A given physical situation may be modeled in several different ways,

de-

pending on the kind of questions that we are interested in.

Generally, the sample space chosen for a probabilistic model must be
collectively exhaustive, in the sense that no matter what
happens in the experiment, we always obtain an outcome that has
been included in the sample space. In addition, the sample space
should have enough detail to distinguish between all outcomes of
interest to the modeler, while avoiding irrelevant details.

Example 1.1. Consider two alternative games, both involving ten

successive coin tosses:

Game 1: We receive $1 each time a head comes up.

Game 2: We receive $1 for every coin toss, up to and including the

first time a head comes up. Then, we receive $2 for every coin toss,
up to the second time a head comes up. More generally, the dollar
amount per toss is doubled each time a head comes up.

† Any collection of possible outcomes, including the entire sample

space Ω and its complement, the empty set Ø, may qualify as an
event. Strictly speaking, however, some sets have to be excluded. In
particular, when dealing with probabilistic models involving an
uncountably infinite sample space, there are certain unusual subsets
for which one cannot associate meaningful probabilities. This is an
intricate technical issue, involving the mathematics of measure
theory. Fortunately, such pathological subsets do not arise in the
problems considered in this text or in practice, and the issue can be
safely ignored.

Sample Space and Probability

Chap. 1

In game 1, it is only the total number of heads in the ten-toss

sequence that matters, while in game 2, the order of heads and tails
is also important. Thus, in a probabilistic model for game 1, we can
work with a sample space consisting of eleven possible outcomes,
namely, 0 , 1 , . . . , 10. In game 2, a finer grain description of the
experiment is called for, and it is more appropriate to let the sample
space consist of every possible ten-long sequence of heads and tails.

Sequential Models

Many experiments have an inherently sequential character, such as

for example tossing a coin three times, or observing the value of a
stock on five successive days, or receiving eight successive digits at
a communication receiver. It is then often useful to describe the
experiment and the associated sample space by means of a tree-
based sequential description, as in Fig. 1.3.

Sample Space

Sequential Tree

Pair of Rolls

Description

1, 1
4

1, 2

1, 3

1, 4

2nd Roll

Root

Leaves

1st Roll
Figure 1.3: Two equivalent descriptions of the sample space of an
experiment involving two rolls of a 4-sided die. The possible
outcomes are all the ordered pairs of the form ( i, j), where i is the
result of the first roll, and j is the result of the second. These
outcomes can be arranged in a 2-dimensional grid as in the figure on
the left, or they can be described by the tree on the right, which
reflects the sequential character of the experiment. Here, each
possible outcome corresponds to a leaf of the tree and is associated
with the unique path from the root to that leaf. The shaded area on
the left is the event {(1 , 4) , (2 , 4) , (3 , 4) , (4 , 4) } that the
result of the second roll is 4. That same event can be described as a
set of leaves, as shown on the right. Note also that every node of
the tree can be identified with an event, namely, the set of all leaves
downstream from that node. For example, the node labeled by a 1
can be identified with the event {(1 , 1) , (1 , 2) , (1 , 3) , (1 , 4) }

that the result of the first roll is 1.

Probability Laws

Suppose we have settled on the sample space Ω associated with an

experiment.

Sec. 1.2

Probabilistic Models

Then, to complete the probabilistic model, we must introduce a

probability law. Intuitively, this specifies the “likelihood” of any
outcome, or of any set of possible outcomes (an event, as we have
called it earlier). More precisely, the probability law assigns to every
event A, a number P( A), called the probability of A, satisfying the
following axioms.

Probability Axioms
1. (Nonnegativity) P( A) ≥ 0, for every event A.

2. (Additivity) If A and B are two disjoint events, then the

probability of their union satisfies

P( A ∪ B) = P( A) + P( B) .
Furthermore, if the sample space has an infinite number of elements

and A 1 , A 2 , . . . is a sequence of disjoint events, then the

probability of their union satisfies

P( A 1 ∪ A 2 ∪ · · ·) = P( A 1) + P( A 2) + · · ·
3. (Normalization) The probability of the entire sample space Ω is
equal to 1, that is, P(Ω) = 1 .

In order to visualize a probability law, consider a unit of mass which

is to be “spread” over the sample space. Then, P( A) is simply the
total mass that was assigned collectively to the elements of A. In
terms of this analogy, the additivity axiom becomes quite intuitive:
the total mass in a sequence of disjoint events is the sum of their
individual masses.

