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Phytochemicals in Citrus
Applications in Functional Foods
Series Editor
John Shi, Ph.D.
Guelph Food Research Center, Canada
Phytochemicals in Citrus: Applications in Functional Foods (2017)

Xingqian Ye
Food as Medicine: Functional Food Plants of Africa (2016)

Maurice M. Iwu
Chinese Dates: A Traditional Functional Food (2016)

Edited by Dongheng Liu, Ph.D., Xingqian Ye, Ph.D., and Yueming Jiang, Ph.D.
Functional Food Ingredients and Nutraceuticals: (2015)

Processing Technologies, Second Edition
Edited by John Shi, Ph.D.
Marine Products for Healthcare: Functional and Bioactive (2009)

Nutraceutical Compounds from the Ocean
Vazhiyil Venugopal, Ph.D.
Methods of Analysis for Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals, (2008)

Second Edition
Edited by W. Jeffrey Hurst, Ph.D.
Handbook of Fermented Functional Foods, Second Edition (2008)

Edited by Edward R. Farnworth, Ph.D.
Functional Food Carbohydrates (2007)

Costas G. Biliaderis, Ph.D. and Marta S. Izydorczyk, Ph.D.
Dictionary of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods (2006)

N. A. Michael Eskin, Ph.D. and Snait Tamir, Ph.D.
Handbook of Functional Lipids (2006)

Edited by Casimir C. Akoh, Ph.D.
Handbook of Functional Dairy Products (2004)

Edited by Collete Short and John O’Brien
Herbs, Botanicals, and Teas (2002)

Edited by G. Mazza, Ph.D. and B.D. Oomah, Ph.D.
Phytochemicals in Citrus
Applications in Functional Foods
Edited by
Xingqian Ye
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Ye, Xingqian, editor.

Title: Phytochemicals in citrus : applications in functional foods / [edited by]
Xingqian Ye.
Other titles: Functional foods & nutraceuticals series.
Description: Boca Raton : CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, 2017. | Series: Functional foods
and nutraceuticals | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017011306 | ISBN 9781498742726 (hardback : alk. paper)
Subjects: | MESH: Citrus--chemistry | Phytochemicals | Flavonoids--therapeutic use |
Functional Food | Food-Processing Industry
Classification: LCC QP144.C58 | NLM WB 430 | DDC 572/.2--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017011306
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Series Preface............................................................................................................vii
Preface.......................................................................................................................ix
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................xi
Editor...................................................................................................................... xiii
Contributors.............................................................................................................. xv
Chapter 1 Citrus Fruits, Varieties, Chemical Properties, and Products

in the Processing Industry..................................................................... 1
Xingqian Ye, Jianle Chen, Jianguo Xu, and Jianchu Chen
Chapter 2 Bioactive Components in Citrus Fruits and Their Health Benefits..... 41

Meenakshisundaram Selvamuthukumaran,
Maria Susai Boobalan, and John Shi
Chapter 3 Citrus Bioactives as Prospective Therapeutic Agents

for the Modulation of Colon Cancer................................................... 83
Jasleen Kaur and Gurpreet Kaur
Chapter 4 Citrus Polysaccharides and Their Biofunctions................................ 133

Shiguo Chen, Junhui Li, Shan Li, Lufeng Yan, and Donghong Liu
Chapter 5 Phenolic Compounds and Bioactive Agents in Citrus Fruits............ 169

Guihua Xu, Donghong Liu, Yaqin Ma, and Tian Ding
Chapter 6 Carotenoids in Citrus........................................................................ 211

Yujing Sun, Huan Cheng, Yaqin Ma, and Qianying (Sophia) Ye
Chapter 7 Properties and Use of Citrus Flavonoids........................................... 237

José Antonio del Río, Licinio Díaz, and Ana Ortuño
Chapter 8 Neuroprotection by Dietary and Citrus Flavonoids.......................... 275

Sam-Long Hwang, Ping-Hsiao Shih, and Gow-Chin Yen
v
vi Contents
Chapter 9 Health Benefits of Orange Juice and Citrus Flavonoids.................... 299

Danielle R. Gonçalves, Paula Souza Ferreira,
Elizabeth A. Baldwin, and Thais Borges Cesar
Chapter 10 Citrus Flavonoids and Their Effect on Obesity................................. 325

Shi Feng, Laura Reuss, Joon Hyuk Suh, and Yu Wang
Chapter 11 Dietary Fiber from Citrus and Its Antioxidant Activity.................... 347
Ma. Ángeles Valdivia-López
Chapter 12 Antioxidative and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Citrus Peel

Extracts.............................................................................................. 367
Hyun-Dong Paik and Kee-Tae Kim
Chapter 13 Citrus Coumarins and Their Health Properties................................ 389

Carlos A. Ledesma-Escobar and María D. Luque de Castro
Chapter 14 Main Industrial Citrus By-Products in Spain—Citrus Dietary

Fiber: A Health-Promoting Functional Food Ingredient..................409
Francisco Marin
Chapter 15 Grapefruit-Like Varieties with Low Furanocoumarin Content........ 437

Eran Raveh, Yoram Eyal, Ron Porat, and Nir Carmi
Chapter 16 Young Citrus Fruits as By-Products and Their Chemical

Properties as Affected by Food Processing...................................... 455
Xingqian Ye, Jinhu Tian, Yujing Sun, Jiang Ping,
and Qianying (Sophia) Ye
Index....................................................................................................................... 475
Series Preface
In recent years, consumers have paid more attention to their health led by the increas-
ing belief that the food they eat contributes directly to it. The consumption of func-
tional foods has emerged as a major consumer-driven trend, playing an outstanding
role in the prevention of nutrition-related diseases and improving the physical and
mental well-being of consumers. This trend is expected to continue, which increases
the need for scientific information concerning all aspects of functional foods. The
aim of the “Functional Foods and Nutraceutical” series is to provide a comprehen-
sive source of up-to-date information on the latest developments in this field. Many
bioactive components present in food, from both plant and animal sources, have
been shown to be effective in disease prevention and health promotion. The series
covers relevant aspects of chemistry, biochemistry, epidemiology, nutrigenomics and
proteomics, engineering, formulation, and processing technologies as they relate to
nutraceuticals, functional foods, and dietary supplements, as well as new product
developments and research progress.
Extensive studies have confirmed that diets rich in fruits and vegetables are
strongly associated with numerous health benefits and a lower risk of disease. Citrus
fruits, one of the most popular fruits in world market today, have long been valued
as part of a nutritious and tasty diet. Citrus fruits, ranging from sweet to sour in
taste, include oranges, tangerines, grapefruits, limes, and lemons. Well-known for
their vitamin C content, these fruits also provide energy, fiber, folate, and potas-
sium. In addition, they are a good source of disease-fighting antioxidants such as
flavonoids. The different flavors of citrus are among the preferred in the world, and
it is increasingly evident that citrus fruits not only taste good, but are good for our
health too. It is well established that citrus fruits and products are a rich source of
vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber (nonstarch polysaccharides) that are essen-
tial for normal growth, development, and overall nutritional well-being. Moreover,
there is an increasing awareness that some biologically active, non-nutrient com-
pounds found in citrus and other plants (phytochemicals) can also help reduce the
risk of many chronic diseases. For instance, citrus has been shown to help keep
your heart healthy, specifically oranges, which have been shown to reduce the risk
of heart disease and arrhythmias.
The “Functional Foods and Nutraceutical” series is appropriate for academic use,
aimed at providing a solid scientific reference for faculties and students in the fields
of food science and technology, nutritional science, and pharmaceutical science.
This series is also meant as a reference for food science professionals in either gov-
ernment or industry pursuing functional food research, food ingredient development,
vii
viii Series Preface
or research and development for food companies. Herein, readers will obtain a cur-
rent and sound scientific fact base of information about functional food products and
their latest developments. It is our hope that the scientific community will appreciate
our endeavor in preparing this series and the impact it will have on furthering the
knowledge of functional foods and nutraceuticals.
John Shi, PhD

