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Developments in Paleoenvironmental Research 20

Kaarina Weckström
Krystyna M. Saunders
Peter A. Gell
C. Gregory Skilbeck Editors

Applications of
Paleoenvironmental
Techniques in
Estuarine Studies
Developments in Paleoenvironmental Research

Series Editor
John P. Smol

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/5869

Kaarina Weckström • Krystyna M. Saunders
Peter A. Gell • C. Gregory Skilbeck
Editors

Applications
of Paleoenvironmental
Techniques in Estuarine
Studies
Editors
Kaarina Weckström Krystyna M. Saunders
Department of Glaciology and Climate Institute of Geography and Oeschger Centre
Geological Survey of Denmark for Climate Change Research
and Greenland University of Bern
Copenhagen, Denmark Bern, Switzerland

Peter A. Gell C. Gregory Skilbeck

Water Research Network, Faculty of School of Life Sciences
Science and Technology Ultimo, NSW, Australia
Federation University Australia
Mt Helen, Vic., Australia

ISSN 1571-5299     ISSN 2215-1672 (electronic)

Developments in Paleoenvironmental Research
ISBN 978-94-024-0988-8    ISBN 978-94-024-0990-1 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-024-0990-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016958867

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer Science+Business Media B.V.
The registered company address is: Van Godewijckstraat 30, 3311 GX Dordrecht, The Netherlands
Preface

The book series “Developments in Paleoenvironmental Research (DPER)” was

launched in 2001 due to the rapid expansion of the field during the preceding two
decades. The first four volumes introduced methodologies used by paleolimnolo-
gists, while the fifth book in the series focused on data handling and numerical
techniques. The subsequent volumes have addressed a wide variety of paleoenvi-
ronmental applications. The idea for the present volume first emerged at a workshop
centering on paleoestuarine studies funded by the Australian Research Council
Australia-New Zealand Research Network for Vegetation Function. This workshop
was organised by Dr. John Gibson (University of Tasmania), who recognised the
lack of paleoenvironmental books dedicated to estuaries. There is indeed a pressing
need to promote the use of paleolimnological techniques in estuarine research and
management to establish benchmarks and ranges of natural variability, which will
help us to significantly improve the sustainable management of the world’s estuaries
and coasts.
We are grateful to a large number of colleagues, who over the years have helped
the field advance and grow. Many people have been generous and helpful with the
planning, development and final production of this book. We are extremely grateful
to our reviewers for their invaluable contributions. We would also like to acknowl-
edge the assistance received from our publishers, especially the efforts and kind
encouragement from Judith Terpos, Sherestha Saini, John Ramkumar, Susan
Westendorf and J. Jenisha Jasmine. Our host institutions and our many funding
sources are kindly acknowledged, as are the publishers and authors who allowed the
reproduction of previously published figures. Finally, the biggest and humblest
thanks go to our authors for their hard work and their dedication to this volume.

Copenhagen, Denmark Kaarina Weckström

Bern, Switzerland Krystyna M. Saunders
Mt Helen, Vic Peter A. Gell
Ultimo, NSW C. Gregory Skilbeck

v
Contents

1 Introduction to the Application of Paleoecological Techniques

in Estuaries............................................................................................... 1
Kathryn H. Taffs, Krystyna M. Saunders, Kaarina Weckström,
Peter A. Gell, and C. Gregory Skilbeck

Part I Estuaries and Their Management

2 Estuary Form and Function: Implications
for Palaeoecological Studies.................................................................... 9
Peter Scanes, Angus Ferguson, and Jaimie Potts
3 Geology and Sedimentary History of Modern Estuaries..................... 45
C. Gregory Skilbeck, Andrew D. Heap, and Colin D. Woodroffe
4 Paleoecological Evidence for Variability and Change
in Estuaries: Insights for Management.................................................. 75
Krystyna M. Saunders and Peter A. Gell

Part II Coring and Dating of Estuarine Sediments

5 Sediment Sampling in Estuaries: Site Selection
and Sampling Techniques....................................................................... 89
C. Gregory Skilbeck, Stacey Trevathan-Tackett,
Pemika Apichanangkool, and Peter I. Macreadie
6 Some Practical Considerations Regarding the Application
of 210Pb and 137Cs Dating to Estuarine Sediments................................. 121
Thorbjoern Joest Andersen
7 Radiocarbon Dating in Estuarine Environments................................. 141
Jesper Olsen, Philippa Ascough, Bryan C. Lougheed,
and Peter Rasmussen

vii
viii Contents

Part III Techniques for Palaeoenvironmental Reconstructions

in Estuaries
8 Lipid Biomarkers as Organic Geochemical Proxies
for the Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction
of Estuarine Environments..................................................................... 173
John K. Volkman and Rienk H. Smittenberg
9 C/N ratios and Carbon Isotope Composition
of Organic Matter in Estuarine Environments..................................... 213
Melanie J. Leng and Jonathan P. Lewis
10 Physical and Chemical Factors to Consider when Studying
Historical Contamination and Pollution in Estuaries.......................... 239
Amanda Reichelt-Brushett, Malcolm Clark, and Gavin Birch
11 Diatoms as Indicators of Environmental Change in Estuaries............ 277
Kathryn H. Taffs, Krystyna M. Saunders, and Brendan Logan
12 Dinoflagellate Cysts as Proxies for Holocene Environmental
Change in Estuaries: Diversity, Abundance and Morphology............ 295
Marianne Ellegaard, Barrie Dale, Kenneth N. Mertens,
Vera Pospelova, and Sofia Ribeiro
13 Applications of Foraminifera, Testate Amoebae
and Tintinnids in Estuarine Palaeoecology........................................... 313
Anupam Ghosh and Helena L. Filipsson
14 Ostracods as Recorders of Palaeoenvironmental
Change in Estuaries................................................................................. 339
Jessica M. Reeves
15 Application of Molluscan Analyses to the Reconstruction
of Past Environmental Conditions in Estuaries.................................... 357
G. Lynn Wingard and Donna Surge
16 Corals in Estuarine Environments: Their Response
to Environmental Changes and Application in Reconstructing
Past Environmental Variability.............................................................. 389
Francisca Staines-Urías
17 Inferring Environmental Change in Estuaries
from Plant Macrofossils.......................................................................... 423
John Tibby and Carl D. Sayer
18 Applications of Pollen Analysis in Estuarine Systems.......................... 441
Joanna C. Ellison
Contents ix

Part IV Case Studies

19 Palaeo-Environmental Approaches to Reconstructing
Sea Level Changes in Estuaries.............................................................. 471
Brigid V. Morrison and Joanna C. Ellison
20 Paleoecology Studies in Chesapeake Bay: A Model System
for Understanding Interactions between Climate,
Anthropogenic Activities and the Environment.................................... 495
Elizabeth A. Canuel, Grace S. Brush, Thomas M. Cronin,
Rowan Lockwood, and Andrew R. Zimmerman
21 Paleosalinity Changes in the Río de la Plata Estuary
and on the Adjacent Uruguayan Continental
Shelf over the Past 1200 Years: An Approach
Using Diatoms as a Proxy........................................................................ 529
Laura Perez, Felipe García-Rodríguez, and Till J.J. Hanebuth
22 Application of Paleoecology to Ecosystem Restoration:
A Case Study from South Florida’s Estuaries...................................... 551
G. Lynn Wingard
23 Paleolimnological History of the Coorong:
Identifying the Natural Ecological Character
of a Ramsar Wetland in Crisis................................................................ 587
Peter A. Gell
24 Palaeoenvironmental History of the Baltic Sea: One of the
Largest Brackish-water Ecosystems in the World................................ 615
Kaarina Weckström, Jonathan P. Lewis, Elinor Andrén,
Marianne Ellegaard, Peter Rasmussen, and Richard Telford

Glossary............................................................................................................ 663
Index.................................................................................................................. 691
Chapter 1
Introduction to the Application
of Paleoecological Techniques in Estuaries

Kathryn H. Taffs, Krystyna M. Saunders, Kaarina Weckström,

Peter A. Gell, and C. Gregory Skilbeck

Modern estuaries are naturally dynamic coastal environments that grade from the
freshwater of a riverine ecosystem to the salt water of the ocean. The geographic
location and the latitudinal climate setting determine the variability within an estu-
ary, and the unique combinations of tides, waves and wind regimes, with the imping-
ing ocean currents, create the dynamic physical and chemical environment.
Variability in the estuarine environment can range across diurnal to decadal time
scales. Within this setting reside highly diverse ecosystems containing rich biological
resources adapted to the constantly changing environment.

K.H. Taffs (*)

School of Environment, Science and Engineering, Southern Cross University,
PO Box 157, Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia
e-mail: kathryn.taffs@scu.edu.au
K.M. Saunders
Institute of Geography and Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research,
University of Bern, Bern 3012, Switzerland
Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation,
Lucas Heights, NSW 2234, Australia
e-mail: krystyna.saunders@ansto.gov.au
K. Weckström
Department of Marine Geology and Glaciology, Geological Survey of Denmark
and Greenland, Øster Voldgade 10, 1350 Copenhagen, Denmark
e-mail: kaaw@geus.dk
P.A. Gell
Faculty of Science and Technology, Water Research Network, Federation
University Australia, Mt Helen, VIC, Australia
e-mail: p.gell@federation.edu.au
C.G. Skilbeck
School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
e-mail: g.skilbeck@uts.edu.au

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2017 1

K. Weckström et al. (eds.), Applications of Paleoenvironmental Techniques
in Estuarine Studies, Developments in Paleoenvironmental Research 20,
DOI 10.1007/978-94-024-0990-1_1
2 K.H. Taffs et al.