A more concrete interpretation of probabilities is in terms of relative

frequencies: a statement such as P( A) = 2 / 3 often represents a
belief that event A will materialize in about two thirds out of a large
number of repetitions of the experiment. Such an interpretation,
though not always appropriate, can sometimes facilitate our intuitive
understanding. It will be revisited in Chapter 7, in our study of limit
theorems.

There are many natural properties of a probability law which have

not been included in the above axioms for the simple reason that
they can be derived from them. For example, note that the
normalization and additivity axioms imply that
1 = P(Ω) = P(Ω ∪ Ø) = P(Ω) + P(Ø) = 1 + P(Ø) , and this shows
that the probability of the empty event is 0:

P(Ø) = 0 .

10

Sample Space and Probability

Chap. 1

As another example, consider three disjoint events A 1, A 2, and A 3.

We can use the additivity axiom for two disjoint events repeatedly, to
obtain

P( A 1 ∪ A 2 ∪ A 3) = P A 1 ∪ ( A 2 ∪ A 2)
= P( A 1) + P( A 2 ∪ A 3)
= P( A 1) + P( A 2) + P( A 3) .

Proceeding similarly, we obtain that the probability of the union of

finitely many disjoint events is always equal to the sum of the
probabilities of these events.

More such properties will be considered shortly.

Discrete Models

Here is an illustration of how to construct a probability law starting

from some common sense assumptions about a model.

Example 1.2. Coin tosses.

Consider an experiment involving a single coin

toss. There are two possible outcomes, heads ( H) and tails ( T ).

The sample space is Ω = {H, T }, and the events are
{H, T }, {H}, {T }, Ø .

If the coin is fair, i.e., if we believe that heads and tails are “equally
likely,” we should assign equal probabilities to the two possible
outcomes and specify that P {H} = P {T } = 0 . 5. The additivity
axiom implies that P {H, T } = P {H} + P {T } = 1 , which is
consistent with the normalization axiom. Thus, the probability law is
given by

P {H, T } = 1 ,

P {H} = 0 . 5 ,

P {T } = 0 . 5 ,

P(Ø) = 0 ,

and satisfies all three axioms.

Consider another experiment involving three coin tosses. The

outcome will now be a 3-long string of heads or tails. The sample
space is

Ω = {HHH, HHT, HT H, HT T, T HH, T HT, T T H, T T T }.

We assume that each possible outcome has the same probability of

1/8. Let us construct a probability law that satisfies the three
axioms. Consider, as an example, the event

A = { exactly 2 heads occur } = {HHT, HT H, T HH}.

Sec. 1.2

Probabilistic Models

11
Using additivity, the probability of A is the sum of the probabilities of
its elements: P {HHT, HT H, T HH} = P {HHT } + P {HT H} + P {T
HH}

Similarly, the probability of any event is equal to 1/8 times the

number of possible outcomes contained in the event. This defines a
probability law that satisfies the three axioms.

By using the additivity axiom and by generalizing the reasoning in

the

preceding example, we reach the following conclusion.

Discrete Probability Law

If the sample space consists of a finite number of possible

outcomes, then the probability law is specified by the probabilities of
the events that consist of a single element. In particular, the
probability of any event {s 1 , s 2 , . . . , sn}

is the sum of the probabilities of its elements:

P {s 1 , s 2 , . . . , sn} = P {s 1 } + P {s 2 } + · · · + P {sn} .

In the special case where the probabilities P {s 1 }) , . . . , P( {sn}

are all the same (by necessity equal to 1 /n, in view of the
normalization axiom), we obtain the following.

Discrete Uniform Probability Law

If the sample space consists of n possible outcomes which are

equally likely (i.e., all single-element events have the same
probability), then the probability of any event A is given by

Number of elements of A

P( A) =

Let us provide a few more examples of sample spaces and

probability laws.

Example 1.3. Dice. Consider the experiment of rolling a pair of 4-

sided dice (cf.

Fig. 1.4). We assume the dice are fair, and we interpret this
assumption to mean
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Mr Nuttall’s notice is as follows:—“The Dusky Grous breeds in the
shady forests of the Columbia, where we heard and saw them
throughout the summer. The male at various times of the day makes
a curious uncouth tooting, almost like the sound made by blowing
into the bung-hole of a barrel, boo wh’h, wh’h, wh’h, wh’h, the last
note descending into a kind of echo. We frequently tried to steal on
the performer, but without success, as, in fact, the sound is so
strangely managed that you may imagine it to come from the left or
right indifferently. They breed on the ground, as usual, and the brood
keep together nearly all winter. The Ruffed Grous also breeds here
commonly, and I one day found the nest concealed near a fallen log,
but it was at once forsaken after this intrusion, though I did not touch
the eggs.”
From the examination of specimens in my possession, I am
persuaded that this species, like Tetrao Cupido, has the means of
inflating the sacs of bare skin on the sides of the neck, by means of
which, in the breeding season, are produced the curious sounds
above described.