Series Editor
Senior Research Scientist
Guelph Food Research Center
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Preface
Citrus is the largest genus in the Rutaceae family native to tropical and subtropical
regions, and now it is the most traded horticultural product in the world. Taxonomic
identification is difficult because there are many spontaneous and commercial hybrids,
but citrus can be generally classified into the following categories: sweet oranges,
mandarins (tangerines, clementines), sour/bitter oranges, lemons, limes, grapefruits,
pummelos, hybrids, citrons, and so on. They are mainly characterized by a rough and
bright color that ranges from yellow to orange. Citrus fruits not only contain large
amounts of vitamin C, but also a variety of beneficial nutrients and vitamins such
as folate, thiamin, minerals, fiber, carotenoids, flavonoids, and limonoids. Vitamin C
is a powerful antioxidant that protects the body from damaging free radicals. It is
also required for the synthesis of collagen, which helps wounds heal and helps hold
together blood vessels, tendons, ligaments, and bone. Folate is essential for cell divi-
sion and DNA synthesis. Thiamin is a B vitamin, which is important in metabolism.
Citrus fruits have the advantage of containing several different antioxidants. There
is considerable evidence that citrus fruits have antioxidant and antimutagenic prop-
erties and positive associations with the health of bones, the cardiovascular system,
and the immune system. For example, citrus flavonoids are strong antioxidants that
can neutralize free radicals and may guard against heart disease. Studies show that citrus
flavonoids can improve blood flow through the coronary arteries, reduce the ability
of arteries to form blood clots and prevent the oxidation of LDL cholesterol, which is
an initial step in the formation of arterial plaque. Citrus fruits, as a whole, are packed
with beneficial antioxidants and essential nutrients that can promote heart health and
possibly reduce the risk of some chronic diseases, from cardiovascular disease and
cancer to skin damage from sunlight.
Citrus fruits are valuable to human health, we should consume them daily to over-
come and prevent micronutrient deficiencies. They are beneficial to the health of
people suffering from obesity and diet-related chronic diseases as they contain no
fat, sodium, or cholesterol. Because of the numerous nutritional and health benefits
associated with the consumption of citrus fruits, they can be considered as part of a
balanced diet.
This book, Phytochemicals in Citrus, contains 16 chapters providing a knowledge
base on the chemical composition, bioactive components, biochemical properties,
food use, and health benefits of citrus fruits. The information in this book will help
readers to better understand the health benefits of citrus fruits, citrus products, and
their dietary applications.
ix
x Preface
We thank all of the contributing authors for their cooperation in preparing this book,
which we hope will serve as an excellent reference for those interested in citrus fruits, as
health-promoting foods, and the science and technology of their bioactive components.
Xingqian Ye, PhD

Editor
Professor
College of Biosystems and Food Science
Zhejiang University
Zhejiang, China
Acknowledgments
This book is a product of extensive multidisciplinary collaborative efforts between
scientists, engineers, academicians, and industry personnel. Therefore, the editor
wishes to express his sincere gratitude and appreciation to all colleagues, graduate
students, and reviewers for their assistance and support. Especially, the editor wishes
to express his profound appreciation to Prof. Xueping Chen (Prof. Emeritus, Zhejiang
University, China) for his advice on career development. The editor would also like to
thank Ms. Qianying (Sophia) Ye (Purdue University), Prof. Yukio Kakuda and Dr.
Joe Martin (University of Guelph, Canada), and Dr. Sophia Jun Xue (Guelph Food
Research Center, Canada) for their review comments. The editor is also thankful to
Dr. John Shi (CRC Series Editor and Senior Scientist at Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canada) and Dr. Stephen Zollo (CRC/Taylor & Francis) for their valuable scientific
advice, support, and encouragement during the editing process.
The editor also deeply thanks financial support from the China Nature Sciences
Foundation (Project C200501).
xi
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Editor
Xingqian Ye, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Food Science and Nutrition,
and the deputy dean of the College of Biosystems and Food Science at Zhejiang
University in China. Prof. Ye earned a PhD degree in agriculture products storage
and processing from Zhejiang Agricultural University. He has also conducted col-
laborative research in Bulgaria, Canada, the United States, and Greece. His research
focuses on fruit and vegetable processing technology, nutraceuticals, and functional
foods from fruits and vegetables. Recently, he has studied the processing and com-
prehensive utilization of Chinese bayberry, mandarin, and other local fruits and
vegetables, especially the identification and separation of their phytochemicals.
Prof. Ye has also worked on the development of mixing fruit, vegetables, nuts, and
cereals to enhance their antioxidant capacity after processing. He has also studied
the stability of flavonoids after ultrasonic treatment.
Dr. Ye has published more than 200 research papers in refereed scientific journals,
along with 10 book chapters and has been invited to a number of presentations. He
holds 35 Chinese patents and has edited Chinese Dates: A Traditional Functional
Food (CRC Press, 2016), as well as 4 other books and a textbook on fruit and veg-
etable processing in Chinese (from the second edition to fourth edition). He has
received several scholarly awards including the second place Award (three times)
for Science and Technology from the Zhejiang Provincial Government. Prof. Ye was
the guest editor of LWT—Food Science and Technology for the special issue on
Food Innovation in China in 2014. He is an associate editor of Food Quality and
Safety (Oxford University Press) and editorial board member of the Journal of Food
Engineering, the Journal of Chinese Institute of Food Science and Technology, and
four other Chinese journals.
xiii
Contributors
Elizabeth A. Baldwin Licinio Díaz
USDA–ARS Plant Physiology Department
Ft. Pierce, Florida University of Murcia
Murcia, Spain
Maria Susai Boobalan
Department of Chemistry Tian Ding
College of Natural and Computational College of Biosystems and Food Science
Sciences Zhejiang University
Haramaya University Zhejiang, China
Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
Yoram Eyal
Nir Carmi Institute of Postharvest and Food
Institute of Plant Sciences Sciences
Agricultural Research Organization Agricultural Research Organization
Bet Dagan, Israel Bet Dagan, Israel
Thais Borges Cesar Shi Feng

Faculdade de Ciencias Farmaceuticas Citrus Research and Education Center
UNESP University of Florida
Araraquara, Brazil Lake Alfred, Florida
Jianchu Chen Paula Souza Ferreira

College of Biosystems and Food Science Faculdade de Ciencias Farmaceuticas
Zhejiang University UNESP
Zhejiang, China Araraquara, Brazil
Jianle Chen Danielle R. Gonçalves

College of Biosystems and Food Science Faculdade de Ciencias Farmaceuticas
Zhejiang University UNESP
Zhejiang, China Araraquara, Brazil
Shiguo Chen Sam-Long Hwang

College of Biosystems and Food Science Food Industry Research and
Zhejiang University Development Institute
Zhejiang, China Hsinchu, Taiwan
Huan Cheng Gurpreet Kaur

College of Biosystems and Food Science Department of Phamaceutical Sciences
Zhejiang University and Drug Research
Zhejiang, China Punjabi University
Patiala, Punjab, India
xv
xvi Contributors
Jasleen Kaur Ana Ortuño

Department of Phamaceutical Sciences Plant Physiology Department
and Drug Research University of Murcia
Punjabi University Murcia, Spain
Patiala, Punjab, India
Hyun-Dong Paik
Kee-Tae Kim Department of Food Science and
Bio/Molecular Informatics Center Biotechnology of Animal Resources
Konkuk University Konkuk University
Seoul, Korea Seoul, Korea
Carlos A. Ledesma-Escobar Jiang Ping

Department of Analytical Chemistry College of Biosystems and Food Science
University of Córdoba Zhejiang University
Córdoba, Spain Zhejiang, China
Junhui Li Ron Porat

College of Biosystems and Food Science Institute of Postharvest and Food Sciences
Zhejiang University Agricultural Research Organization
Zhejiang, China Bet Dagan, Israel
Shan Li Eran Raveh

College of Biosystems and Food Science Institute of Plant Sciences
Zhejiang University Agricultural Research Organization
Zhejiang, China Bet Dagan, Israel
Donghong Liu Laura Reuss

College of Biosystems and Food Science Citrus Research and Education Center
Zhejiang University University of Florida
Zhejiang, China Lake Alfred, Florida
María D. Luque de Castro José Antonio del Río

Department of Analytical Chemistry Plant Physiology Department
University of Córdoba University of Murcia
Córdoba, Spain Murcia, Spain
Yaqin Ma Meenakshisundaram
Citrus Research Institute Selvamuthukumaran
Southwest University School of Food Science and Postharvest
Chongqing, China Technology
Haramaya University
Francisco Marin Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
Department of Production and
Characterization of New Foods
University of Madrid
Madrid, Spain
Contributors xvii
John Shi Yu Wang

Guelph Research and Development Food Science and Human Nutrition
Center University of Florida
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Lake Alfred, Florida
Guelph, Ontario, Canada
Guihua Xu
Ping-Hsiao Shih Department of Food Science
Department of Pediatrics Henan Institute of Science and
Shuang Ho Hospital Technology
New Taipei City, Taiwan Henan, China
Joon Hyuk Suh Jianguo Xu