Added to this natural variability has been the increasing pressure of human
habitation both within the estuary and the terrestrial catchment. Historically, estuar-
ies and the adjacent coast have been essential for the development of commerce
(e.g. trade and transport) and industry (e.g. fisheries and aquaculture). Since the
establishment of agrarian societies some 10,000 years ago, approximately coinci-
dent with sea level reaching its current post-glacial global highstand, estuaries have
provided a basis for sustainability of communities with economies based on fishing
and, increasingly, on trade. Today, most of the world’s major ports are built around
estuaries and consequently these are some of the most impacted, polluted and physi-
cally altered environments on Earth. More recently, the widespread use of estuaries
for recreation and tourism has further added to these stresses. Finally, the impact of
global climate change over the next 50–100 years has yet to be fully assessed and
integrated into the sustainable management of estuaries. It is clear that a sound
understanding of the evolution and natural variability of any estuary is needed to
effectively manage these biodiverse ecosystems.

1 Natural Variability

Estuaries are constantly changing under the influence of local, regional and global
drivers. Some of the processes are cyclic (e.g. tides and annual weather patterns),
and some are evolutionary (e.g. infilling of a drowned river valley). Global climate
variability driven by orbital parameters has caused cyclic changes on a scale of tens
to hundreds of thousands of years, producing a regular pattern of variation in sea
level and climate over at least the last million years. Humans are currently living on
the cusp of one of these cycles, the Holocene high stand. A better understanding of
the interplay between relatively short term, historical variation in processes such as
tides, freshwater inflow, terrestrial and oceanic weather patterns and intermediate-­
scale variability such as the interannual or multidecadal patterns of hemispherical
phenomena (e.g. El Niño Southern Oscillation, Pacific Decadal Oscillation, Indian
Ocean Dipole or Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation), and the longer term variability
of orbital forcing and plate tectonics, is one of the main goals of paleoestuarine
studies.
Due to their inherent spatial and temporal variability, and the interplay of pro-
cesses, the study of estuarine environments requires multiple approaches and lines
of evidence to understand how each uniquely functions, changes over time and
responds to fluctuating types and intensities of stressors. One key aspect is the need
for a longer term perspective, as this can inform us how an estuary has evolved into
its current state, help us understand the inherent variability in estuarine environ-
ments, and provide a context for being able to assess how an estuary may respond
in the future. Of particular importance in a longer term study is the appreciation of
rates of environmental change.
1 Introduction to the Application of Paleoecological Techniques in Estuaries 3

2 Human Impacts

2.1 Climate Change

The scientific basis for recent human-induced climate change is well established and
widely, though not universally, accepted. The principal cause of atmospheric warming
is brought about by enhanced greenhouse conditions arising mainly from the “sudden”
(over the past 200 years) release of carbon sequestered in the subsurface for tens to
hundreds of millions of years (IPCC 2014). Because the atmosphere and oceans act as
a coupled system in the storage and distribution of heat energy, human-induced climate
change is causing ocean warming which, when tied together with the melting of conti-
nental ice, is producing rising sea levels. The additional heat, unevenly distributed in
the atmosphere and oceans, will influence weather patterns, alter the frequency of
storms and other extreme weather events, and alter ocean current characteristics. These
factors will potentially dramatically affect estuaries by impacting the rate and volume
of freshwater input, sediments and biota from the adjacent land, rivers and oceans
(IPCC 2014). Understanding the range of natural variability and, in particular, estab-
lishing natural thresholds, is essential for managing good estuarine ecosystem health
whilst climate change processes operate (Saunders and Taffs 2009).

2.2 Human Activity Within Estuaries and Their Catchments

Many estuaries have been extensively impacted and changed by humans causing envi-
ronmental problems including acidification, eutrophication, salinization, reduction
and degradation of important habitats, disruption of migratory bird populations and
declining fish populations (Goudie 2000; State of the Environment Report 2006).
Human impacts occur across a range of temporal scales. In many parts of the world, a
time frame of 100–200 years encompasses most modern environmental impacts and
cause and effect over this period can be relatively clear (e.g. Birks et al. 1990; Taffs
et al. 2008). In other locations, particularly in aquatic ecosystems with a long history
of human settlement, impacts may have occurred over much longer time periods,
which can make differentiating between natural- and human-induced change more
challenging (e.g. Fritz 1989; Anderson and Odgaard 1994; Bradshaw et al. 2006).

3 Paleoecology

Estuarine ecology has a predominance of research on understanding present day

dynamics of estuaries, but there is now an increasing array of techniques available
to investigate ecosystem variability over time. The principal aim of this book is to
familiarize the reader with a range of these paleoecological techniques.
4 K.H. Taffs et al.

Paleoecology is the interpretation and understanding of past conditions and

processes in ecosystems. This means that the rate, direction, magnitude and causes
of change, as well as the ranges of natural variability that have occurred, can be
investigated and determined (Smol 2008). The application of paleoecological tech-
niques is well-established for lakes and has been widely used to investigate climate
change (e.g. Smol and Douglas 2007) and human impacts in these environments
(e.g. Battarbee et al. 1990; Bennion et al. 2004; Gell et al. 2005). Paleoecology in
the marine environment is also well-established using deep ocean sediment cores to
infer inter alia ocean hydrography, paleoproductivity and environmental changes
(e.g. Hays et al. 1989; Loubere 1999; Wollenburg et al. 2001; Schell et al. 2008).
More recently, paleoecological techniques developed especially for lakes have been
applied to estuaries. Examples already exist where these techniques have been used
to determine past changes in sea level (e.g. Cearreta et al. 2002; Horton and Culver
2008), changes of freshwater inputs and rainfall (e.g. Saenger et al. 2006; Prasad
et al. 2007), and the timing and frequency of extreme events such as tsunamis and
cyclonic activity (e.g. Goff et al. 2001; Horton et al. 2007; Sawai et al. 2008). These
examples need to be further developed and spatially expanded to increase our
understanding of estuarine responses to climate change events. Paleoecological
techniques can also be used to determine estuarine baseline conditions for setting
management targets (e.g. Andersen et al. 2004; Taffs et al. 2008), determining the
causes of change (e.g. Mulrennan and Woodroffe 1998; Krull et al. 2009), and
investigating estuarine ecosystem responses to remediation and restoration attempts
(e.g. Brown and Pasternack 2005).

4 Summary and Purpose of This Book

Worldwide, estuarine research involving a long-term perspective to aid conservation

and management has lagged behind terrestrial and lake environment research.
Consequently, despite the obvious importance of estuaries, this means we have lim-
ited detailed knowledge of how they function or the ranges of natural variability
they experience and how humans have, and will interact with these influences.
Gaining a clear understanding using a long-term perspective is crucial if we are to
maintain and restore the integrity of estuarine environments. While paleoecological
studies in the ocean and lakes are well-established science, applications of paleo-
ecological techniques in estuarine environments remains largely novel and in some
cases problematic. In recent years estuarine paleoecological research has rapidly
developed and an increasing range of technological applications is improving our
understanding of the dynamic and variable nature of estuaries.
The purpose of this book is to briefly describe estuarine form and function and
to demonstrate the application of different paleoecological approaches used in
estuaries that develop our understanding of their response to natural and human
influences. Chapters 1–4 provide the framework for this book. They describe the
characteristics of estuaries, important factors influencing them and introduce
1 Introduction to the Application of Paleoecological Techniques in Estuaries 5

paleoecology as a useful tool for estuarine management. The following chapters (5–7)
outline the essential steps required for undertaking a paleoecological study, in par-
ticular with regard to site selection, core extraction and chronological techniques,
followed by the range of indicators that can be used. They are divided into geo-
chemical proxies and pollutants (8–10) and biological proxies (11–18). The book
concludes with a series of case studies (19–24): the first study focuses on sea level
changes, while the rest present research from major estuaries (sensu lato) worldwide,
to demonstrate how paleoecological studies can be used to address key questions, and
to sustainably manage these important coastal environments in the future.

References

Andersen JH, Conley DJ, Hedal S (2004) Palaeoecology, reference conditions and classification of
ecological status: the EU Water Framework Directive in practice. Mar Pollut Bull
49(4):283–290
Anderson N, Odgaard B (1994) Recent palaeolimnology of three shallow Danish lakes.
Hydrobiologia 275(276):411–422
Battarbee RW, Mason J, Renberg I et al (1990) Palaeolimnology and lake acidification. Philos
Trans R Soc Lond B 327(1240):223–445
Bennion H, Fluin J, Simpson GL (2004) Assessing eutrophication and reference conditions for
Scottish freshwater lochs using subfossil diatoms. J Appl Ecol 41:124–138
Birks HJB, Line JM, Juggins S et al (1990) Diatoms and pH reconstruction. Philos Trans R Soc
Lond B 327:263–278
Bradshaw EG, Nielsen AB, Anderson NJ (2006) Using diatoms to assess the impacts of prehistoric,
pre-industrial and modern land-use on Danish lakes. Reg Environ Change 6:17–24
Brown KJ, Pasternack GB (2005) A palaeoenvironmental reconstruction to aid in the restoration
of floodplain and wetland habitat on an upper deltaic plain, California, USA. Environ Conserv
32(2):103–116
Cearreta A, Irabien M, Ulibarri I et al (2002) Recent salt marsh development and natural regeneration
of reclaimed areas in the Plentzia Estuary, n. Spain. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 54:863–886
Fritz SC (1989) Lake development and limnological response to prehistoric and historic land-use
in Diss, Norfolk, UK. J Ecol 77:182–202
Gell P, Tibby J, Fluin J et al (2005) Accessing limnological change and variability using fossil
diatom assemblages, south-east Australia. River Res Appl 21:257–269
Goff JR, Chagué-Goff C, Nichol S (2001) Palaeotsunami deposits: a New Zealand perspective.
Sediment Geol 143:1–6
Goudie A (2000) The human impact on the natural environment. Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken
Hays PE, Pisias NG, Roelofs AK (1989) Paleoceanography of the eastern equatorial Pacific during
the Pliocene: a high-resolution radiolarian study. Paleoceanography 4(1):57–73
Horton BP, Culver SJ (2008) Modern intertidal foraminifera of the outer banks, North Carolina,
USA, and their applicability for sea-level studies. J Coast Res 24:1110–1125
Horton BP, Zong Y, Hillier C et al (2007) Diatoms from Indonesian mangroves and their suitability
as sea-level indicators for tropical environments. Mar Micropaleontol 63:155–168
IPCC (2014) Climate change 2014: impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part A: Global and
sectoral aspects. In: Field CB, Barros VR, Dokken DJ et al (eds) Contribution of Working
Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Krull E, Haynes D, Lamontagne S et al (2009) Changes in the chemistry of sedimentary organic
matter within the Coorong over space and time. Biogeochemistry 92(1–2):9–25
6 K.H. Taffs et al.