Tetrao obscurus, Dusky Grous, Ch. Bonaparte, Amer. Ornith. vol. iii. pl.
18.—Id. Synopsis of Birds of United States, p. 127.—Richards. and Swains.
Fauna Bor.-Amer. vol. ii. p. 344.
Dusky Grous, Nuttall, Manual, vol. i. p. 666.

Adult Male. Plate CCCLXI. Fig. 1.

Bill short, robust, slightly arched, rather obtuse, the base covered by
feathers. Upper mandible with the dorsal line convex and declinate,
the ridge convex, the sides convex, the edges sharp and
overlapping, the tip thin-edged and rounded; lower mandible with the
angle long and wide, the dorsal line ascending and convex, the ridge
broad, the sides convex, the edges inflected, the tip rounded.
Nostrils in the fore part of the large and feathered nasal depression,
roundish.
Head small, ovate; neck of ordinary length; body large and full. Feet
stout, of moderate length; tarsus short, feathered; toes stout; the first
very small, the lateral about equal, and much shorter than the third;
the anterior toes connected by basal scaly membranes, partially
covered with feathers; all with broad and short scutella, margined,
but scarcely pectinate, the lateral scales not being prominent. Claws
rather large, arched, compressed, rather obtuse.
Plumage full, soft, rather blended, the feathers broad and rounded. A
bare papillate space around the eye. Feathers on the upper part of
the head narrow and elongated. Wings rather short, convex, much
rounded; the quills very strong; the third longest, the fourth next, the
third and sixth about equal, as are the first and seventh. Tail large, of
ordinary length, rounded, of twenty feathers, which are broader
toward the end, and abruptly rounded.
Bill brownish-black, lighter at the base. Iris dark hazel. Toes bluish-
grey, claws wood-brown. Papillar space around the eye vermilion.
Upper parts blackish-brown, the wings lighter. The elongated
feathers on the head greyish-brown; the hind neck minutely
undulated with bluish-grey; the scapulars, inner secondaries, and
smaller wing-coverts also minutely undulated with grey and
brownish-red, and most of the latter with a small greyish tip; the
rump and upper tail-coverts obscurely undulated with grey. Alula,
primary coverts and quills, clove-brown, the secondaries bordered
and tipped with yellowish-grey; the primaries mottled with grey on
their outer webs. The tail is black. The sides of the head, fore part
and sides of the neck, and fore part of the breast greyish-black; the
lore and throat are barred with white; the greyish-black of the breast
passes into blackish-grey, and finally into dull bluish-grey; the
feathers of the abdomen tipped with greyish-white, as are the lower
rump and tail-coverts, which have moreover one or two narrow bars
of the same; the flanks undulated with black and marked with an
elongated white spot along the central part and on the tip; axillary
feathers white, as are the inner wing-coverts; the tarsal feathers
brownish-grey. The concealed part of the plumage is light grey,
unless on the feathers around the bare space on each side of the
neck, which is of an orange colour, and which the bird inflates.
Length to end of tail 22 inches, to end of wings 15 1/2, to end of
claws 18 1/2; extent of wings 30; wing from flexure 9 1/2; tail 7 1/2; bill
along the ridge 1, along the edge of lower mandible 1 2 1/2/12; tarsus
1 9/12; hind toe 6/12, its claw 6/12; second toe 1 2/12 its claw 7/12; third
toe 1 10/12, its claw 8 1/2/12; fourth toe 1 5/12, its claw 6 1/2/12.

Female. Plate CCCLXI. Fig. 2.

The female is considerably smaller than the male. The bare papillar
space over the eye is of much less extent, but, as well as the bill and
feet, is coloured as in the male. The upper parts are dark greyish-
brown, barred on the neck with grey, on the other parts barred and
minutely undulated with yellowish-brown; the wings as in the male,
but lighter and more mottled; the tail greyish-brown, becoming black
toward the end, the middle feathers undulated like the back, and
having four grey bands with a terminal white one. The sides of the
head and the throat are greyish-white, undulatingly barred with
brown; the general colour of the fore neck is greyish-brown, with pale
sienna bands; on the breast the colour is brownish-grey, and the
colours and markings of the rest of the under parts are as in the
male, but paler.
Length to end of tail 19 1/4 inches; wing from flexure 9; tail 6 1/4; bill
along the ridge 10/12.
In a specimen in my possession, killed by Dr Townsend on the
“Columbia River, Sept. 26. 1834,” the tail is considerably rounded,
the lateral feathers being 7 twelfths shorter than the longest
remaining, the middle feathers being lost. The tail is deep black, with
a terminal band of ash-grey, half an inch in breadth. It is therefore
probable, that when the tail is unworn, it is distinctly rounded, and
tipped with grey.
 YELLOW-BILLED MAGPIE.