Citrus Research and Education Center Zhejiang Citrus Research Institute
University of Florida Zhejiang, China
Lake Alfred, Florida
Lufeng Yan
Yujing Sun
Zhejiang University
Department of Food Science and
Zhejiang, China
Technology
Zhejiang University of Technology Qianying (Sophia) Ye
Hangzhou, China Department of Food Science
Purdue University
Jinhu Tian West Lafayette, Indiana
Zhejiang University Xingqian Ye
Zhejiang, China College of Biosystems and Food Science
Zhejiang University
Ma. Ángeles Valdivia-López Zhejiang, China
Food and Biotechnology Department
National Autonomous University of Gow-Chin Yen
Mexico Department of Food Science and
Mexico City, Mexico Biotechnology
National Chung Hsing University
Taichung, Taiwan
1 Citrus Fruits, Varieties,
Chemical Properties,
and Products
in the Processing Industry
Xingqian Ye, Jianle Chen, Jianguo Xu,
and Jianchu Chen
CONTENTS
1.1 Citrus Fruits and Their Biological Structure..................................................... 2
1.1.1 The External Form of Citrus Fruits....................................................... 2
1.1.2 Size and Shape....................................................................................... 3
1.1.3 The Internal Structure of Citrus Fruits..................................................3
1.1.3.1 Peel.......................................................................................... 4
1.1.3.2 Epicarp....................................................................................4
1.1.3.3 Mesocarp................................................................................4
1.1.3.4 Oil Sacs...................................................................................4
1.1.3.5 Flevedo.................................................................................... 4
1.1.3.6 Citrus Segment........................................................................ 5
1.1.3.7 Citrus Seeds............................................................................ 6
1.1.3.8 Central Core or Pith................................................................6
1.2 Citrus Fruit Production......................................................................................6
1.3 Main Citrus Species and Production............................................................... 10
1.3.1 Mandarins............................................................................................ 10
1.3.2 Mandarins and Tangerines.................................................................. 11
1.3.3 Oranges................................................................................................ 12
1.3.4 Grapefruits........................................................................................... 14
1.3.5 Lemons and Limes.............................................................................. 14
1.4 Some Bioactive Components in Citrus Fruits.................................................. 15
1.4.1 Flavonoid Compounds......................................................................... 16
1.4.1.1 Classification and Structural Characteristics of Citrus
Flavonoids............................................................................. 16
1.4.1.2 Flavanones............................................................................ 18
1.4.1.3 Polymethoxylated Flavonoids...............................................20
1
2 Phytochemicals in Citrus
1.4.1.4 Distribution and Determination of Flavonoids

in the Citrus Genus...............................................................20
1.4.2 Phenolic Acids..................................................................................... 22
1.4.2.1 Types and Structural Characteristics of Phenolic Acids...... 22
1.4.2.2 Distribution and Determination of Phenolic Acids
in Citrus Fruits...................................................................... 23
1.4.3 Limonoid Substances........................................................................... 23
1.4.3.1 Types and Structural Characteristics of Limonoids............. 23
1.4.3.2 Distribution and Determination of Limonoids
Glycoside Compounds in Citrus Genus Plants.....................25
1.4.4 Alkaloids..............................................................................................26
1.4.4.1 Structural Characteristics of the Main Alkaloids in Citrus.... 26
1.4.4.2 Distribution and Determination of Alkaloids in Citrus........26
1.4.5 Research Progress of Antioxidant Ability of Some Bioactive
Components on Citrus Fruits............................................................... 32
1.4.5.1 Antioxidant Ability of Flavonoids in Citrus Fruits............... 32
1.4.5.2 Antioxidant Ability of Phenolic Acids in Citrus Fruits........ 32
1.4.5.3 Antioxidant Ability of Limonin in Citrus Fruits.................. 33
1.5 Citrus Fruit Processing and Utilization........................................................... 33
1.5.1 Citrus Product Development................................................................ 33
1.5.2 The Current Situation of the Citrus Processing Industry.................... 34
1.5.3 Citrus By-Product Utilization.............................................................. 36
Acknowledgment...................................................................................................... 36
References................................................................................................................. 36
1.1 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR BIOLOGICAL STRUCTURE

Citrus fruits, compared with other fruits, have specific characteristics. They differ
botanically from berries and other fruits, and have a high nutritional value (Nagy
and Shaw 1977; Ye et al. 2005).
1.1.1 The External Form of Citrus Fruits

Citrus fruit is usually globose, and its major morphological features are described in
Figure 1.1 (Ye et al. 2005). The end with the pedicel is considered the base, and the
opposite end is the top. A horizontal line is known as the equator. The part between
the equator and the base is called the lower shoulder, and the part between equator
and the top is called the upper shoulder. The part near the base is the pedicel side,
and the part near the top end is the column end, where the navel is usually located.
Different species vary greatly in navel size and shape. The fine points of the fruit
surface are oil brittle points, with various essential oils contained in the interior
(Figure 1.1).
Citrus Fruits, Varieties, Chemical Properties, and Products in Processing Industry 3
Pedicel
Base part Sepal
Side
Equator
Top part
FIGURE 1.1 Citrus fruits and their nomenclature.
1.1.2 Size and Shape

Different species of citrus vary greatly in size. Generally speaking, the horizon-
tal diameters of some common species are as follows: orange (5.7–9.5 cm), man-
darin or tangerine (5.7–7.5 cm), lemon (4.4–6.4 cm), lime (3.5–5 cm), grapefruit
(9.5–14.5 cm), pomelo (8–20 cm), and kumquat (1.5–3 cm). There are also great size
differences between different cultivars in the same species (Ye et al. 2005; Deng
et al. 2008; Citrus Pages 2014).
1.1.3 The Internal Structure of Citrus Fruits

Compared with other fruits, the internal structure of citrus fruits is more complex.
From outside to inside, are peel (flavedo, oil gland, albedo, and vascular bundle),
Central core
Flavedo Juice vesicles
Albedo
Oil sacs
Seed
Segment
Segment wall
FIGURE 1.2 Structure of citrus fruits.

segments (segment membrane, juice vesicles or sac and seed), and the central core or
pith (vascular bundle and parenchyma) (Figure 1.2) (Ye and Liu 2005; Kimball 1999).
1.1.3.1 Peel
Citrus peel can be divided into two layers, the epicarp (flavedo and albedo) and endocarp.
1.1.3.2 Epicarp
The epicarp is actually epidermis consisting of a wax plate of upper epicuticular
wax, cuticle, and polygonal epidermic cells, and an outer wall that is horny. The
exterior of epidermal cells is covered with a layer of wax that has a protective effect.
The epicarp also has stomata consisting of a pair of guard cells that serves as one of
the channels of fruit respiration. Generally, a citrus fruit has little or no porosity in the
base, since the waxy layer is thicker at this point, and the stomata of citrus are often
filled at maturity.
1.1.3.3 Mesocarp
The mesocarp includes two layers, the albedo and flavedo. The albedo contains oil
sacs and pigments, while the flavedo consists of vascular tissue. Albedo cells are
green, yellow, or orange, with oil sacs. The lower part of the epidermal layer consists
of layers of small elongated cells, followed by layers of larger suborbicular cells,
distributed before oil sacs, and finally a mix with albedo on top of the oil sacs. These
cells are rich in plastids. When the fruit is ripe, when the weather turns cold, chloro-
plasts turn into chromoplasts. This causes the fruits to turn yellow or orange, and it
can also be achieved with artificial de-greening treatments. As for the late ripening
fruit, if the fruit were left on trees until the next spring, chromoplasts would turn into
chloroplasts due to climate warming. Since mature citrus flavedo is rich in chromo-
plasts, the pigments therein are carotenoids and flavonoids, which are all beneficial
to human health. In recent years, many papers have been published focused on the
extraction of pigments from albedo in order to enhance or improve the color quality
of citrus juice and other foods and for nutraceuticals.
1.1.3.4 Oil Sacs
Oil sacs, also called oil glands, consist of a cavity containing several aromatic oils,
surrounded by a circle of cellular degradation. The outermost skin layer is the paren-
chyma of the albedo. These surrounding cells are the source of the oil, consisting
of thin walls that are easily broken when mature. In a citrus fruit, the fruit stem has
more oil glands than the top part, and the number of oil glands and the properties of
the oils therein vary greatly between different Citrus species. Manual extraction of
essential oils is efficient with lemon, orange, lime, tangerines, and others, but most
mandarin oil is a low quality essential oil.
1.1.3.5 Flevedo
The flevedo is composed of a layer of loose, tubular cells with many branches. These
cells are interwoven into a continuous network structure with large gaps. Cytoderm
is rich in pectin, and an obvious thickening effect can be observed under the electron
microscope since it is the site that has the highest pectin content within the citrus
fruits. Hence, in general the raw material of artificial citrus pectin is extracted from
the flavedo. The flavedo also contains flavonoids, some of which impart a bitter taste.
Early on, people found that in grapefruit, oranges, lemons, and mandarin, flavonoid
content in flavedo was higher than in juice, segment membrane, or albedo. The fla-
vedo is also the main location of another bitter taste and health factor, limonoids.
The thickness of flavedo varies in different Citrus species. Pomelos and grapefruits
have the thickest, followed by oranges, natsumikans, and lemons, while mandarins
and tangerines have the thinnest. In fruit juice production, the thickness of the fla-
vedo is a major determinant of the appropriate juicer arrangement. If pressing is
excessive, more flavedo is pressed into juice, making juice bitter with a content of fla-
vonoids and limonoids substances that is too high. This is one of the causes of poor
quality fruit juice by the deep-pressed method. When producing peeled mandarin
segments in syrup production, the thickness of the flavedo is directly related to the
ease of peeling. As for orange cake and fruit candy production, it is more related to
the thickness and tenderness of the flavedo.
1.1.3.6 Citrus Segment
The interior part of the flavedo is the segment, which is thought to have developed
from the endocarp. Generally, mandarin and tangerine have about 10 segments,
kumquat has 3–6, while polemo has 13–25 and lemon has 7–10. The citrus segment
is composed of a membrane, vesicle (sac), and seeds. The seeds of satsuma, a man-
darin, degenerate because pollination does not occur. Each segment in the fruits is
arranged in a ring with a central core or pith.
The orange vessels are a layer of reticulated vascular tissue that surround the
segment and contain flavonoid glycosides, pectin, cellulose, and semicellulose. They
may be used as a drug, but also as the material for pectin extraction. Their degree of
adhesion to the segment affects the ease of peeling and processing.
There is a layer of waxy cuticle on the segment membrane consisting of six to
eight layers with a relatively loose, full layer of two to three mesophyll cells between
segments. The outmost layer is a mixture of mesophyll cells and flavedo. The struc-
tural components of segment membranes are very closely related with the separa-
tion of citrus segments. Generally, mandarins or tangerines are easier to peel and
Vesicles in citrus Juice cell