Loubere P (1999) A multiproxy reconstruction of biological productivity and oceanography in the

eastern equatorial Pacific for the past 30,000 years. Mar Micropaleontol 37(2):173–198
Mulrennan ME, Woodroffe CD (1998) Saltwater intrusion into the coastal plains of the Lower
Mary River, Northern Territory, Australia. J Environ Manage 54(3):169–188
Prasad V, Phartiyal B, Sharma A (2007) Evidence of enhanced winter precipitation and the
prevalence of a cool and dry climate during the mid to late Holocene in mainland Gujarat,
India. Holocene 17(7):889–896
Saenger C, Cronin T, Thunell R et al (2006) Modelling river discharge and precipitation from
estuarine salinity in the northern Chesapeake Bay: application to Holocene palaeoclimate.
Holocene 16(4):467–477
Saunders KM, Taffs KH (2009) Palaeoecology: a tool to improve the management of Australian
estuaries. J Environ Manage 90:2730–2736
Sawai Y, Fujii Y, Fujiwara O et al (2008) Marine incursions of the past 1500 years and evidence of
tsunamis at Suijin-numa, a coastal lake facing the Japan Trench. Holocene 18:517–528
Schell TM, Scott DB, Rochon A et al (2008) Late Quaternary paleoceanography and paleo-sea ice
conditions in the Mackenzie Trough and Canyon, Beaufort Sea. Can J Earth Sci
45(11):1399–1415
Smol JP (2008) Pollution of lakes and rivers: a paleoenvironmental perspective. Wiley Blackwell,
New York
Smol JP, Douglas MSV (2007) From controversy to consensus: making the case for recent climate
change using lake sediments. Front Ecol Environ 5:466–474
State of the Environment Report (2006) Australia: state of the environment. Department of the
Environment. http://www.environment.gov.au/topics/science-and-research/state-environment-­
reporting/soe-2006. Accessed 17 July 2009
Taffs KH, Farago LJ, Heijnis H et al (2008) A diatom-based Holocene record of human impact
from a coastal environment: Tuckean Swamp, eastern Australia. J Paleolimnol 39:71–82
Wollenburg JE, Kuhnt W, Mackensen A (2001) Changes in Arctic Ocean paleoproductivity and
hydrography during the last 145 kyr: the benthic foraminiferal record. Paleoceanography
16(1):65–77
 Part I
Estuaries and Their Management
Chapter 2
Estuary Form and Function: Implications
for Palaeoecological Studies

Peter Scanes, Angus Ferguson, and Jaimie Potts

Abstract Estuaries are, by almost any definition, variable places. Palaeoecological

studies attempt to reconstruct past conditions. The validity of reconstructions is
dependent on assumptions about the generality of conclusions, commonly based on
a small number of samples from a limited spatial area. This Chapter summarises
the main geomorphic, biogeochemical and biological processes in estuaries and
provides a conceptual framework for understanding the temporal and spatial vari-
ability in factors that may affect palaeoecological evidence. We suggest that the
ultimate preservation of paleo-indicators within an estuary is governed by the inter-
action between environmental drivers, estuarine stressors, and biogeochemical/eco-
logical processes. We recognise that these interactions vary on temporal scales from
diurnal tidal cycles to millennia, and spatially from a few square metres to whole
system and latitudinal scales. We present a series of models that allow palaeoecolo-
gists to better understand the environmental context of samples collected from
estuaries and make informed assessments of whether, and under what circumstances,
the common assumptions may be considered valid.

Keywords Estuary • Paleoecology • Geomorphology • Biogeochemistry • Processes

1 Introduction

Palaeoecological studies attempt to reconstruct past physical, chemical or biologi-

cal conditions from interpretation of those fragments of information that have been
preserved in sedimentary records. Interpretation is based more often than not on a
small number of samples from a limited spatial area. Interpretations therefore rely
heavily on the assumption of spatial homogeneity within the paleo-environment

P. Scanes (*) • A. Ferguson • J. Potts

Estuary and Catchment Science, Office of Environment and Heritage,
56 Goulburn St, Sydney, NSW, Australia
e-mail: peter.scanes@environment.nsw.gov.au; angus.ferguson@environment.nsw.gov.au;
jaimie.potts@environment.nsw.gov.au

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2017 9

K. Weckström et al. (eds.), Applications of Paleoenvironmental Techniques
in Estuarine Studies, Developments in Paleoenvironmental Research 20,
DOI 10.1007/978-94-024-0990-1_2
10 P. Scanes et al.

Environmental drivers Estuarine stressors Ecological processes Palaeo indicators

Freshwater input Habitat distribuon Pigments

- Episodic Estuary type
- Seasonal Diatom
- Inter-annual variability Bathymetry Trophic status
frustules
Geomorphic maturity
Pelagic:benthic rao Pollen
Wave climate

Salinity Autochthonous OM
Oceanic inputs Plant
detritus
Nutrient concentraons Allochthonous OM
Tidal range
Light climate Infauna Bacteria
endospores
Catchment geology
Bioturbaon
Suspended sediments
Latude Invertebrates
Sediment
biogeochemistry
Catchment vegetaon Resuspension / deposion Vertebrates

Fig. 2.1 The complexity of factors influencing palaeoecological records in estuaries. This figure
is not intended to be an exhaustive representation of linkages between drivers, stressors, processes
and indicators, but rather to convey some of the complexity involved

being sampled—that single small samples are representative of the entire estuary.
Interpretation also relies on adequate understanding of the linkages between
physio-­chemical variables and ecological status. The estuarine environment is one
of the more problematic areas for palaeoecological studies due to acknowledged
variability in space and time, both small and large scale, of almost any physical,
chemical or ecological variable.
This Chapter provides a conceptual framework for understanding the temporal
and spatial variability in factors that may affect palaeoecological evidence. We sug-
gest that the ultimate preservation of paleo-indicators within an estuary depends on
the interaction between environmental drivers, estuarine stressors, and
biogeochemical/ecological processes (Fig. 2.1). We recognise that these interac-
tions vary on temporal scales from diurnal tidal cycles to millennia, and spatially
from a few square metres to whole systems and latitudinal scales. We present a
series of models that allow palaeoecologists to better understand the environmental
context of samples collected from estuaries. Information on processes and condi-
tions within estuaries will aid informed assessment of whether, and under what
circumstances, the assumptions mentioned above may be considered valid.

2 What Is an Estuary?

Estuaries are, by almost any definition, very variable places. They form at the
coastal margin, where coastal oceanic waters intrude into indentations in the
landform and, potentially (but not always), meet freshwaters flowing off the land.
This means that the geographic location of the estuary is strongly influenced by
present day sea level and may have been many kilometres to the seaward or
2 Estuary Form and Function: Implications for Palaeoecological Studies 11

landward of current positions throughout the recent geological history (see Skilbeck
et al. 2017a). Over time, sea level therefore strongly influences the dominant physi-
cal and chemical environments present at any given place. Estuaries generally have
some tidal movement (but not always continuously) and so are subject to regular
(and sometimes extensive) physical and chemical change.
The most popularly used definition of an estuary is that of Pritchard (1967): “an
estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water, which has a free connection with
the open sea, and within which sea water is measurably diluted with freshwater
derived from land drainage”. As pointed out by McLuskey and Elliott (2004), this
definition is quite restrictive, excluding many recognised types of estuary, including
coastal lagoons (many of which do not have “free connection”—indeed, many of
which have only intermittent connection), coastal bays (which are not “semi-­
enclosed”) or intermittent saline lakes (which only receive freshwater from direct
rainfall or groundwater, rather than “freshwater from land drainage”). Instead, the
definition of Fairbridge (1980) is preferred by McLuskey and Elliott (2004): “an
estuary is an inlet of the sea reaching into a river valley as far as the tidal rise, usu-
ally being divisible into three sectors: a) a marine or lower estuary, in free connec-
tion with the open sea; b) a middle estuary subject to strong salt and freshwater
mixing; and c) an upper or fluvial estuary, characterised by freshwater but subject
to strong tidal action. The limits between these sectors are variable and subject to
constant changes in the river discharges”. They note that this definition allows for
the upstream of tide as the upper limit of the estuary and emphasises the dynamic
gradient of conditions within a normal estuary. The definition is, however, still
largely focussed on riverine estuaries (“an inlet of the sea reaching into a river valley”)
and does not explicitly allow for other types of estuaries (e.g. Roy et al. 2001).
Potter et al. (2010) pointed out strongly that most definitions of estuaries are biased
towards the types of estuary that predominate in the temperate Northern Hemisphere
(i.e. large riverine estuaries) and that definitions need to be modified to encompass the
intermittent coastal water bodies common in southern Africa and Australia that often
have limited or no freshwater input and may even become hypersaline. Tagliapietra
et al. (2009) and Elliot and McLusky (2002) noted that the etymology of the word
“estuary” includes tides and should only be used for coastal water bodies character-
ised by tidal movement, though there is some discussion in Tagliapietra et al. (2009)
about the degree of tidal movement required. Terms such as “transitional waters”,
“paralic environments”, “semi-enclosed littoral ecosystems” and “transitional
seascapes” have been suggested by authors (Tagliapietra et al. 2009), but have not
become established in the literature—with the exception that “transitional waters” is
used as a legal definition in the European Water Framework Directive.
Putting semantics aside, this Chapter will use the well understood term “estuary”
in its broadest sense, modifying the definition of Whitfield and Elliott (2011) with
the addition of a reference to evaporation and estuary extent: “a semi-enclosed
coastal body of water which is connected to the sea either permanently or periodi-
cally, has a salinity that is different from the adjacent open ocean due to freshwater
inputs or evaporation and includes a characteristic biota. The estuary extends
upstream to the limit of influence by the sea (including tidal rise)”.
12 P. Scanes et al.