Corvus Nuttalli.
PLATE CCCLXII. Adult.

I have conferred on this beautiful bird the name of a most zealous,

learned, and enterprising naturalist, my friend Thomas Nuttall,
Esq., to whom the scientific world is deeply indebted for the many
additions to our zoological and botanical knowledge which have
resulted from his labours. It is to him alone that we owe all that is
known respecting the present species, which has not hitherto been
portrayed. In a note inserted by him in my journal, he says:
“As we proceed to the south in Upper California, around the village
of Sta. Barbara, we find the Common Magpie substituted by this
remarkable species, which is much more shy and cautious, as well
as more strictly insectivorous. It utters, however, nearly if not quite
the same chatter. In the month of April they were everywhere mated,
and had nearly completed their nests in the evergreen oaks of the
vicinity (Quercus agrifolia). The only one I saw was situated on a
rather high tree, towards the summit, and much concealed among
the thick and dark branches. Their call was pait, pait; and on
approaching each other, a low congratulatory chatter was heard.
After being fired at once, it seemed nearly impossible again to
approach them within gun-shot. When alighted in the thick oaks, they
remained for a considerable time silent, and occasionally even
wholly hid themselves; but after a while the call of recognition was
again renewed, and if the pair then met, they would often fly off a
mile or more, without stopping, in quest of insects. We often saw
them on the ground, but never near the offal of the oxen, so
attractive to the Crows and Ravens around.”

Corvus Nuttalli.

Adult. Plate CCCLXII. Fig. 1.

Bill almost as long as the head, straight, robust, compressed; upper
mandible with the dorsal line convex and declinate, the sides sloping
and slightly convex, the edges sharp, with a slight notch close to the
tip, which is rather sharp; lower mandible straight, the angle rather
long and wide, the dorsal outline very slightly convex and ascending,
the sides sloping outwards and slightly convex, the edges sharp and
inclinate, the tip narrow. Nostrils basal, lateral, roundish, covered by
bristly feathers, which are directed forwards.
Head large, ovate; eyes of moderate size; neck rather short; body
compact. Legs of moderate length, strong; tarsus with seven large
scutella in front, and two long plates behind, meeting so as to form a
sharp edge. Toes stout, with large scutella, and separated almost to
the base; first very strong; lateral toes nearly equal, third
considerably longer. Claws strong, arched, compressed, sharp, the
third with the inner edge somewhat dilated.
Plumage full, soft, blended; stiff bristly feathers, with disunited
filaments over the nostrils, some of them extending nearly half the
length of the bill; feathers on the throat with the shaft downy and
prolonged. Wings of moderate length, much rounded; the first quill
very short, extremely narrow, and falciform; the second two inches
and four and a half twelfths longer, and a little longer than the ninth;
the third an inch and one twelfth longer than the second, and three
twelfths shorter than the fourth, which is the longest. The tail is very
long, much graduated, the lateral feathers being four inches and
seven twelfths shorter than the middle.
Bill pure yellow, as is a bare space under and behind the eye. Iris
hazel. Feet black. The plumage of the head, neck, fore part of the
breast and back, brownish-black, the feathers on the latter part being
very long, those on the upper part of the head strongly glossed with
green; the shafts of the throat-feathers greyish, and those of the
feathers on the middle of the neck white. The feathers on the middle
of the back are light grey, some of them whitish, and those behind
tipped with black; rump and tail-coverts brownish-black. The
scapulars are white; the smaller wing-coverts splendent with bronzed
green; primaries black, glossed with shining green, their inner webs
white, excepting at the end, and for some way along the margin;
secondaries bright blue, changing to green, their inner webs
greenish-black. Tail splendent with bright green, changing to
greenish-yellow, purplish-red, bluish-purple, and dark green at the
end; the inner webs chiefly greenish-black, but with various tints. The
breast and sides are pure white; the legs, abdominal region, lower
tail coverts, and lower wing-coverts, black.
Length to end of tail 18 inches, to end of wings 11 1/2; wing from
flexure 7 3/4; tail 9 10/12; bill along the ridge 1 4/12; tarsus 1 11/12; first
toe 7/12, its claw 7/12; middle toe 1 2/12, its claw 6/12.