fruit sections
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Vacuole containing juice
Juice cells
in vesicle Other organelle
Cell membrane
FIGURE 1.3 Citrus juice cell and vesicle (sac) cited. (From Kimball, D. A., Citrus
Processing—A Complete Guide, 2nd ed., Aspen Publishers, Gaithersburg, MD, 1999.)
separate segments, and grapefruits are more difficult. Segment membranes also
contains bitter substances, and one must be careful not to put too much pressure on
the segment membrane during processing, especially in grapefruit, since they are
thought to contain the highest content of limonin.
The sac is also called the juice vesicle (Figure 1.3). It is the edible part of citrus fruit
located on the interior of the segment, and it is derived from independent meristems
that form the sac and sac stem. The sac and sac stem surface contain wax (Kimball
1999). This is a major factor in maintaining the integrity of canned orange segments
in syrup; however, in the manufacture of sac juice or drink, this can obstruct the sepa-
ration of sac into a single. The sac surface also contains some pectin, and therefore
treatment with calcium salt increases its hardness. The shape of the sac is related to
the appearance of processed products, and canned mandarin segments in light syrup
require slender sacs and short stems, firmly bonded with each other. The interior of
sacs consists of thin-walled cells, characterized by large vacuoles, with lipid drop-
lets, mitochondria, leucosomes and chromoplasts. These thin-walled cells are easily
broken, thereby creating juice. Juice is mainly vacuolar sap, containing a wealth of
nutrients, especially vitamins and minerals (Tisserat et al. 1990).
1.1.3.7 Citrus Seeds
Citrus seeds are often located in the interior of segments, developed from a fertilized
ovule, but a fertilized ovule can also form seedless fruit. Citrus seeds contain a vari-
ety of fat, protein, and bitter substances that have a great impact on the processing
and production of segments. Usually, seedless is preferred for fresh consumption.
Seeds are also undesirable during juice processing, and pressure or fine filtering of
crushed seed should be avoided; otherwise, it would easily make the juice bitter. On
the other hand, from a comprehensive point of view, we can use seed oils and bitter
substances in seeds for industrial and agricultural production services.
1.1.3.8 Central Core or Pith

The central core is also called the pith and is composed of several vascular bundles
surrounded by a loose spongy group. The vasculature extends from the seed to the
pedicel end. In citrus processing, the pith only affects the whole press of orange
juice, and the vascular bundle and spongy tissue can increase the particle content of
the fruit juice. In addition, spongy tissue is similar to flavedo in that excessive press-
ing will increase the glycoside extract and a mixture of other undesirable substances.
1.2 CITRUS FRUIT PRODUCTION

Citrus fruits are one of the most important agricultural products in the world, pro-
duced in more than 90 countries and regions in the world. World citrus production
and consumption have experienced a strong growth period since the middle of the
1980s. The yield, total level of consumption, and consumption per capita of man-
darins, tangerines, sweet oranges, pomelos, grapefruits, lemons, and limes have all
experienced a rapid growth.
During the year from 1999 to 2000, annual production reached 90 million metric
tons—more than grapes and bananas—the highest production among all the fruits.
International trade year volume was more than $65 billion, following wheat ($160 mil-
lion) and maize ($100 billion), and a further increase in production and consumption
is expected (FAO: http://www.fao.org/statistics/en/). Citrus production and export are
important sources of income in many countries, while citrus are also a cheap source of
vitamins, which is beneficial to nutrition, health, and food safety. With transportation
and packaging costs reduced and the quality improved, the growth of citrus processing
products is very fast, and is showing a strong momentum of development (Liu 2012).
TABLE 1.1
Fresh Citrus Fruit, Production, Supply, and Distribution in Selected
Countries (1000 Metric Tons)
Sweet Orange 2011/2012 2012/2013 2013/2014 2014/2015 July 2016
Fresh production 53,830 49,871 52,144 48,772 45,763
Fresh domestic 30,837 28,948 30,693 28,388 28,191
consumption
Processing 22,729 20,662 20,907 20,123 17,293
Export 3,932 3,889 4,002 4,051 4,309
Import 3,668 3,628 3,458 3,790 4,030
Tangerines/Mandarins
Fresh domestic 22,322 23,247 25,068 26,826 27,285
consumption
Processing 1,411 1,384 1,425 1,571 1,491
Export 2,389 2,165 2,483 2,337 2,322
Import 2,216 2,117 2,281 2,177 2,135
Grapefruit
Fresh domestic 4,602 4,818 5,087 5,260 5,540
consumption
Processing 873 954 907 732 674
Export 800 813 825 736 758
Import 731 743 752 671 695
Lemon/Lime
Fresh domestic 4,478 4,582 4,605 4,849 4,748
consumption
Processing 1,854 1,904 1,543 2,328 2,097
Export 1,689 1,552 1,590 1,725 1,791
Import 1,497 1,526 1,522 1,601 1,635
Source: USDA: http://www.fas.usda.gov/commodities/citrus-fruit.

TABLE 1.2
Potential Yield of Products from Citrus Fruits
Products Orange/% Grapefruit/% Satsuma Mandarin/%
Juice 48% 48% 52%
Segment in light syrup 65%–70%
Dry peel
Dry pulp w/o molasses, 10% H2O 9.80 10.62
Dry pulp, w/o molasses 7.11 7.25
Molasses, 72 0Brix 3.43 3.89
Ethanol from molasses (L, 100%) 0.49 –
Cold pressed oil and limonene 0.74 0.26 0.76
Pulp wash solids 0.49–0.74 0.26–0.52
Frozen pulp 4.9 7.77
Oil-phase essence 0.0123 0.0077
Aqueous essence at 15% alcohol 0.049 0.052
Pectin (150 grade) 3.18 2.59 2.00
Seed oil 0.05 0.23
Hesperidin 0.49 – 0.45
Naringin – 0.52
Limonoid 0.30 0.30
According to USDA statistics, the main producing countries in the world, during
the years 2015 and 2016, had a total citrus production of 88 million tons, among
which, oranges have 45.76 million tons, mandarins and tangerines have 28.96 mil-
lion tons, grapefruits and pomelos have 6. 27 million tons, and lemons and limes
have 7.00 million tons (Table 1.1). Analysis of nearly 5 years of production data has
indicated that orange products are on the decline, but that mandarins or tangerines
have increased the most, and that grapefruits, pomelos, lemons, and limes have had
a slight rise (Table 1.2).
The leading producers of citrus are China, Brazil, the United States, Mexico,
Turkey, Egypt, and so on. China has the largest production. In July 2016, it reached
31.3 million tons, accounting for 35.57% of the world’s output; followed by Brazil
with a production of 14.35 million tons, accounting for 16.31% of the world’s output
(Table 1.3).
Among Citrus species produced worldwide, the orange accounts for 52%, man-
darin and tangerine for 33%, and lemon and pomelo for about 7% of total produc-
tion. In terms of production of the total output of citrus, nearly 60% is for the fresh
market consumption and about 40% is used for processing. But in Brazil, recent
data show that the most abundant use is for processing of orange juice. Mandarins
and tangerines are mostly used for fresh food, the main production country being
China. In terms of raw materials of citrus fruit production, 80% are oranges, 8%
are grapefruits, and 5% are lemons, mandarins, and tangerines (Table 1.4).
TABLE 1.3
Fresh Citrus Production in Selected Countries (1000 Metric Tons)
Tangerines/ Lemons/
Oranges Mandarins Grapefruits Limes Total %
Brazil 14,350 14,350 16.31%
China 7,000 20,000 4,300 31,300 35.57%
European Union 6,055 3,035 97 1,260 10,447 11.87%
United States 5,371 876 735 847 7,829 8.90%
Mexico 3,535 430 2,270 6,235 7.08%
Egypt 2,750 2,750 3.12%
Turkey 1,700 1,040 200 670 3,610 4.10%
South Africa 1,560 330 345 2,235 2.54%
Morocco 925 1,065 1,990 2.26%
Argentina 800 350 1500 2,650 3.01%
Vietnam 520 520 0.59%
Australia 455 455 0.52%
Costa Rica 315 315 0.36%
Guatemala 155 155 0.18%
Israel 105 240 185 60 590 0.67%
Japan 1,115 1,115 1.27%
South Korea 640 640 0.73%
Thailand 375 375 0.43%
Other 167 227 0 49 443 0.50%
Total 45,763 28,963 6,277 7,001 88,004 100.00%
52.00% 32.91% 7.13% 7.96% 100%
Source: USDA: http://www.fas.usda.gov/commodities/citrus-fruit.
TABLE 1.4
Citrus Production and Processing (1000 Metric Tons, %)
2011/2012 2012/2013 2013/2014 2014/2015 July 2016
Orange Fresh production 53,830 49,871 52,144 48,772 45,763
Processing 22,729 20,662 20,907 20,123 17,293
% of processing 42.22 41.43 40.09 41.26 37.79
Grapefruit Fresh production 5,544 5,842 6,067 6,057 6,277