3 Types of Estuary

We have adopted components of two common classifications (discussed further in

Skilbeck et al. 2017b). Roy et al. (2001) recognised five main groups of coastal water
bodies with some connection to the sea—bays, tide-dominated estuaries, wave-domi-
nated estuaries, intermittent estuaries and freshwater bodies—the first four of which are
usually recognised as estuaries. The groups are defined by the primary geological and
geomorphic drivers of estuary shape and function. Variants or types within each group
are primarily a result of secondary geomorphic features such as in-filling, either from
riverine processes (such as erosion and transport) or by wave-transport of marine sedi-
ments. The classification scheme of Dalrymple et al. (1992) which is based on the rela-
tive importance of river flow, tidal influence and wave energy (Fig. 2.2) provides a robust
method to assess the dominant forcing factors within an estuary and where the estuary
may group in Roy’s classification. This latter scheme allows easy categorisation of any
estuarine system and provides a qualitative description of sediment processes.
Estuarine classification provides a useful framework for grouping factors and
characteristics that impact on estuarine ecology and preservation of the palaeoeco-
logical record. The application of these schemes is illustrated using examples of
estuaries from around the world (Table 2.1). These are used within this Chapter as
examples of the fundamental differences in estuarine function and patterns of

River
Fluvial power
decreasing

1
Prograding fluvial
sediment source
DELTAS
2

3
14
4
ESTUARIES
Embayed mixed
sediment source
5 16
12
13 15
7 6

98
Prograding marine
STRAND TIDAL sediment source
10 PLAINS FLATS
17
11
Wave Relative power Tide
wave/tide

Fig. 2.2 Ternary estuary classification scheme (adapted from Dalrymple et al. 1992). Numbers
refer to example systems in Table 2.1 and show the relative influence of formative factors for
each case
 2

Table 2.1 Example systems illustrating differences in morphometrics and hydrology as a function of estuarine type (after Dalrymple et al. 1992)
Mean Mean Tidal Tide Daily Q/
volume depth Mean Area Tide prism River Q prism/ estuary
(GL) (m) width (m) (km2) Area/depth range (m) (GL) (m3 s−1) volume volume (%) Rain/evap.
Deltas
1 Mississippi River, 16792 R>E
USA
2 Fly River, PNG 6000 R>E
Wave-dominated estuaries
3 Tweed River, Australia 46 2.8 250 16.3 6 1.5 24 24 0.73 4.54 R>E
4 Brunswick River, 2 1.8 77 1.1 0.6 1.5 1.7 2 1.2 6.28 R~E
Australia
5 Venice Lagoon, Italy 750 1.5 6000 500 333 0.5 250 200 0.33 2.30 R~E
6 Laguna Madre, USA 1990 1.2 7000 1658 1382 0.3 497 27 0.25 0.12 R<E
7 The Coorong (north), 108 1.2 1500 90 75 0.5 45 1 0.42 0.08 R<E
Australia
The Coorong (south), 140 1.4 2500 100 71 0.5 50 1 0.36 0.06 R<E
Australia
8 Lake St Lucia, South 312 1 5000 312 312 0.2 62.4 20 0.20 0.55 R<E
Africa
9 Brou Lake, Australia 2.88 1.2 1650 2.4 2 0.05 0.12 0.03 0.04 0.09 R<E
10 Nadgee Lagoon, 1.8 1.5 1000 1.2 0.8 0.05 0.05 0.01 0.03 0.05 R<E
Estuary Form and Function: Implications for Palaeoecological Studies

Australia
11 Lake Wollumboola, 4 0.8 3250 5 6.25 0.05 0.25 0.01 0.06 0.02 R<E
Australia
Mixed energy estuaries
12 Chesapeake Bay, USA 81207 7 22000 11601 1657 2.5 29002 2217 0.36 0.24 R>E
13 Scheldt River, Europe 2760 10 2700 276 28 5.05 1393 104 0.50 0.33 R>E
(continued)
13
 14

Table 2.1 (continued)

Mean Mean Tidal Tide Daily Q/
volume depth Mean Area Tide prism River Q prism/ estuary
(GL) (m) width (m) (km2) Area/depth range (m) (GL) (m3 s−1) volume volume (%) Rain/evap.
Tide-dominated estuaries
14 Ord River, Australia 948 10 1580 94.8 9 8 758 123 0.80 1.12 R>E
15 Severn River, UK 5750 10 1500 75 8 12 900 61 1.20 0.70 R>E
16 Logan River, Australia 18 3.5 153 5.083 1 1.34 6.8 12 0.38 5.83 R>E
Prograding Tidal flats
17 Head of the German –
Bight
Values for The Coorong, Lake St Lucia, Brou Lake, Lake Wollumboola and Nadgee Lagoon are calculated for open mouth condition. When closed, tide range
and prism are zero. Insufficient data were available for Mississippi River, Fly River and German Bight, however, these systems are included to illustrate the
extremes of influence by single factors (i.e. river, wave and tide). See Fig. 2.2 for classification
P. Scanes et al.
2 Estuary Form and Function: Implications for Palaeoecological Studies 15

temporal and spatial variability in processes among estuarine types. Our Chapter is
structured around the major ecological and biogeochemical characteristics of tide,
wave and river dominated estuaries (Fig. 2.2; Skilbeck et al. 2017b) and how
morphology influences these characteristics. Obviously it is not possible to cover all
estuarine types, however, it is hoped that the conceptual models presented here will
provide the basis for extrapolating understanding to a much wider range of systems
thereby providing a context for the interpretation of paleoecological data.

3.1 Tide-Dominated Estuaries

Tide-dominated estuaries are common along the macrotidal coasts of Europe, the
United Kingdom, Canada, China and northern Australia. We use the Scheldt, Severn,
Ord and Logan River estuaries as examples of tide-dominated systems (Table 2.1).
Tide-dominated estuaries are characterised by a funnel-shaped mouth, giving
way to channelized upper estuary and tidal river reaches. The subtidal channels are
generally flanked by an extensive and diverse array of intertidal and supratidal habi-
tats (shoals, mangroves, saltmarsh, salt flats; Fig. 2.3). Tidal inundation of flanking
environments results in the trapping and deposition of terrigenous and resuspended
particulate material.

intertidal
bedrock flats

backswamp

euphotic shoals
abandoned
channel

tidal sand banks

floodplain
mangroves

salt flats

Fig. 2.3 Typical morphology of tide-dominated estuaries (after Dalrymple et al. 1992). The estu-
ary is characterised by a funnel shaped entrance giving way to channelized middle and upper
reaches. The main channel is flanked by extensive intertidal habitats that tend to trap particulate
material. Elongate shoals and islands can form within the lower estuary reach. In tropical and
warm-temperate latitudes mangroves are common on upper parts of the intertidal flats
16 P. Scanes et al.

Tidal currents constitute a major physical factor in tide-dominated systems, sig-

nificantly impacting on the resuspension/deposition of particulate material in the
estuary. The net transport or accumulation of particulate material through the estu-
ary is determined by residual currents which vary along the estuarine gradient. In
general, there is commonly a net downstream transport of suspended material from
the upper estuary, accumulation within the middle estuary and a net upstream trans-
port of suspended material from the lower estuary (Chen et al. 2005).
Disturbance of sediments can occur each tidal cycle, and disturbance can reach
depths of >50 cm in some systems (e.g. the lower Scheldt estuary; Baeyens et al.
1998). It is clear therefore, that channel sediments of tide-dominated systems may
experience rates of disturbance that exceed rates of accumulation. This can homoge-
nise sediment, destroy stratigraphy and greatly complicate the interpretation of his-
torical profiles, or at least greatly reduce the temporal resolution. In hypertidal
estuaries such as the Severn estuary, extreme tidal currents result in the complete
stripping of unconsolidated sediments and the formation of fluid mud suspensions
(Manning et al. 2010).