In form, proportion, and size, this Magpie is precisely similar to the

common species. Its bill has the sides less convex; the bare space
under the eye is of much greater extent, and the feathers of the tail
are much narrower. The colours are similar, and distributed in the
same manner; but the bill of the present species is yellow, instead of
black, and the black of the back and fore neck is tinged with brown.
The two species are wonderfully closely allied; but on comparing my
specimen with several others in the Museum of the Zoological
Society of London, I found that they all precisely agreed with it.
I have represented in the plate a twig of a species of Platanus
discovered by the excellent naturalist after whom I have named the
bird perched upon it.
 STELLER’S JAY.

Corvus Stelleri, Gmel.

PLATE CCCLXII. Adult.

Of this Jay, discovered by Steller, whose name it bears, Dr

Richardson states that it “is not uncommon in the summer time on
the Pacific coast of America, from the mouth of the Columbia to the
56th parallel. It also frequents the Rocky Mountains, where Mr
Drummond procured a specimen. In its manner it greatly resembles
the Garrulus cristatus.” Mr Nuttall’s account of it is as follows:—
“We first observed this bird in our Western route in the Blue
Mountains of the Columbia, east of Wallah Wallah. Here they were
scarce and shy, but we met them in sufficient abundance in the
majestic pine forests of the Columbia, where, in autumn, their loud
and trumpeting clangour was heard at all hours of the day, calling out
djay, djay, and sometimes chattering and uttering a variety of other
notes scarcely recognisable as distinct from the calls of our common
Blue Jay. They are, however, far more bold, irritable, and familiar.
Watchful as dogs, a stranger no sooner shews himself in their vicinity
then they neglect all other employment to come round, follow, peep
at and scold him, sometimes with such pertinacity and irritability as
to provoke the sportsman intent on other game to level his gun
against them in mere retaliation. At other times, stimulated by mere
curiosity, they will be observed to follow you in perfect silence, until
something arouses their ready ire, when the djay, djay, pay, pay, is
poured upon you without intermission, till you are beyond their view.
So intent are they on vociferating, that it is not uncommon to hear
them busily scolding even while engaged with a large acorn in the
mouth. Of their geographical limits we are as yet uncertain. They
were first found by Steller at Nootka; but they do not extend into
upper California, and scarcely to the west as far as the most western
of the true Rocky Mountain Chains. They feed on insects, acorns,
and the seeds of the gigantic pines which form a belt along the
Pacific and the rivers of the Oregon Territory. In the month of May, I
found a nest of this species in a small sapling of Douglas’s Fir, on
the borders of a dark and dense forest, and again some time after a
second nest with young, in an elevated branch of the same pine, on
the border of a rocky cliff. On approaching the nest, which contained
four eggs, of a pale green colour, with small olive-brown specks,
varied with others of rather a violet hue, both the male and female
flew at me with the utmost anger and agitation, deafening me almost
with their cries and entreaties. But though I took only two of their
eggs, I found next day that they had forsaken the nest, being too
fearful and jealous of the intrusion to remain any longer in the same
place. The nest as usual was bulky, made of interlaced twigs, and
roots, with a stout layer of mud, and lined with black root-fibres. I
saw the nest about ten days previous to the time of taking two of the
four eggs. On that occasion the female (probably) only followed me
in silence.”