Processing 873 954 907 732 674
% of processing 15.75 16.33 14.95 12.09 10.74
Lemon and lime Fresh production 6,524 6,512 6,216 7,301 7,001
Processing 1,854 1,904 1,543 2,328 2,097
% of processing 28.42 29.24 24.82 31.89 29.95
Mandarin and Fresh production 23,906 24,679 26,695 28,557 28,963

tangerine Processing 1,411 1,384 1,425 1,571 1,491
% of processing 5.90 5.61 5.34 5.50 5.15
1.3 MAIN CITRUS SPECIES AND PRODUCTION

Citrus fruits belong to Rutaceae aurantioideae. Since 1753, when Linneaus
designated Citrus L. many scholars have performed a series of morphological,
cytological and molecular level studies. Notably, in the work of the American
taxonomist W. T. Swingle, and the Japanese scholar T. Tanaka. The former
divided Citrus L. into 16 species, and the latter divided Citrus L. into 159 spe-
cies. Swingle’s classification is simple and clear, but many of the horticultural
species cannot be determined (Swingle and Reece 1967), while Tanaka’s classi-
fication is conducive to the work of the horticultural industry, but is too complex
for most of the food science industry and consumers (Tanaka 1977). Since they
easily hybridize between species, and due to apomixis and clonal variations, the
number of species of citrus is very difficult to accurately determine. According
to the views of the pomologists and food scientists, this chapter summarizes the
general classification and relationship of citrus fruit from citrus fruit character-
istics in the perspective of economic value. It references China’s latest research
from Kimball (1999) and Deng (2008), but recent advances in molecular biology
are not included.
• Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck—Sweet orange

• Citrus reticulata Blanco—Mandarin, tangerine
• Citrus aurantium L.—Sour or bitter orange
• Citrus paradisi Macfadyen—Grapefruit
• Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck or Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merrill—Pomelo
• Citrus limon L. Burm. f.—Lemon
• Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.)—Lime
• Citrus limonia—Rangpur
• Citrus medica L.—Citron
Main varietal group