3.2 Wave-Dominated Estuaries

Wave-dominated estuaries constitute a wide spectrum of systems characterised by

different rates of river inflow and geomorphic maturity. This Chapter includes
examples of mature systems (the Tweed and Brunswick Rivers), and less mature
systems (Venice Lagoon and Laguna Madre) that may be considered closer to
coastal lagoons. In the latter examples, ocean exchange is generally much greater
than for intermittent estuaries, commonly due to entrance modifications.
Wave-dominated estuaries are formed on highly energetic microtidal coasts where
oceanic wave regimes and long-shore drift constantly bring unconsolidated sand
towards the shore, but riverine flow is sufficient to maintain an open, albeit somewhat
restricted, connection with the sea. Mature forms tend to be linear in shape, but may
have significant side embayments, depending on their evolutionary stage (Fig. 2.4).
The entrance configuration of a wave-dominated estuary is usually somewhat con-
stricted, with mobile sand shoals in the lower estuary and moderate tidal attenuation
throughout the length of the estuary. Coastal lagoons tend toward wave dominance
over river flow (Fig. 2.2) and have been further subdivided according to their entrance
state by Kjerfve and Magill (1989), who recognised three basic states:
1. Choked: one long and narrow entrance;
2. Restricted: few inlets or one wide mouth;
3. Leaky: a number of entrances separated by small barrier islands.
Tidal currents in wave-dominated estuaries are less important drivers due to their
largely microtidal range and high attenuation at the mouth and lower estuary reaches
(Dalrymple et al. 1992). The net transport of material is similar to tide-dominated
systems, with net accumulation of material in the middle estuary mud basin (Heap
2 Estuary Form and Function: Implications for Palaeoecological Studies 17

bedrock
saltmarsh

floodplain
middle Intertidal
abandoned estuary flats
Tidal channel Euphotic
river
shoals
Marine
flood tidal
delta

barrier
Upper mangroves
estuary Swamp
forest lower
estuary
backswamp

Fig. 2.4 Typical morphology of wave-dominated estuaries (after Dalrymple et al. 1992). Tidal
river and upper estuary tend to have a confined channel with little branching. The middle estuary
has a mostly confined main channel but can have a number of side arms or basins. The lower estu-
ary is defined by large intertidal and shallow subtidal shoals with branching main channel through
the marine flood-tide delta. In tropical and warm-temperate latitudes mangroves are common on
upper parts of the intertidal flats

et al. 2004). Net export of material may occur due to flood scour of sediments which
is a stochastic disturbance that can create large discontinuities in sediment profiles.
The magnitude of flood scour generally varies as a function of flood size relative to
the morphometrics of the system (i.e. bed shear stress) (Hossain et al. 2002).
­Wind-­driven resuspension becomes more important in less mature, shallow systems
such as coastal lagoons.

3.3 Intermittent Estuaries

Intermittent estuaries are extreme, immature forms of wave-dominated estuaries and

are characterised by an intermittently open/closed entrance. These systems occur
where ocean processes act on mobile sand to form a barrier at the estuary entrance and
the rate of barrier formation or reforming is generally greater than the capacity of fresh-
water inputs to breach that barrier (Fig. 2.5). Intermittent estuaries are only exposed to
small tidal changes for short periods (days to weeks) when the entrance is breached,
with high attenuation at the mouth (Haines et al. 2006). Wind-­driven resuspension
constitutes the main form of energy acting on bed sediments in these systems.
18 P. Scanes et al.

mangroves
swamp
forest barrier

saltmarsh Intertidal flats

central
basin

fluvial
delta Marine
flood tidal
floodplain delta

Intertidal flats

euphotic shoals
bedrock

Fig. 2.5 Typical morphology of intermittent estuaries and coastal lagoons (after Roy et al. 2001).
These estuaries are an immature form of wave-dominated estuaries where catchment flows are
insufficient to maintain an open entrance. In tropical and warm-temperate latitudes mangroves may
be present on some upper intertidal flats but the small tidal range often excludes them from
establishing

4 Estuarine Stressors

4.1 Salinity

One of the primary stressors shaping the environment and ecology of estuaries
is the salinity gradient (Kennish 1986). This is particularly true in drowned val-
ley, tide-­dominated and some wave-dominated estuaries where fluvial flow
dominates. Estuaries are also often described in terms of the net balance of
2 Estuary Form and Function: Implications for Palaeoecological Studies 19

freshwater inflow and evaporation and the effect of these on salinity-driven flow
patterns. In a positive estuary, freshwater from the upper reaches dilutes the
seawater intrusion from the downstream extremity, creating a gradient of
decreasing salinity with distance from the mouth. A negative estuary is more
saline in its headwaters than the ocean and the longitudinal gradient from the
ocean is one of increasing salinity. In estuaries with narrow, constrained or
intermittently blocked connections to the sea (which concomitantly usually
have very little freshwater inflow) there may be little or no salinity gradient
throughout the estuary.
Salinity gradients vary temporally and spatially according to both tide and
freshwater flow, with this variability constituting one of the major controls over
the distribution of flora and fauna in estuaries. The effect of river flow tends to
dominate variability in all system types, with salinity gradients displaced sea-
ward during high-flow periods (Fig. 2.6). An interesting distinction emerges
from the comparison between the tidally dominated Scheldt estuary and the
wave-dominated Tweed estuary. While the relative importance of river flow and
tide is similar in both estuaries (Fig. 2.6), the magnitude of effects relative to the
overall estuary is far greater in the Tweed estuary. In the Tweed estuary, episodic
high flow events can readily flush the estuary fresh to the mouth, and despite the
microtidal tide range, salinity varies widely in the lower to middle estuary
reaches over the tidal cycle. The reasons for this are threefold: (1) the high sea-
sonal and inter-annual variability in river flow in the Tweed estuary compared
with more predictable river flows in the Scheldt; (2) the channelized form of the
mature Tweed; and (3) the much higher influence of tide relative to river flow in
the macrotidal Scheldt. It should be noted that many tide-dominated estuaries
exist in wet/dry tropical environments (e.g. the Ord River estuary, northern
Australia), where the variability in salinity regimes is likely to be much larger
than indicated by Fig. 2.6.
In contrast to the systems above, intermittent estuaries have much less distinct
lateral salinity gradients, and overall variability is highly dependent on the stochas-
tic interaction between river flow and entrance conditions (Fig. 2.7). During closed
periods, salinity may freshen or become hypersaline depending on the balance
between evaporation and freshwater inputs (e.g. precipitation, groundwater and
river flows). Hypersaline systems are common in arid areas such as South Africa
and Western Australia (Kjerfve and Magill 1989; Potter et al. 2010). Upon breach-
ing of the entrance (either by flood flows, wave attack, or artificial intervention),
the estuary becomes connected to the ocean and exposed to tidal influence. This
can result in the establishment of weak lateral salinity gradients and/or stratifica-
tion depending on factors such as tidal range, estuarine morphology/bathymetry,
and the entrance efficiency (Haines et al. 2006). In most cases, entrance closure
occurs rapidly once high river flows subside and the starting point for salinity of
the system becomes set at the conditions upon closure. Internal salinity gradients
tend to be broken down rapidly by wind-induced mixing. These systems present a
less predictable habitat over inter annual timescales, giving rise their own unique
ecology (see Sect. 7 below).
 20 P. Scanes et al.

a
36

Low flow rate

High tide
27 Low tide
Salinity (PSU)

Influence of tide

18

Influence of river flow

9 High flow rate

50 100
Distance from mouth (km)
b
35 Low flow rate
Median
flow rate

25
Salinity (PSU)

Influence of tide

Influence of river flow

15

High flow rate

5

10 20 30
Distance from mouth (km)

Fig. 2.6 Variation in salinity gradients in (a) the tide-dominated Scheldt estuary (Baeyens
et al. 1998) and (b) the wave-dominated Tweed estuary as a function of river flow and tide
(Ferguson 2012)
 2 Estuary Form and Function: Implications for Palaeoecological Studies 21

a
40

35

30

25
Salinity (PSU)

20

15
PERIOD

PERIOD
10
OPEN

OPEN
5

0
O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M
1984 1985 1986 1987 1988
b
60

50

40
Seawater range
Salinity (PSU)

30

20
Entrance opening

10

0
2010 2011 2012 2013
year

Fig. 2.7 Time series of salinity measured in the central basin of two intermittent Australian estuar-
ies: (a) Lake Wollumboola (from Pollard 1994) and (b) Brou Lake (OEH unpublished data). The
impact of entrance opening is to drive salinity towards oceanic values due to tidal flushing. The
salinity at the time of closure sets the regime for the following closed period. In Brou 2010, starting
salinity was hypersaline so opening resulted in a decrease, whereas in 2011 and 2012 the estuary
was increasingly fresh from river inflow and opening resulted in an increase in salinity. Data are
mean values measured on the day of sampling

4.2 Turbidity

Turbidity (due to riverine input of suspended material, phytoplankton growth and

resuspended bed sediments) is a critical stressor in estuaries primarily due to its
control over light attenuation in the aquatic environment (Cloern 1987). The light
22 P. Scanes et al.

climate itself constitutes a critical control over the partitioning of primary productivity
between the water column and sediments (Ferguson and Eyre 2010).
In tide-dominated rivers, large tidal current velocities cause the resuspension of
particulates in the middle to upper estuarine reaches resulting in extremely high
turbidities (Fig. 2.8). Interestingly, similar total suspended solid concentrations are
observed in the microtidal Logan and the macrotidal Scheldt estuaries. This most
likely reflects the ratio of tidal range to depth which is similar for both systems (0.38
and 0.5 respectively; Table 2.1). It is likely that the phenomenon of fine particulate
trapping due to residual currents is an important influence on the occurrence of high
turbidities in tide-dominated systems. In addition to resuspension of inorganic sedi-
ments, phytoplankton biomass constitutes a significant proportion of the total sus-
pended concentrations in tide-dominated systems (up to 50 % in the Scheldt,
Baeyens et al. 1998). Extremely high phytoplankton biomasses can occur in these
systems despite the negative feedback associated with high turbidity on light cli-
mate. It appears that phytoplankton are able to capitalise on a better light climate
during slack tides, high input nutrient concentrations and the absence of grazers
(Desmit et al. 2005). In addition, the exposure of extensive tidal flats at low tide
promotes the rapid growth of benthic microalgae (Fig. 2.9). These algae can be
resuspended during subsequent high tides and thereby contribute significantly to
phytoplankton population. Benthic diatoms were found to contribute 15 to 42 % of
total diatom abundance in the Scheldt estuary (Lucas et al. 2001).
Sediment resuspension due to tidal currents is much less important in microtidal
wave-dominated systems, where turbidity tends to be lower overall and controlled
by freshwater input, phytoplankton blooms, and wind-driven resuspension. The
relative importance of freshwater input to turbidity depends on the magnitude of
flows and catchment geology (Eyre and Pont 2003), while the phytoplankton con-
tribution depends on factors such as nutrient status and water residence times
(Ferguson et al. 2004). The relative importance of wind-driven resuspension
increases in more open, coastal lagoons due the combination of longer wind fetches
and shallow depths (Lawson et al. 2007).