Corvus Stelleri, Gmel. Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 370.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol.
i. p. 158.—Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p. 438.
Steller’s Jay, Garrulus Stelleri, Ch. Bonaparte, Amer. Ornith. vol. ii. p.
44.
Garrulus Stelleri, Steller’s Jay, Fauna Bor.-Amer. vol. ii. p. 294.
Steller’s Jay, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 229.
Adult Male. Plate CCCLXII. Fig. 2.
Bill shorter than the head, strong, straight, a little compressed; upper
mandible with the dorsal line declinate and convex toward the end,
the sides sloping and becoming more convex toward the tip, which is
declinate, thin edged and obtuse, the edges sharp and overlapping,
with a slight notch; lower mandible straight, the angle short and
broad, the dorsal outline ascending and slightly convex, the sides
convex, the edges sharp and directed outwards, the tip narrow.
Nostrils basal, roundish, covered by reversed bristly feathers.
Head large, ovate, eyes of moderate size; neck rather short; body
compact. Legs of moderate length, strong; tarsus much compressed,
with seven large anterior scutella, and two long plates behind,
meeting so as to form a sharp edge. Toes stout, with large scutella,
the outer adherent as far as its second joint to the middle toe; first
very strong; lateral toes nearly equal, third much longer. Claws
strong, arched, compressed, sharp.
Plumage full, soft, blended; stiff bristly feathers with disunited barbs
over the nostrils, some of them extending a third of the length of the
bill; at the base of the upper mandible several longish slender
bristles. The feathers on the top of the head and occiput linear-
oblong, slightly recurved, and forming an erectile crest an inch and a
half in length. Wings of moderate length, convex, and much rounded;
the first quill very short, the second an inch and a quarter longer, the
third nine-twelfths longer than the second, and three-twelfths shorter
than the fourth, which is one-twelfth shorter than the fifth, the latter
being the longest, although scarcely exceeding the sixth. Tail long,
rounded, of twelve rather broad, rounded, and acuminate feathers, of
which the shafts are undulated.
Bill and feet black. Iris hazel. Head and neck, with the fore part and
middle of the back brownish-black, of a lighter tint on the back, and
on the throat streaked with dull grey; the feathers on the forehead
tipped with bright blue; the hind part of the back, the rump, and the
upper tail-coverts, light blue; as are the lower tail-coverts, the sides
and lower parts of the rump, the sides of the body, and the whole of
the breast; the middle of the abdomen paler, the tibial feathers, and
the lower wing-coverts dusky, tinged with blue. Wings blue, the
secondary coverts and quills rich indigo and ultra-marine, narrowly
barred with black, the outer coverts of the primaries pale; the inner
webs of the primaries and outer secondaries dusky; tail blue with
numerous narrow, inconspicuous dusky bars; the lower surface of
the wings and tail dusky.

Length to end of tail 13 inches; bill along the ridge 1 1 1/2/12, along the
edge of lower mandible 1 4 1/2/12; wing from flexure 5 11/12; tail 6;
1/2
tarsus 1 8/12; hind toe 7 /12, its claw 7/12; middle toe 11/12, its claw
5/ .
12

The Female is similar to the male, and scarcely inferior in colouring,

but somewhat smaller.
Length to end of tail 12 inches; bill along the ridge 1 1/2; wing from
flexure 5 1/2; tail 5 1/2; tarsus 1 8/12; middle toe 11/12 its claw 5/12.
Dr Townsend informs me that it is called Ass-ass by the Chinooks,
who regard it with a superstitious feeling, believing that should a
person hear it enunciating certain notes, which resemble the
syllables jaa-jaa, he will shortly die, whereas its other notes, kuc,
kuc, kuc, kuc, rapidly repeated, portend good. He further states that
it is gregarious, like the Blue Jay, and corroborates some of the
particulars above given.
Two eggs presented to me by Mr Nuttall measure an inch and an
eighth in length, and seven-eighths in breadth.
 ULTRAMARINE JAY.

Corvus Ultramarinus.
PLATE CCCLXII. Adult.