• Citrus reticulata Blanco—Mandarin, tangerine
1.3.1 Mandarins
Macroacrumen mandarins: Satsuma mandarin (C. unshiu Marc); Ougan (C. sua-
vissima Hort. ex Tanaka); Jiaogan (C. tankan Hort.) (Tankan); King mandarin (C.
nobilis Loureiro); Mediterranean mandarin (C. deliciosu Tenore).
Microacrumen tangerines: Ponkan (C. reticulata Blanco); Manju (C. tardiferax
Hort. ex Tanaka); Hongju (red tangerine) (C. tangerina Hort. ex Tanaka); Citrus
paradisi Macfadyen—Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Macfadyen) (white or common,
blood or pink, acidless); Pomelo [Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck or Citrus maxima
(Burm.) Merill] (white or common, blood or pink, acidless).
Dr. Mabberley, president of the IATP since 2005, deserves a special mention.
He has presented the most interesting new views of citrus and the relationships
between “the true citrus types.” In his paper on native Australian citrus types,
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The waiter told us at length that what was wanted was a bribe; but
then we could hardly believe him, for had we not conversed with the
postmaster—a uniformed and decorated individual, who spoke
French and smoked cigarettes with an air?
However, there was nothing else for it; the postmaster was, much
against the grain, asked to breakfast; a fifteen-rouble note was put
under his plate, and an hour afterwards horses were actually being
put to.
In we got, having a portmanteau, a hat-box, a cocked-hat case, a
sword-case, umbrellas, rugs, pillows (these last a very needful thing
in Russia; travellers even by rail carry them, and they are almost a
necessity) in the carriage with us; the apron was buttoned down, the
curtain triced up, and, with a wrench and a creak, off we went at a
hard gallop. It is not a comfortable mode of travelling, far less a
luxurious one; but one does get over the ground; one is dry; and
certainly, as compared with the telega, one’s sufferings are less
intense.
We occasionally left the tarantass to take tea at a post-house,
where, ever for lack of fresh horses, we had to feed and rest our old
ones. Our Kutais informant was right; nothing to be got but the
samovar (or Russian urn) full of boiling water; no furniture, save two
wooden bedsteads, with a slanting board at the head; the tariff for
horses, and the “icon” (or religious picture) in the corner. Still, there
was freedom from noise and movement, which was a great thing.
The horses seemed to be fed on nothing in particular; they were
turned out in the mud to graze, and were given branches of trees,
which they gnawed as a bonne bouche, but I saw no grain given; but
these horses went, and they were lashed and howled at; in fact, the
driving seemed very hard work indeed. We travel day and night, and
never halt but to change horses. After seventy-two hours, we at
length reached Tiflis.
I didn’t see much of the road; in most places it was mud, and in
many it seemed dangerous. Often our tarantass was repaired with
nails and ropes, but we arrived unbroken at the Hôtel du Kaukase of
M. Arsène Barberon.
This man kept a really comfortable house, and as it was
suggested to us that this was the last civilised place, we were only
too glad to make the most of it. We were given sheets to our beds as
a favour and as a luxury; and we got a good dinner, with some
“Lecoq” English stout, very good and strong. One never hears the
name in England, and whether really English or not I don’t know, but
it is very double, and much esteemed by the Russians.
Our bedrooms unfortunately abutted on the billiard-room; and as
the Russian officers, by whom the hotel was frequented, seemed to
be very loth to stop play, it was difficult to sleep till, about 4 a.m.,
even these festive gentlemen retired.
When I came down, I found that the Colonel, an old traveller, had
preceded me, and was engaged upon a pile of official letters and
telegrams.
“I shall be unfortunately detained here some days.”
I was overcome by a deep sense of gratitude that words cannot
express; for I really was so tired and bruised that I felt as if I had
been pummelled all over; in fact, that I should have been glad to be
taken to pieces and put away for a time.
Now this perhaps will be looked on as affectation, but it is not so;
as one gets used to the various modes of travelling, one ceases to
have any grievance, and to feel fatigue, looking on the whole matter
as in the day’s work; but the first time, it’s all very well, but we none
of us like it in our hearts. Of course we called it glorious, and so it
was, in the sense that it was a change.
But who would care to travel from, say, London to York in an old-
fashioned bathing-machine, with a companion of greater age and
social position than your own, pride preventing one’s grumbling, and
going at a hard gallop over the worst of roads, and a good deal of
loose and angular luggage with you, day and night?
My chief next day was waited on by a young man of
prepossessing appearance, in a stylish uniform, the embroidered
shoulder-straps of which were decorated by lightning-flashes. I was
somewhat surprised to hear that this was a signalling-clerk of the
Russian department.
In Russia every officer, however small, has his uniform, which is
cheap, and stylish wear. I, being very young, perhaps felt a little
jealous; but the Colonel assured me that, as uniform was always
typical, mine would probably have silver leeches running up the red
stripe of my trousers, and a gilt mustard-plaister in miniature on the
collar. This contented me, and reconciled me to my position as “a
plain-clothes officer.” The chief of the telegraph, too, called, and we
called on him; many cigarettes were smoked, and much very hot tea
in tumblers drunk.
We went also to see the Persian consul, who was very civil, and
apparently a very intelligent man; he gave us coffee in the Persian
manner. Small silver filagree cup-holders, the size of egg-cups, were
handed round on a tray; and placed in each was a smaller vessel of
china, holding about a liqueur-glassful of strong sweet black coffee,
flavoured with cloves. It was not bad.
When the cups were emptied two servants advanced, one bearing
the tray, the other taking with both hands the empty coffee-cups and
holders, and placing them upon the tray.
Then came the water-pipe or kalian; three of these were brought
in. My first inhalation provided me with a mouthful of peculiarly filthy-
tasting water (I learnt afterwards that the water from the kalian is
commonly used in Persia as an emetic); having, with some difficulty,
got rid of this, I commenced to smoke, and to do as I had seen our
host do, eject huge clouds from my nostrils. But I perceived that the
other kalians were gone; I asked the Colonel if there were any
etiquette as to sending the pipe away. He said—
“Oh, no; our host is an old friend. Smoke as long as it gives you
pleasure.”
The consul asked me how I liked the Persian pipe. I eagerly
replied that I had never smoked anything so mild and so delicious.
He was delighted, but seemed surprised at my calling it mild. The
old gentleman spoke French, and said, “Du tout—très-fort.”
And so I found it, for I began to feel giddy. It appears that the
tobacco used was particularly choice and strong, and that, as a rule,
of such tobacco only a few whiffs are ever taken. I could smoke no
more, and collapsed, for the next five minutes having the awful
sensations of the youth who smokes his first “real foreigner.” But this
feeling passed away as quickly as it came, and I was soon myself.
Another pipe was brought, and then tea, à la Russe, with lemon.
Tea à la Persane consists of a very small cup, holding some two
ounces; in this lump-sugar is placed, in big lumps, and if much
honour is wished to be shown to the guest, when the cup is full the
sugar should project from the centre of the liquid in an island!
The tea used is generally scented Pekoe among the rich, and
made very weak. It is also always washed before it is allowed to
draw. Persians do not like strong tea.
In after years, in Persia, I was somewhat intrigued to make out
why my sweeper objected to sweep his carpets with tea-leaves, and
it was only on pressure that I extracted the fact that “the servants
always dried my strong black tea-leaves and sold them as tea in the
bazaar.”
After some chat in Persian, which Colonel G⸺ spoke in a
masterly manner, the Colonel asked for “the pipe of departure,”
which, it appears, is the best way of going, as it is considered polite
to ask permission to depart, and not to get up and go.
Our host was a largely-built, well-set-up man, dressed in a pair of
uniform trousers, stockings (he had removed his shoes on entering
the room), and a thick black frock-coat, such as the Turks wear, lined
with fur; he did not show any linen. His hair and beard were jetty
black, as was his heavy moustache. He wore a black Astrachan hat,
which he did not remove, and a sword. He insisted on coming to the
door with us, and shook hands in the most cordial manner.
As we were on the road home the Colonel asked me if I could give
a guess as to our friend’s age. I said, confidently, “From forty to forty-
five.”
“He is probably eighty—certainly over seventy. The black hair
which you see is the result of dye. The whole of the upper classes,
and all townsmen, military or government employés, dye their hair; it
is done usually once or twice a week, and the substances used are,
first henna, then indigo. They are allowed to remain on many hours;
the result is the fine black dye you see. The villagers, as a rule, use
only the henna, which gives a deep purply-black to black hair, and a
bright red to white.”
I was also told that when in deep mourning a Persian ceases to
dye at all (and, alas! at first he also ceases to wash); the result is
comical in the extreme, for one sees men with beards of some foot
or more in length half red or rusty black, and the rest quite white.
When ill, too, he does not dye.
Afterwards I could always by this means make a pretty shrewd
guess, even before asking the question, as to how long a patient had
been on the sick-list, by the length of the undyed part of his beard.
The next evening we went to the opera, and saw ‘Don Giovanni’;
the acting and singing was fairly good, but the auditorium, though it
was not by any means a gala night, was brilliant in the extreme.
Circassian officers, in their long coats of white, pale blue, black, &c.,
their breasts covered with the ornamental little silver boxes of niello-
work that contain, or are supposed to contain, the charges for their
picturesque weapons; their long straight swords, silver or silver-gilt;
and the belts, that would delight South Kensington people, covered
with bosses of this same niello-work; their boots, reaching in some
cases to the knee, fitting like gloves at the foot, and so wrinkly down
the shin as to certainly drive a West End coachman mad with
jealousy. Then the hats—cylinders of shaggy sheepskins—white,
gray, black, surmounted by a bit of inner cap of blue, red, scarlet, or
white, elaborately embroidered in gold. And good-looking men, too;
no little fellows—all big strapping men, who looked as if they could
ride and fight, as well as come to the Tiflis Opera. Nearly all were
decorated; some had many medals and orders. This decoration is
overdone in the Russian Army.
With the ladies I was disappointed—the Georgians and
Immeritians were in the large majority. They were heavy-jowled
females, who seemed to wear a profusion of rich clothes; they had a
sort of crown of velvet and gold lace, over which hung down at the
back an embroidered kerchief and hideous jewelry. They never
smiled—still the brilliant officers hung over their chairs; and perhaps
they may have been very charming. They all had big eyes and a
quantity of coarse hair. One or two blonde Russian ladies were
present, and they were much dressed.
The little theatre was peculiarly decorated in a semi-oriental style,
and the coup d’œil was really very striking. The portion of the opera
which seemed to give the greatest satisfaction was the introduced
ballet, which I understand was composed of Tiflis girls; they did not
dance well, but were remarkably handsome, and much applauded.
This theatre has been since burnt down, and a larger one erected.
As Colonel G⸺ was compelled to remain here eight days I was
able to go again to the Opera, and I saw ‘Masaniello’ very fairly
done.
I went all over the town looking out for a souvenir, but there was
nothing but silver work, which was dear, and beyond my means at
that time.
We had here our first taste of the celebrated Kakheiti wine. There
are two sorts, white and red—the latter is the best; it is a strong,
coarse, rough wine, and has a very leathery taste. As it is kept in
skins, and not casks, this is not to be wondered at. It contains a
great deal of tannin, and our landlord told me if kept in casks it
turned black, probably from this excess of tannin (or perhaps bad
casks). It costs at the hotel a rouble a bottle.
One thing that strikes one in Russia is the peculiarly good bread. I
have now been in Russia five times, and I never have tasted
anywhere bread so white or so delicious. Often have I made a
breakfast of it, and sent my cutlet untasted away.
We laid in a good supply; and, with some Kakheiti wine, some
stout, cold fowls, and tea, we left Tiflis, knowing we should get
nothing till we got to Tabriz. The tarantass had been thoroughly
overhauled; and, in a heavy drizzle, off we went, well provisioned by
Arsène Barberon.
After four days’ severe travelling we reached Erivan. Snow had
fallen heavily, and rendered some of the defiles of the Caucasus
almost impassable, in particular one called Delijan, at the head of
Lake Jeukjar. There we were obliged to have seven horses to the
tarantass to pull and some men to push, in which we assisted. We
had a precipice going sheer down on one side and snow twelve feet
deep on the other. Our difficulties were increased by meeting three
hundred camels laden with huge unpressed bags of Erivan (or
Persian?) cotton, in a place where there was hardly room to pass,
and it was impossible for either party to turn back. Our Cossacks,
however—we had two of these gentry—by whipping the drivers,
made them go on the outer or dangerous side, while we remained
stationary until the camels had passed; then, amid much shouting
and swearing, we did the Pass.
At four stages from Tiflis we had our luggage put on camels to be
brought on to Erivan, and went on ourselves in the tarantass, with
never less than five horses. The most slashing races take place on
the road, as he who succeeds in presenting his padoroschna (or
permit to take post-horses) first, takes as many horses as he needs;
and if the roads are bad often takes all, as he wishes to be well
ahead of rival travellers.
In Erivan we are in savage Russia—the people are the ugliest and
dirtiest we have yet come across. At the so-called hotel they gave us
two wooden bunks with mattresses—a great luxury after the post-
houses without. Our servant, a ferocious Persian lent us by the
consul at Tiflis, named Mahommed Ali, having ordered water for
washing, the waiter, if the greasy ruffian could be dignified with that
title, asked if it would not do in the morning.
On being sworn at in Turkish and Russian by Mahommed Ali, and
afterwards beaten in the passage, water in one brass jug and one
basin was brought, and the Russian stood by to pour it over our
hands—this is the cleanly mode of performing one’s ablutions here.
The fellow then brought a dirty towel, on which Mahommed Ali again
remonstrated with him in the passage in a forcible manner; in this
sort of thing Mahommed Ali is very useful.
On leaving Erivan, which was covered with snow, we reached in a
day and night Nakchewan; round this place I saw cotton bushes—of
course they were bare. Here we rested a night.
Going on next morning, we came to Julfa, the frontier village of a
few hovels. Crossing the river Araxes, a shallow stream, we put up in
the windowless telegraph office. As we saw nothing but snow since
we left Tiflis, there has been little to describe in the way of scenery;
as may be fancied, the cold was intense. We are now in Persia.
CHAPTER II.
POST JOURNEY TO THE CAPITAL.
Preparations for the start—Costume—Chaff bed—First fall—Extra luggage—The

whip—Stages and their length—Appearance of the country, and climate—First
stage—Turk guides—Welcome rest—Weighing fire-wood—Meana bug—
Turcomanchai—Distances—New friends—Palace of Kerrij.
At Julfa, on the Araxes—a muddy stream, when we were there,