5 Nutrient and Organic Matter Cycling in Estuaries

5.1 Nutrients

Nutrients form the building blocks of estuarine ecology due to their role in controlling
autotrophic productivity. There are broad relationships between nutrient loadings,
primary productivity and secondary productivity (Nixon 1997), however, there are
many internal processes which vary across estuarine type and zone that influence
the nature and rate of productivity. Hence, when trying to relate indicators of
nutrient status to biological indicators, or make inter system comparisons, it is
important to consider variations in internal controlling factors.
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että olet kunniallinen mies, Sipi! Auta Anttia, niin minä sovitan välisi
Hilman kanssa. (Kyökistä kuuluu rouva Vallströmin ääni). Mene,
mene tuonne saliin niin kauaksi!

SIPI (menee perälle).

SIIRI (ovelta). Ja odota, kunnes kutsun sinut takaisin (Vetää salin

oven kiinni.)

Viides kohtaus.

SIIRI, rouva VALLSTRÖM, ANTTI ja HILMA.

ROUVA VALLSTRÖM. Tulkaa nyt sisään vaan! Ei täällä ole muita

kuin
Siiri. (Ripustaa aitan avaimet naulaan.)

SIIRI (juosten vastaan tervehtimään). Hyvää päivää, isäntä! Hilma,

päivää! Ja terve tultua! Kuinka sinä nyt jaksat?
 ROUVA VALLSTRÖM. Tulkaa nyt peremmälle!

SIIRI (vetäen Hilmaa kädestä sohvaan). Niin. Tule nyt tänne! Kas
niin!
Eläkä nyt ole enää vihoissasi minulle! Ja te, isäntä, (nostaa Antille
tuolin oven suusta keskemmälle suojaa) istukaa te tähän! Noin. —
Tiedänhän minä, että teillä kaikilla on syytä olla vihoissanne minulle.
(Istuutuu sohvaan Hilman viereen.)

ROUVA VALLSTRÖM (istuutuu paikalleen pöydän päähän).

HILMA (hillitysti koko ajan). Enhän minä… Mitä sinä nyt…

ANTTI. Ei suinkaan… millään mokomin.

SIIRI. Ei, — kyllä. Ja teillä on syytä. Minä olen ollut kelvoton,

oikein kelvoton. Mutta nyt minä tahdon sovittaa kaikki, kaikki parhain
päin kääntää.

HILMA. Ei, ei, Siiri hyvä.

SIIRI. Mutta minä tahdon, Hilma. Kuuletkos! Minun täytyy, minun

pitää.

ROUVA VALLSTRÖM. Niin, koetetaan nyt kaikki yhdessä saada

asiat entiselleen taas.

HILMA. Hyvä rouva Vallström! Ei pidä minun puolestani! Kiitoksia

vaan hyvin paljon teidän hyvyydestänne… mutta ei pidä… en minä
enää tahdo… Se on jo lopussa, kaikki.

SIIRI. Kuule, Hilma! Sinä luulet ehkä, että minä… että hän… että
me…? Mutta se ei ole totta. Minä en ole koskaan… Se oli vaan
ajattelemattomuutta silloin minun puoleltani. Anna minulle se
anteeksi, anna anteeksi kaikki! En saa lepoa, en rauhaa ennenkuin
vastaat: annatko minulle anteeksi, vai luulitko, että minä tahallani
tahdoin pahaa?

HILMA. Ei, ei, Siiri, en minä luule sinusta mitään pahaa. Elä sitä
uskokaan. — Mutta minä tiedän, että hän rakastaa sinua eikä minua.
Ja minä en tahdo mennä vaimoksi sille, jonka en tiedä minua
rakastavan.

SIIRI. Siinä sinä teet oikein, Hilma, sinä teet jalosti. Mutta sittenkin
— teidän pitää sopia hänen tähtensä, minun tähteni, oman rauhanne
tähden, oman itsenne tähden, ett'ette turmioon joutuisi, Hilma kulta.

ROUVA VALLSTRÖM. Niin. Pitäähän teidän se tehdä. Nyt

varsinkin, kun Antin asiat tällä kannalla ovat. — Sipi sattuukin juuri
parahiksi olemaan täällä.

HILMA (hypähtäen istualtaan). Onko hän täällä? (Juoksee Antin

luo.)

SIIRI. Juuri sentähden hän salissa odottaakin, Hilma.

HILMA. Lähdetään pois, isä, lähdetään! Et saa… En minä…

Lähdetään.

SIIRI. Elä nyt, Hilma! Sinähän turmelet kaikki.

ANTTI. Täytyyhän meidän, Hilma. Sinähän jo kuulit asian.

Emmehän voi kerjäämäänkään mennä — äidin, Liisun, Aakun ja
pikku veikon kanssa — koko joukko?!
 HILMA. Ennen vaikka kerjäämäänkin, isä! (Pitelee Anttia
käsivarresta.)

ROUVA VALLSTRÖM (irroittaen Hilman isästään). Hilma kulta,

rauhoittukaa nyt!

SIIRI (aukaisee salin oven ja huutaa). Sipi!

HILMA. Voih! Minä en voi, en tahdo. (Peittää epätoivossaan

kasvonsa rouva Vallströmin olkapäätä vasten.)

Kuudes kohtaus.

Edelliset ja HELÉN.

HELÉN (seisoo salin ovella).

SIIRI. Missäs…? Eikös kauppias Rahikainen ole täällä?

HELÉN. Kauppias pyysi minun sanomaan, että hänen täytyi lähteä

pois, — kotiinsa.

(Kaikki kolme yht'aikaa:)

ROUVA VALLSTRÖM (hämmästyen). Ooo!!

HILMA (tyyntyen). Se oli hyvä! Se oli hyvä!

ANTTI (lannistuen). Arvasinhan minä sen (tehden kädellään

liikkeen, joka osoittaa, että hänen asiansa on hukassa.) Siinä se nyt
oli.
 SIIRI (joka melkein on käynyt mykäksi). Lähtikö hän pois, —
kokonaan?!!
(Hampaitaan kiristäen, itsekseen.) Oi, semmoista miestä!!

HELÉN. He läksivät yhdessä kauppias Loikkasen kanssa.

ROUVA VALLSTRÖM ja SIIRI (yht'aikaa). Loikkasenko?

ANTTI ja HILMA (puhelevat keskenään hiljaa).

HELÉN. Niin. Se oli sillä viisiä, että kauppias Loikkanen ajoi tästä
ohi ja kysyi, että olikos kauppias Rahikainen täällä, ja kun hän kuuli,
että oli, niin hän pyysi minun kysymään, lähtisikös kauppias
Rahikainen hänen mu'assaan.

SIIRI (syrjään rouva Vallströmille). Mitäs sille sitte voi, täti?!

ROUVA VALLSTRÖM (Helénille). Hyvä on, pehtori. (Tekee merkin,

että
Helén saapi mennä.)

HELÉN. Muistaahan rouva sitte panna ne jyvät kirjaan?

ROUVA VALLSTRÖM. Kyllä, kyllä.

HELÉN (poistuu hitaasti).

Seitsemäs kohtaus.

Rouva VALLSTRÖM, SIIRI, ANTTI ja HILMA.

HILMA. Isä, tulkaa! Lähdetään pois!

 ANTTI. Hukassa nyt on kaikki. Mitä minä nyt teen? Enhän minä
nyt enää… Ryöstöön nyt kaikki joutuu.

HILMA. Elkää nyt, isä, — vieraassa paikassa…

SIIRI. Antti hyvä! Elkää nyt noin masentuko! Koetetaan nyt jollakin
lailla…

ANTTI. Enhän minä millä voi… Ainoa keino se enää on, että jos
rouva sitte tahtoo olla niin hyvä ja tulla sinne huutokauppaan vähän
hintoja korottamaan, ettei kaikki irtaimisto ihan polkuhinnasta näinä
huonoina aikoina menisi ja vielä talokin ryöstöön pantaisi.

ROUVA VALLSTRÖM. Minkä voin, Antti hyvä, minä kyllä siinä

suhteessa teen.

ANTTI ja HILMA. (menevät hyvästellen).

Esirippu.

Viides näytös.

Valkeapään tupa. Perällä ovi. — Vasemmalla peränurkassa uuni,

keskellä ikkuna ja etualalla seinän vieressä sänky. Uunin ja ikkunan
välissä on rahi ja sen edessä kätkyt. — Oikealla, myöskin keskellä,
päreillä paikattu ikkuna, pitkin seinustaa lavitsa ja sen edessä,
etualalla punainen ruokapöytä. Oven suussa, oikealla, on vesisaavi,
seinällä muutamia työkaluja ja orsilla päreitä kuivamassa.
 Ensimmäinen kohtaus.

SOHVI, HILMA ja LIISU.

SOHVI (istuu rahilla, kutoo sukkaa, ja soudattaa jalallaan, hiljaa

hyssyttäen, kätkyessä makaavaa pientä lasta). Hsss… ss… Hsss…
sss… sss… ss…

LIISU (joka potee keuhkokuumetta, makaa sängyssä).