Although the Ultramarine Jay has been described by Mr Swainson,

in his Synopsis of the Birds of Mexico, under the name of Garrulus
sordidus, I retain the specific name “ultramarinus,” previously given
by the Prince of Musignano. The only observations respecting its
habits that I am aware of having been made, are the following, for
which I am indebted to my friend Thomas Nuttall.
“Early in October, on arriving in the forests of the Columbia, near
Fort Vancouver, an establishment of the Hudson’s Bay Company, we
saw in the same situations with the Steller’s Jay, the present
species. Its habits are much like those of the Common Jay. It usually
flies out to the tops of the lofty pines, jerks its tail, and perches
playfully on some extreme branch, where it utters at times, as if
excited by petulant anger, a strong whoit, woit, woit, woit, after which
expression it emits a sort of recognition-call at short intervals, twee,
and sometimes a shorter ’twee ’twee. When much pursued, it sits
still in the concealing shade of the lofty branches on which it seeks
refuge. It feeds on insects, acorns broken up, and probably pine
seeds. They appear to associate in roving families throughout the fall
and winter, like the other species, seldom if ever associating with the
more Common Steller’s Jay, though now and then perhaps in the
same tree. It is a graceful, active, and rather shy species, flying out
straight from tree to tree, remarkable by its long tail and rather short
wings; and its note is much less harsh and loud than that of Steller’s
Jay. They breed in the dark pine woods probably where we so
frequently saw them alight, and on the 15th of June they were
feeding their fully fledged young, two of which I pursued for some
time, but they skulked so effectually as to escape me after a long
and doubtful chase. The young had a great predominance of grey on
the back. The same species also extends into Upper California.”
Adult Male. Plate CCCLXII. Fig. 3.
Bill shorter than the head, strong, straight, compressed toward the
end; upper mandible with the dorsal line declinate and convex
toward the end, the sides sloping and becoming convex toward the
tip, which is declinate, thin-edged and obtuse, the edges sharp and
overlapping, with a slight notch; lower mandible straight, the angle
rather short and broad, the dorsal outline ascending and slightly
convex, the sides convex, the edges sharp and directed outwards,
the tip narrow. Nostrils basal, roundish covered by the reversed
bristly feathers.
Head large, ovate; eyes of moderate size; neck rather short; body
compact. Legs of moderate length, strong; tarsus much compressed,
with seven large anterior scutella, and two long plates behind,
meeting so as to form a sharp edge. Toes stout, with large scutella,
the outer adherent as far as its second joint to the middle toe; first
very strong; inner toe shorter than outer, third much longer. Claws
strong, arched, compressed, acute.
Plumage full, soft, blended. Stiff feathers with disunited barbs over
the nostrils, the longest scarcely extending to a third of the length of
the bill; at the base of the upper mandible several longish slender
bristles. Wings of moderate length, convex, and much rounded; the
first quill very short, an inch and two-twelfths shorter than the
second, which is eight-twelfths shorter than the third, the fourth
three-twelfths longer than the third, and a twelfth and a half shorter
than the fifth, which is the longest, but scarcely exceeds the sixth.
Tail long, much rounded, of twelve rather narrow, rounded and
acuminate feathers, of which the lateral is an inch and a quarter
shorter than the longest.
Bill and feet brownish-black. Iris hazel. Upper part of the head, sides
and hind part of the neck, wings, upper tail-coverts, and tail, light
blue; back light greyish-brown, the feathers of the rump whitish and
tinged with blue at the end; the inner webs of the quills dusky; the tail
transversely undulated, and having the appearance of being faintly
barred with a darker tint. A white band over the eye formed by the
tips of the feathers there; the cheeks dusky; the fore neck greyish-
white faintly streaked with dusky; and bounded below by a narrow
semilunar band of light blue continuous with that of the neck. The
lower parts are pale purplish-grey, passing into white on the
abdomen; lower tail-coverts tinged with blue.
1/2
Length to end of tail 12 inches; bill along the ridge 1 1 /12, along the
edge of lower mandible 1 4/12; wing from flexure 5 8/12; tail 6 2/12;
1/
tarsus 1 8/12; hind toe 7 /12, its claw 7/12; middle toe 1 1/12, its claw
2

6 1/2/ .
12

The Female is considerably smaller, but resembles the male in

colour.
Length to end of tail 11 1/2 inches; wing from flexure 5 3/12; tail 6 2/12;
1/
tarsus 1 7/12; middle toe 1, its claw 6 /12.
2

The resemblance which this species bears to the Florida Jay is so

close that one might readily confound the two. That species,
however, is distinguishable by its smaller size and its more rounded
tail; by its having a band of whitish across the forehead and
extended over the eye, where it is not in dots as in the Ultramarine
Jay.
 CLARKE’S NUTCRACKER.

Nucifraga columbiana.
PLATE CCCLXII. Adult.

No sooner had I examined perfect specimens of this somewhat

singularly coloured bird, than I felt assured, more especially from the
form of its bill, that it is with us a representative of the Nutcracker of
Europe; and I was much surprised, on comparing it with the figure
given of it by Alexander Wilson, to find the latter very defective,
the bill being nearly half an inch shorter than in four specimens
which I have inspected. All that is known of its habits is contained in
the following notes from Mr Nuttall and Dr Townsend.
“We first observed this species in a small pine grove, on the borders
of Bear River, in the table-land of the Rocky Mountains, where they
were probably breeding, in the month of July. We again saw a
considerable flock of the young birds early in August, in a lofty ravine
near the summit of one of the three belts or isolated mountains,
about thirty or forty miles west of the Shoshonee River. They
appeared somewhat shy, and scattered through a grove of aspens,
flying with a slight chatter, scarcely a caw, from the tops of the
bushes or trees, on to the ground, probably in quest of insect food.
We never saw this species either on the lower plains or forests of the
Columbia, or in any part of Upper California. It appears never to
descend below the mountain plains.” T. N.
“Clarke’s Crow, Corvus columbianus. First found on Bear River, and
afterwards on the Blue Mountains, plentiful. Its flight is very unlike
that of the Common Crow, being performed by jerks, like that of the
Woodpecker. When sitting, it is almost constantly screaming; its
voice is very harsh and grating, and consists of one rather prolonged
note. It breeds here in very high pine trees. The White Pelican also
seen here in July, no doubt breeds; also the Canvass-backed Duck,
the Shoveller, and Dusky Duck; found young of all of them. The
Corvus columbianus is never seen within five hundred miles of the
mouth of the Columbia. It appears generally to prefer a mountainous
country and pine trees; and feeds chiefly on insects and their larvæ.”
J. K. T.