easily fordable—is the Persian frontier, and here our horse-journey
was to begin. The tarantass was sold a bargain to the postmaster. A
change of clothes and boots and a few flannel shirts were stuffed in
the “koorjins,” or saddle-bags, made of rough carpet; boots were
greased and put on, so were spurs; and I, in my innocence, at the
instigation of the saddler, who I suppose wished to get rid of them,
had provided myself with a pair of huge long brass ones, such as
were worn by the barons of melodrama, and palmed off on me as
real Mexican persuaders adapted for long journeys—these awful
things the Colonel suggested I should do without, but I did not like to
be shorn of any of my splendour, and I wore them. At first I spurred
myself considerably when walking, but I got over this, and no doubt
they added to the picturesqueness of my get-up. Fur-cap, “horsey”
box-cloth pilot-jacket, with big horn buttons, cords and boots, also a
huge courier’s whip and fur gloves, made, to my youthful mind, a
striking picture, and I greatly appreciated myself.
At Tiflis we had provided ourselves with bags, some seven feet
long and four feet wide—these bags were to be filled with chaff, of
which there is an abundance, at each station. It is called “kah,” and
is the ordinary horse-feed, some of it being always in the manger; at
this the Persian horse persistently munches; when he has had a
bellyful of it he gets his morning or evening feed—never before. This
rather primitive mattress is soft, cool in summer, warm in winter, free
from insects, and there is no bed to carry.
We each carried a small washing-basin of brass; we had also a
teapot and two tin plates. I had a wonderful expanding cup which I
used to fill with wine, but, before I had time to drink, it generally
collapsed, so I soon flung it away. We carried a few packets of
candles; and, having our chaff-bags filled, we retired early, to begin
on the morrow our first day’s posting. To my companion, an old
traveller, this was nothing, but I looked forward to it with mixed
feelings of delight and awe.
Apparently in the dead of night—really at dawn—I saw the Colonel
dressed and busy; I hurried on my clothes, bundled my few odds and
ends into my saddle-bags, rolled up my rugs into a cylinder, with the
waterproof one outside, swallowed as many cups of hot tea as I
could hold (it was terribly cold), reluctantly put my long brass spurs
away—the Colonel told me I should only find them in my way—and
dragged my various impedimenta into the yard.
The fact was that, with our heavy baggage, which quite loaded
one of the horses, which was to be led, we were unable to take more
than one servant. To be without one when posting in Persia is
extremely inconvenient. Of course, if speed is a great object, a man
gets along much faster without a servant, but then he has to do
everything for himself, and to know how to do it.
After some three-quarters of an hour we managed to get the
baggage-horse loaded with two portmanteaux, and our own beasts
saddled; the koorjins, or saddle-bags, put on across the loins of the
horses, and firmly secured by a strap passing from the bottom of
each bag to the girths. This is most important to prevent the shaking
up together of everything the saddle-bags may contain.
My “Dayrell” bridle was fitted with a common watering bit, and as
the horses of Persia are accustomed to a very severe native
machine, my melancholy animal, as soon as he had been lashed
into a canter, bolted, and was only brought to a stop by his coming
down on his nose, which he did after some quarter of a mile. Of
course, with such a bit, it was quite impossible to pull him up. As
usual, though we fell with a crash, no one was hurt. I struggled to my
feet, but the pony lay quite still, as if injured, till the “shargird
chupper,” or horse-boy, on his arrival, by a few vigorous kicks
caused him to get up and shake himself. The Colonel now advised
me to take the native bridle used by the shargird, and with this, of
course, I could easily command my pony.
Several times we had to stop to arrange the load of the pack-
horse, and also to alter the contents of our saddle-bags. These
should be so packed as to be of nearly exactly equal weight, as
when they are not so they gradually slip round, and one’s horse
stops; when one finds one bag under his belly, the other on his
crupper.
The ordinary chuppering kit of saddle, rugs, and bags is well
suited for this kind of travelling, but we had besides a led horse, a tin
cocked-hat case, a leather hat-box, and a sword and umbrella of the
Colonel’s. Our shargird, after many attempts to manage differently,
fixed the tin cocked-hat case to his saddle, en croupe, tied the
leather hat-box on as a knapsack behind his shoulders, and carried
the sword under the surcingle of his saddle.
We kept on at a smart canter, only stopping to fix or shift the loads
of the various animals. As soon as we were a mile or two from the
station the shargird ceased to lead the baggage-horse; he had been
compelled to do so till then, as he would have turned back.
The cantering through the cold air was exhilarating; and now I had
time to look at the country—Persia at last!—which I was to inhabit for
three years certain. I found that the road, if such it could be called,
simply consisted of a number of tracks across country, which ran
along irregularly side by side, formed by the wear of strings of mules
and camels; there was no road in our sense of the term; in fact, the
judicious thing seemed to be to go as straight ahead as one could,
avoiding bad bits by a curve, and keeping to the most worn portion of
the track, unless it was deep in mud or water. The ponies did not
require much urging, and I found it expedient to keep my big chupper
whip quiet, till I had learnt how to use it with ease and effect.
This whip is provided with a short stick of hard and heavy wood,
covered with leather, and having a big loop of the same, that it may
hang at the wrist when not in use.
The lash is a round one of four thongs of Hamadan leather plaited,
and is from four to seven feet long; when the latter, it is reduced in
actual length to about three and a half feet by plaiting the lash from
the stick downwards for about two feet; it ends in a knot, and beyond
this are two flat pieces of leather some six inches long, which the
expert keeps flicking under the horse’s nose; thus, without hurting
the horse or tiring himself, letting him be aware of the punishment in
store for the lazy being at hand.
The stages are from three to eight farsakhs in length, a farsakh
being in the rough three and a half miles; they vary in different parts
of the country, and are especially long between Teheran and
Hamadan, some of the seven-farsakh stages being, in the opinion of
those who have been often over them, thirty miles and more.
The average stage is, however, five farsakhs, and from one large
city to another, as Tabriz to Teheran, Teheran to Ispahan, or Ispahan
to Shiraz, this reckoning holds good. As a rule, a very short stage
has a very bad road, a very long one a good one; but this is not
invariable. The first and last stage of a long journey, too, is as a rule
a very short one, as Persians like, in marching, to have the first
stage a short one, that omissions may be replaced before definitely
starting, and the caravan got together well outside the town. The last
stage being a short one enables friends to receive them, makes it
easier to put on good clothes and to brush up after the journey—in
fact, to arrive in a presentable condition.
All around us were earth-hills, with quantities of loose stones on
them; here and there patches of snow; in the distance, in every
direction, we were surrounded by snow-covered mountains; but the
sky was blue and cloudless, the air was pure and dry. As it got
warmer and warmer we felt a sense of freedom, and that a change
for the better had been made from the noisy and stifling tarantass.
Our guide now began to shout “Yawash!” (gently), and “Nuffus!
nuffus!” (breath), and the Colonel intimated to me that we must walk
our animals to give them their second wind. This we did, and we
jogged along easily till within some six miles of the post-house. Then
the guide rushed to the front, the ponies did their best, and it
appeared the correct thing to get them along as fast as possible. The
fact was that we had very good horses, so that as we cantered up to
the post-house, having done our stage of six farsakhs (twenty-one
miles) in three hours, we felt that the Colonel, being burdened with a
greenhorn and a lot of extra luggage, had not done badly.
And now I thought that I had fairly earned a rest and something to
eat. I was hungry and rather tired, for, being determined to get no
cropper, unless my beast came down as well, I had used my knees
too much. Your experienced chupper merely rides by balance, to
avoid tiring himself. What, then, was my disgust at seeing the
Colonel order out more horses at once, and to see him set to to help
with the saddling. I groaned in the spirit, and did the same; though it
was with some doubt that I agreed to the proposition that “it was very
lucky we got horses, and could get on at once.”
The Colonel explained to me that, in travelling “chupper” (or post),
it was incumbent on the traveller never to stop during the day, at
least when he could get horses. This is doubtless a safe rule, but a
corollary should be added that, unless the country is very safe
indeed, it is as well, unless very urgent, not to go on after sunset. To
a neglect of this latter rule I must put down my falling into the hands
of robbers during the famine.
I now found out what it was to get a really rough and bad horse;
this beast’s only pace was a hard trot, and the amount of shaking
was tremendous. The road was much as before, and the going was
fairly good. On reaching the next stage I was heartily glad to find
there were no horses, which gave us time to get some tea, and a
breakfast of hard eggs and harder biscuits. It was two ere we could
make a start, and I did not forget to change my steed, and profited
considerably; but the shaking had been severe, and I felt very stiff
and tired. I was, however, ashamed to say so, and I chimed in with
my companion in his praises of the delights of posting, and the
glorious freedom of travel in the East.
Though the Colonel was a good Persian scholar, he could not
make much of the guides and post-house keepers, who are all
Turks; and very few of them speak Persian, Turkish being the
language of the country. It is not till some four stages past Tabriz that
Persian is the dialect of the peasant.
The reigning family, too, affect to think and speak in Turkish with
their relatives and families; but it is not the Turkish of Constantinople,
but the rougher speech of Tabriz, the cause being probably that at
some period of their early life they have resided at Tabriz, where
nothing else but Turkish is spoken; of course, it is also their ancestral
tongue.
We got safely to our third post-house, at half-past three, got fresh
horses, and started. The warmth of the last two stages had ceased,
and patches of snow were getting more frequent; but I felt, though
sorely against the grain, that as long as the Colonel would go on I
ought not to object, under penalty of being thought a muff. Our
steeds were bad; we couldn’t get more than a walk out of them, and
we were six hours doing the stage, which we reached chilled to the
bone. I was indeed delighted to hear from the Colonel that “it was
hardly worth while pushing on!” and as I scrambled into the bare and
blackened room which the postmaster allotted to us, and busied
myself in getting a light, I was grateful that even the Colonel’s ideas
of duty were satisfied. Of course, afterwards, such a day’s posting
came to be looked on as a joke; but sixty-eight miles, over bad
roads, to a man not accustomed to the saddle, is a serious matter.
Our first care was to get the postmaster, a poor ragged fellow, to
light a fire of brushwood; a fierce blaze that thoroughly warmed the
room, and at the same time filled the place with smoke, was the
result. Then he bethought him that the chimney was stopped up with
a brick; the brick was removed, and more brushwood put on. Then
he gave us a carpet on loan, brought some firewood and the scales
to weigh it; the weights were big stones, the scales two baskets
slung on a stick.
There were recesses some yard from the ground all round the
room, which was some eight feet by twelve. The floor was earth, the
walls mud, the roof big poles with branches of trees laid across
them. In the recesses we stuck three candles. The walls and roof
were polished black from the smoke of many fires. In the part of the
room near the door were flung our saddles and luggage. No furniture
of any kind; we got the bullock-trunk forward to use as a table.
The shargird chupper brought our chaff-bags filled, and laid one
on either side of the fireplace as a mattress; we laid our rugs, and
put our saddle-bags for pillows. We made a big fire, borrowed a
kettle, got some strong tea under weigh, enjoyed a dinner of cold
fowl and biscuit; barricaded our door, which seemed merely three
planks nailed together, and lay down to sleep like tops. The naib, or
postmaster, replaced the brick, and the ashes of our fire were alight
in the morning. I never enjoyed a night’s rest so much. But at 5 a.m.
there was the Colonel with the tea under weigh, and adjuring me to
rise.
Up I got, gobbled down some hot tea, and we started in the snow
at six, for it had come down heavily in the night.
Ah, it was cold! and hardly light, the horses trying to turn back as
we followed at a snail’s pace the shargird, who seemed not to know
much of the road. In a few minutes I was sitting on alternate hands in
a vain attempt to keep them warm. We had fortunately taken the
precaution to put on big Turkish wool socks over our boots, and this
kept our feet from freezing, for the cold stirrup-iron soon, in such
weather, extracts any warmth from the feet.
At last the light came, and we could see the village and post-
house, some half-mile off, after an hour’s wandering; but we were on
the road, which was something. And now that we could see to go,
and the shargird was sure of the way, off we went at the usual pace,
a smart gallop. Nine o’clock brought us to the next stage—five
farsakhs.
We reached Meana, at which there is a fine new post-house, at
about five, but we had arranged that, unless we were compelled to
sleep at this place, we would avoid it, as the celebrated so-called
bug of Meana is found here. During the whole time I have resided in
Persia I never could find any one who had suffered any ill effects
from the bite of the “Meana bug” at all in proportion to the horrors
narrated; and I must look on the description given by travellers as
apocryphal: Eastwick dilates on it. The kenneh, or camel-tic,
certainly causes a particularly irritating wound, which will be found
fully described further on. But the “Meana bug,” I am inclined to
think, is nothing more than an ordinary camel- or perhaps sheep-tic,
and by no means dangerous to life (pace Eastwick). But we both at
that time were inclined to believe that there was something in the
terrible accounts given of the insect, and so we avoided Meana. As it
was we made a very great mistake; Meana, having at that time a
brand-new post-house, was quite safe; but as we pushed on
darkness caught us, and we did not arrive till nearly ten at night at
Turcomanchai. Here was an old caravanserai only to put up in; the
post-house was in ruins. And on the Colonel asking the postmaster if
he had many insects he shrugged his shoulders in a significant
manner.
We found a French merchant, with a big box of valuables, in the
blackened cell of the doorway appropriated to posting travellers. He
was marching, but had taken the room as the only water- and wind-
tight one, and he welcomed us to a share of it and his big fire. It was
very cold outside, and we were glad to get to the grateful warmth
and partake of a cup of tea. But we had not been in the place half an
hour when we found that it was literally alive. We couldn’t go on, and
there was no other place to go to.
I throw a veil over our sufferings. How we regretted the clean new
post-house at Meana, and how glad we were to leave
Turcomanchai[2] at the earliest break of dawn! The insects, however,
were merely fleas, B flats, and those nameless to ears polite.
There was little or no snow on the road as we started, but it was
sufficiently cold; the roads were hard, good, but full of loose stones.
Such was the journey—each day a repetition of that before it,
varied only in weather.
February 12, after going 480 miles chupper, we were met about
twenty miles from Teheran by Major S⸺, the director of the
Persian telegraph department, Mr. B⸺, my medical chief, and
Messrs. T⸺ and M⸺, secretaries of the English Legation, all
friends of Colonel G⸺’s.
They escorted us to a place called Kerrij, a palace of the Shah’s,
gave us a sumptuous dinner, and we lay down to sleep in huge
rooms gay with paint, gilding, and coloured glass. A mighty brew of
egg-flip prevented a wakeful night; and the next morning we rode
over a muddy plain to Major S⸺’s house in Teheran, which was to
be my home till I started for “down country.”
CHAPTER III.
TEHERAN.
Teheran—The Director’s house—Persian visits—Etiquette—Pipes, details of—