HILMA (seisoo pöydän luona ja sitoo yhteen ison vaatenyytin

päitä; katsahtaa ikkunaan). Tuollapa niitä jo alkaa tulla ihmisiä
huutokauppaankin.

SOHVI. Ketäs siellä on? — Hs-sss! — Hs-sss-sss-sss!…

HILMA. Paakkunainenhan se näkyy olevan Eeva-Stiinan kanssa.

(Vie nyyttinsä lavitsalle peränurkkaan).

SOHVI. "Missäs harakka, jos ei si'antappajaisissa!" — Hs-sss-ss!

— Sehän se on Eeva-Stiina ainainen huutokaupoissa kävijä. —
Hs-sss-sss-sh! — — Kutsuhan kuitenkin sisään, Hilma! — Mitä ne
siellä
ulkona — — kylmässä…? — — Hs-ssss-ss-sh!…

HILMA. Eiköhän ne tule itsestäänkin, jahka ovat tavaroita

katselleet.

LIISU (käännäkse vuoteessa; heikolla äänellä). Äit'!

SOHVI (jättää kätkyen, nousee ja kumarraikse vuoteen päästä

Liisua kohti). Mitä, lapsukaiseni?
 LIISU (läähöttävästi hengittäen ja katkonaisesti). Olisiko…
vähän… juotavaa?… Niin… kuivattaa ja… polttaa… kulkkua…

SOHVI. Paikalla, kultaseni! — (Hilmalle, joka on tullut vuodetta

lähemmä, puolikovaan:) Mitä minä sille, raukalle, annan? Taannoin
kaasin viimeisen maitotilkan.

HILMA. Mitäs muuta, kuin Muurikista koettaa…

SOHVI. Eihän se nyt ole aika, mutta täytyy kai sitä… Ehkä siitä
vielä heruu — viimeisen kerran…

HILMA. Antakaahan tuoppi, niin minä menen ja lypsän.

SOHVI (ottaen tuopin uunin reunukselta). Ei. Jää sinä tänne ja

soudata, jos pikku veikko herää! Kyllä minä itse. (Sitoo huivinsa ja
menee).

HILMA. Hyvä on. (Jää seisomaan kätkyen viereen ja katselee

Liisua.)

LIISU (huomaa sen ja ojentaa Hilmalle kätensä) Sisko! — —

HILMA (tarttuu Liisua kädestä ja kumartuu hänen luoksensa).

Mitä, sirkkuseni? — Äiti tuo kohta maitoa, — ihan paikalla.

LIISU (pyörittäen päätään). Ei… ei… sitä. — Sisko — — raukka!

(Hänen silmäänsä kiertyy kyynel ja hän pudottaa hervottomasti
kätensä vuoteelle.)

HILMA (istuutuu vuoteen laidalle ja silittää Liisun päätä). Liisu!

Muruseni! Mitä sinä…? Sinä itket! Miksi sinä itket? Elä nyt…?
Muutenkin päätäsi kuumettaa.
 LIISU. … kun… lähdet pois… palvelukseen… äidin on… niin
vaikea… ja ikävä.

HILMA. Elä nyt huoli! Kyllähän minä käyn täällä. Koetan päästä
usein. Rouva Vallström kyllä laskee, hän on niin hyvä. Minä käyn…
Me kyllä tavataan.

LIISU (huokaa syvään ja kääntää päänsä seinään päin). Ei! Ei…

me… koskaan… enää…

HILMA. Mitä sinä? Mitä sinä? — Liisu!

Toinen kohtaus.

HILMA, LIISU, PAAKKUNAINEN ja EEVA-STIINA.

PAAKKUNAINEN ja EEVA-STIINA (iso, vatsakas nainen, tulevat ja

seisattuvat kuiskaten oven suuhun).

HILMA (menee heitä tervehtimään). Päivää, Eeva-Stiina! Päivää,

Paakkunainen! Tulkaa sisään vaan!

EEVA-STIINA. Täällähän on sairas.

PAAKKUNAINEN. Jos me häiritään?

HILMA. Ei mitään. Käykää istumaan! — Johan se Liisu raukka on

kohta kolme viikkoa ollut vuoteen omana.

PAAKKUNAINEN (istuutuu pöydän luo ja kaivaa rassilla piipustaan

perskan kouraansa ja pistää sitte suuhunsa). Vai jo kohta kolme
viikkoa?
 EEVA-STIINA (katselee ympärilleen; välinpitämättömästi). Sitäkö
se rintatautia yhä potee? — (Paakkunaiselle syrjään) Eihän täällä
tuvassa oli mitä myötävää. (Istuutuu lavitsalle.)

HILMA. Sitähän se jo monta vuotta… Vaan nyt tuli keuhkojen polte

vielä lisäksi.

PAAKKUNAINEN. Oh-hoh, raukkaa!

EEVA-STIINA. Eikös se ole tohtori käynyt?

HILMA. Kävihän se. Vaan eihän se mitä sanonut voivansa.

PAAKKUNAINEN. Vai on se niin…?

EEVA-STIINA. Mutta olihan tässä poikakin. Missäs se on?

HILMA. Aakuko?

PAAKKUNAINEN. Niin. Aakuhan sen oli nimi.

HILMA. Se on suuressa pappilassa. Rovastihan se armahti ja otti

Aakun sinne luokseen.

EEVA-STIINA. Vai otti rovasti? No, sittehän se sen ehkä vielä

papiksikin kasvattaa.

PAAKKUNAINEN. No, sehän nyt oli hyvä. Sitenhän sillä Sohvilla

on ainakin huolia vähemmin.

HILMA. Äidilläkö? Eikö mitä! Sitähän se sittenkin on huolissaan,

ett'ei sillä ole Aakua kotona. Ikävöipi ilman lellipoikaansa.
 EEVA-STIINA. Se nyt on joutavaa. Iloinenhan sen pitäisi olla.
Eihän sitä tyhjällä ketään osaa elättää. (Nousee ja menee ovelle
päin).

PAAKKUNAINEN. Ei maar'. Muista huolistahan sitä kyllä aikaa

myöten suoriutuu, vaan ei aina niin hyvällä leipähuolista.

Kolmas kohtaus.

Edelliset, SOHVI ja SINKKONEN; sitte muutamia miehiä ja naisia.

SOHVI ja (hänen jälessään) SINKKONEN (tulevat.)

EEVA-STIINA (ovella Sohville). Siinähän Sohvi tulee. Tahdoin

vaan mennä tupakammariin vähän katselemaan. Saapikos sinne
mennä?

SOHVI. Ka, mikäs siin' on. Saapihan sinne. Eihän siellä mitä
aarteita ole.

EEVA-STIINA. No, sitte. (Kättelee Sinkkosta.) Terveeks',

herastuomari!
(Menee.)

SINKKONEN (kättelee Hilmaa ja Paakkunaista ja käy istumaan

jälkimäisen viereen).

SOHVI (juottaa Liisulle maitoa tuopista, Hilman kohottaessa

sairaan päätä). Kas tässä, lapseni! Juopas nyt! Katsos, kuinka äi'än
Muurikki lehmäni antoi! Melkein puoli tuoppia lämmintä, vaahtoavaa
maitoa! Ihan kuin olisi tietänyt, elukkakin, että Liisu tyttöni tahtoo
juoda. — Juo nyt — enemmän!
 LIISU. En minä…

SOHVI. No, noinko vähän joitkin?

LIISU. Säästää…!

SOHVI. Säästääkö?! — Enhän minä sitä sillä sanonut.

Lähettäähän Jumala lisää, kun loppuu.

LIISU. Piisaa se… En minä… Ei maita…

SOHVI. No, miten tahdot. Ehkä sitte vähän ajan päästä taas (Vie
tuopin uunin reunuksella ja istuu rahille sukkaa kutomaan.) Missä se
Anttikin viipynee? Saattaa kohta vallesmanni tulla ennen häntä.

SINKKONEN (katsoo kelloaan). Kohta kai sen pitäisi tulla,

vallesmannin.

PAAKKUNAINEN. Minnekäs Antti sitte on mennyt?

SOHVI. Vallströmin rouvan luohan tuo vielä ennätteli. Huutamaan

tahtoi pyytää hevosta ja Muurikkia. Muutenhan tässä talo paikalla
tyhjilleen jääpi ja kerjuulle lähteä pitää.

PAAKKUNAINEN. Ehkäpä ne sitte yhdessä tulevatkin.

SINKKONEN. Tekeehän se rouva Vallström sen ja tulee.

HILMA (joka laitettuaan Liisun vuodetta, on tullut toiselle puolelle,

ikkunan kohdalle). Voi, jos se tulisi, rouva Vallström! Tuolla jo on se
Rahikaisen puotilainenkin.

SINKKONEN (kumartuen ikkunaa kohti). Martikaisenko Kosti?

 PAAKKUNAINEN (samoin ikkunaan katsoen). Sehän se on, Kosti.

HILMA. Aatraa tuolla katselee katoksen alla.

SOHVI Ostelemaan kai on lähetetty?

SINKKONEN. Kyllä se on huutamaan taas, Sipi, tänne tuon

Martikaisen puolestaan laittanut.

PAAKKUNAINEN. Niinhän se ruukkaa. Helpolla ostelee, mitä

mistäkin saapi.

(Muutamia miehiä ja naisia on toinen toisensa perästä alkanut tulla

sisään, katsellen ympärilleen; kuka istuutuu lavitsalle, kuka ottaa
seinältä sahan ja katselee sitä, kuka sytyttää uunin hiiluksesta
piippunsa; muudan nainen koputtaa vesisaavin laitaan ja menee sitte
kysymään jotakin Sohvilta.)

SINKKONEN. Ka, tuossapa jo vallesmannikin näkyy tulevan.

PAAKKUNAINEN. Niinpä näkyy — todenperään.