Clarke’s Crow, Corvus columbianus, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. iii. p. 29. pl.
20, fig. 2.
Corvus columbianus, Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p.
57.
Columbian Crow, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 218.

Adult Male. Plate CCCLXII. Fig. 4.

Bill as long as the head, stout, somewhat conical, compressed, at
the tip rather depressed. Upper mandible with its dorsal line slightly
arcuato-declinate, the ridge convex, the sides rounded, the edges
sharp and overlapping, without notæ, the tip flattened and obtuse;
lower mandible with the angle short and rounded, the dorsal line
straight, the sides convex, the edges sharp and a little inflexed, the
tip flattened, and rather obtuse. Nostrils basal, lateral, roundish,
covered by bristly feathers, which are directed forwards.
Head large, broadly ovate; eyes of moderate size; neck rather short;
body compact. Legs of moderate length, stout; tarsus compressed,
with seven large anterior scutella and two plates behind, meeting so
as to form a sharp edge. Toes stout, with large scutella; the first toe
very large, the inner a little shorter than the outer, the hind much
longer; the third and fourth united as far as the second joint of the
latter. Claws large, arched, much compressed, acute.
Plumage full, very soft and blended; the stiff bristly feathers over the
nostrils extend about one-fifth of the length of the bill; and there are
no distinct bristles at the base of the upper mandible; the feathers on
the head are very short. The wings are long, and much rounded; the
first quill two inches shorter than the second, which is ten-twelfths
shorter than the third, the latter exceeded two-twelfths by the fourth,
which is the longest; the outer primaries being narrow, give the wing,
when closed, the appearance of being pointed. Tail of moderate
length, rounded, of twelve rather broad feathers, of which the lateral
is half an inch shorter than the middle.
Bill and feet brownish-black. Iris hazel. The general colour above
and below is light brownish-grey, the forehead, throat, fore part of
cheeks, and a space around the eye white, tinged with yellow. Wings
black, glossed with blue; seven of the secondaries largely tipped with
white, upper tail-coverts greyish-black; tail pure white, excepting the
two middle feathers and the greater part of the inner webs of the
next pair, which are black glossed with blue; lower wing-coverts
dusky, some tipped with white; lower tail-coverts pure white.
Length to end of tail 12 inches; bill along the ridge 1 8/12, along the
edge of lower mandible 1 10/12; wing from flexure 7 11/12; tail 5 1/4;
1/2
tarsus 1 4/12; hind toe 7 /12; its claw 8/12; middle toe 11/12, its claw
6/ .
12

Adult Female. Plate CCCLXII. Fig. 5.

The Female is similar to the male.
 BOHEMIAN CHATTERER.

Bombycilla garrula, Vieill.

PLATE CCCLXIII. Male and Female.

The first intimations of the occurrence of this beautiful bird in North

America, were made by Mr Drummond and Dr Richardson, by the
former of whom it was found in 1826, near the sources of the
Athabasca, or Elk River, in the spring, and by the latter, in the same
season, at Great Bear Lake, in latitude 50°. Dr Richardson states,
in the Fauna Boreali-Americana, that “specimens procured at the
former place, and transmitted to England, by the servants of the
Hudson’s Bay Company, were communicated, by Mr Leadbeater to
the Prince of Musignano, who had introduced the species into his
great work on the Birds of the United States.” “In its autumn
migration southwards,” he continues, “this bird must cross the
territory of the United States, if it does not actually winter within it;
but I have not heard of its having been hitherto seen in America to
the southward of the fifty-fifth parallel of latitude. The mountainous
nature of the country skirting the Northern Pacific Ocean being
congenial to the habits of this species, it is probably more generally
diffused in New Caledonia and the Russian American Territories,
than to the eastward of the Rocky Mountain chain. It appears in
flocks at Great Bear Lake about the 24th of May, when the spring
thaw has exposed the berries of the alpine arbutus, marsh
vaccinium, &c., that have been frozen and covered during winter. It