HILMA. Joko se kerkisi tulla? Eikä isä ja rouva Vallström vielä ole
täällä.

SOHVI (huo'ahtaen). Voi, tokkiinsa! Ja näin on vähä väkeä!

Ilmaiseksi nyt menee kaikki.

PAAKKUNAINEN. Onhan siellä pihalla vielä muutama henki.

SINKKONEN. Ja eiköpähän se isäntää vuota, vallesmanni?

PAAKKUNAINEN. Vai alkaneekohan ilman?

 Neljäs kohtaus.

Edelliset ja PUPUTTI.

PUPUTTI (iso, lihavanläntä, viiksikäs mies, lakki päässä ja

puettuna palttoosen, puhuu kovaan ja karkealla äänellä, tulee).
Päivää! (Tuvassa olijat nousevat ylös ja ne, joilla on lakki päässä,
paljastavat päänsä.) No? Kuinka se on? Onko kaikki reilassa, että
voidaan heti alkaa, hä? (Ottaa povitaskustaan ulosottoluettelon.)

SOHVI. Eiköhän se passaisi (niiaa syvään), armollinen herra

vallesmanni, että olisitte niin hyvä ja pikkuisen aikaa vuottaisitte?

PUPUTTI. No, miksi niin?

SOHVI. Jotta se Antti kerkiäisi tulla. Kyllä hän koht'sillään…

PUPUTTI. Miks'ei hän ole kotona? Ei mulla ole aikaa antaa

hukkaan mennä. Missäs hän on?

SOHVI. Kyllä hän koht'sillään… ihan paikalla tulisi.

HILMA. Isä meni vaan pikkuruisen rouva Vallströmin luo. Kyllä he

siinä paikassa tulevat yhdessä.

PUPUTTI. Rouva Vallströmin? Mitä minulla on hänen kanssaan

tekemistä?
Pitää alkaa määrätyllä ajalla, kun on kuulutettu.

SOHVI. Jos edes elukat voisi jättää viimeiseksi, armollinen herra

vallesmanni?

PUPUTTI. Huutokauppa toimitetaan ulosottoluettelon mukaan.

(Silmäilee luetteloa.) Mitäs tässä on ensimmäiseksi? Piironki —
sänky — pöytä — kiikkutuoli. —

HILMA. Voihan vallesmanni niistä alkaa, äiti. Ne on

tupakammarissa. Tehkää niin hyvin, herra vallesmanni! Alkakaa
vaan! Minä tulen, minä näytän. (Menee.)

PUPUTTI. Niin. Mennään! Pitää alkaa, niinkuin on määrätty.

(Menee
Hilman jälessä.)

(SINKKONEN, PAAKKUNAINEN ja muut vieraat poistuvat myös

vähin erin.)

Viides kohtaus.

SOHVI ja LIISU, sitte SIPI.

SOHVI (menee pöydän puolelle tupaa, huokaa ja lyö kätensä

ristiin). Voi, rakas Jumala! Kuule minun rukoukseni: auta meitä, auta
meitä vaivaisia, viheliäisiä syntisiä!!

LIISU (liikahtaa ja kuiskaa hiljaa). Äiti!

SOHVI (säpsähtää ja juoksee sängyn luo). Mitä, lapseni, mitä?

LIISU (katkonaisesti, vaikeasti hengittäen). Oih!… Oih!… Elä

sure… äiti! — Jumala… auttaa… Jumala… auttaa…!

SOHVI. Kyllä, lapseni, kyllä! Minä uskon sen.

LIISU (ikäänkuin ilmestystä nähden). Tuossa! Hän lähettää…

enkelinsä… Se tuo… Se auttaa… Katso!… Katso!
 SOHVI. Elä huoli, lapseni, elä…! Sinä väsyt, sinä olet sairas!
Nuku!

LIISU (osottaen sormellaan). Kas! Nyt… se… vie… Liisun…

ylös… ylös… tai — (Herpoutuu kokoon vuoteelle.)

SOHVI. Nuku, lapseni, nuku! Sinä hourailet! (Katsoo uuniin päin.)

En minä näe mitään. — — —

SIPI (joka on samalla tullut sisään, rykäisee oven suussa).

Emäntä!

SOHVI. Kah! Kuka se on? — Kauppias!

SIPI. Minähän se olen…

SOHVI. Minä luulin, kuka. Luulin jo, että rouva Vallström, että
Siiri…

SIPI. Taisinpa häiritä?

SOHVI. Eikö mitä.

SIPI. Pistäydyin vaan hetkeksi sisään — teitä tavatakseni.

SOHVI. Minua?

SIPI. Niin. Toivon, ett'ette pane pahaksenne. Teillä on kyllä syytä

pahastua, että asiat ovat näin käyneet, mutta elkää kuitenkaan
kaikesta minua soimatko! Ett'ette luulisi minusta liika paljon pahaa,
pyydän saada, ehkä näin myöhäänkin ja koska ei ole minun
vallassani enää asiaa korjata (ottaa taskustaan kahdenkymmenen
markan setelin) tarjota teille pienen avun. Elkää panko pahaksi!
Mutta ehkä silläkin voi nyt jotakin tehdä.
 SOHVI (joka epäröiden ottaa setelin). Minä en tiedä?… Mitä nyt
kauppias…? Taivaan Herra!… Apuko?… Kiitoksia, kiitoksia tuhansin
kerroin, hyvä, hyvä herra kauppias!

SIPI. Ei nyt pidä…! Ei se kestä kiittää! Ja elkää panko pahaksi! —

Mutta kuulkaa! Sanoitte, että vuotatte rouva Vallströmiä?

SOHVI. Niin, niin. Sitähän me… ja neiti Siiriä. Nehän ne on

luvanneet…

SIPI. Vai niin. — Minä pistäydyin vaan hetkeksi… — Sanokaas:

onko se totta, että se neiti Siiri lähtee pois?

SOHVI. Niinhän ne sanovat. Ja huomenna jo kuuluu aikovan

lähteä.

SIPI (itsekseen). Hän siis lähtee todellakin! — (Ääneen.)

Muutenhan minä tässä vaan sivumennen… Ja teatteriinko taas?

SOHVI. Eikä. Talouskouluunhan se taitaa aikoa.

SIPI. Vai niin! — — No — no. Arvasihan sen. — No, niin. Toivon,

ett'ette nyt kaikesta minua syytä. Ja jos voin vasta jotakin, niin…

SOHVI (joka vilkaisee ikkunaan). Ka tuossahan on jo Antti.

Jumalan kiitos! He ovat tulleet. Ihan parahiksi tulivatkin.

SIPI. Minnekäs minä… En tahtoisi — häiritä…? Jos he tulevat

tänne?
(Vetäytyy perälle nurkkaan päin.)

Kuudes kohtaus.
 SOHVI, SIPI ja SIIRI.

SIIRI (tulee suorastaan sisään ensin huomaamatta Sipiä). Päivää,

emäntä hyvä! (Tervehtii Sohvia). Tässä me nyt ollaan. Täti meni heti
sille puolelle. Siellähän huutokauppa jo on alkanut.

SOHVI. Voi, terve tultua! Johan ne alkoivat.

SIIRI (huomaa Sipin ja säpsähtää). Hän — täällä? (Katsoo

kummastellen
Sohviin.) Kun en tietänyt!

SIPI. Suokaa anteeksi, että satuin olemaan täällä, mutta jos…

niin…
(Aikoo ikäänkuin mennä, mutta jääpi Sohvin alkaessa puhua.)

SOHVI. Niin. Kauppias tuli vaan vähän. — Hän oli niin hyvä… Hän
tahtoi vielä viimeisellä hetkellä meitä auttaa.

SIIRI. Mitä? Miten?

SOHVI. Hän tahtoi meitä auttaa ja antoi tämän? (Näyttää seteliä.)

SIIRI. Ja te otatte häneltä vastaan sen?

SOHVI. Mitenkäs? Miks'ei? Pitäähän minun… kun on apua tarvis.

SIIRI. Ja hän ilkeää teille tuommoisen avun antaa.

SIPI. Kaikki eivät ole niin ylpeitä kuin Siiri.

SIIRI. Ei. Te ette saa sitä häneltä ottaa, emäntä! (Tempaa setelin
Sohvin kädestä ja ojentaa sen Sipille.) Tuossa on se hänelle
takaisin.
Hilma ei olisi sitä ottanut. Minä tiedän sen. Ja te ette saa sitä ottaa!

SOHVI (pidellen Siiriä käsivarresta). Mitä te teette, mitä te teette?!

Se ei ole oikein. Jumala rankaisee siitä.

SIIRI. Minä annan teille saman summan, mutta häneltä ette saa
sitä ottaa. Ja hänen täytyy ottaa se takaisin.

SIPI (ottaa setelin). Hyvä! Minä otan sen. Minä tottelen Siirin
käskyä — viimeisen kerran. Mutta elkää syyttäkö minua, emäntä!
Minä olen tehnyt, minkä olen voinut. Minä olen ojentanut teille käteni,
vaan toinen on sen sysännyt takaisin. Ja sitte — hyvästi! (Poistuu,
luotuaan viimeisen katseen Siiriin.)

SOHVI. Voi, mitä te nyt teitte? Tuolla lailla halveksitte hänen

apuaan, hänen lahjaansa.

SIIRI. Olkaa huoleti, hyvä emäntä! Tätä ette kadu.

Seitsemäs kohtaus.

SOHVI, SIIRI ja HILMA.

HILMA. Siiri! Terve! Täällähän sinä olet?

SIIRI. Täällä. Joko ne lopettivat tupakammarissa?

HILMA. Jo. Ja nyt menevät ulos, talliin ja läävään.

SOHVI. Joko ne. Entä isä ja rouva Vallström?