Tumbakū—Ceremony—Anecdote—The voice of the sluggard—Persian
medicine explained—My prospects as a medico—Zoological Gardens.
Teheran struck me as a poor place, particularly from the outside of

the town; the streets were narrow, and the houses seemed mostly of
plastered mud, or of mud alone. And when we reached Major S
⸺’s house, on the outside the prospect was not inviting, but no
sooner were we inside than everything was comfortable: good doors,
good windows, carpets of great beauty, chairs—only try to do without
these for a few days, and then, and then only, does one appreciate
their comfort—big settees and divans, and a host of smart and
attentive servants. Tea and pipes at once; a warm bath, much
needed, in prospect, and, above all, the freedom from the morning’s
call to boot-and-saddle at an unearthly hour.
No sooner was breakfast over than messages were for ever
arriving for my chief as to what time he would receive this grandee or
that friend; and shortly the ceremonious visits commenced. I was, of
course, only too glad to see what a Persian visit was like.
To be a successful entertainer in Persia it is imperative to be a
master in the art of compliment, as the conversation itself is
generally trivial; but the exact amount of compliment must be meted
out with a careful hand, according to the visitor’s rank. By no means
should the thing be overdone, as an excess of good treatment, over
and above what the caller is entitled to, merely lowers the recipient
of the visit in the guest’s estimation.
Of course I did not at once appreciate the differences of the
intonation in the “Bismillah!” or invitation to be seated, but I saw that
great differences were made in the position of the guest, in the
duration of his visit, and whether he were pressed to stop or not, and
in the rising and advancing to receive him, or the refraining from so
doing.
I soon found out that in addressing a great man, or at times an
equal, the third person plural was frequently used; while the
expression “bander” (literally, the slave), really “your servant,” in lieu
of the first person singular, touched on scriptural form. “Shuma”
(you), the second person plural, was, of course, frequent, but in the
case of a grandee some prefix was used, as “sircar-i-shuma” (your
excellency), &c.; these prefixes it was necessary to use correctly,
giving each man his due, or if you wished to please him, a little more
than his due. To give a man a good deal more than his due was
understood to be sarcasm.
The second person singular is only used to inferiors, servants or
children, or in anger. As a rule the lower-class Persian always uses
to the European the second person singular, if he thinks he can do it
with impunity; and it has to be resented, and the transgressor put in
his place at once, or all respect is gone. Of course the offender
feigns ignorance.
Each visitor was regaled with some three little cups of tea and the
same number of water-pipes; some of the more advanced among
the guests affected cigarettes, as did Major S⸺ and most
Europeans. A few whiffs would be taken from the water-pipes, and
they would be removed or passed on, at the will of their masters, for
I noticed that, as a rule, the greater personages brought their own
pipes.[3]
The tobacco smoked in the kalian is called “tumbakū,” in
distinction to “tootoon,” or that smoked in pipes or cigarettes; it is
sold in the leaf, which is packed dry in layers, and is preserved in
bags sewn up in raw hide; it improves by age, and is quite
unsmokable the first year. The best comes from Jarūm, south of
Shiraz.
When a visitor is offered a pipe, and there is not a second one to
hand, it is at once taken to him by the host’s servant. He then
deprecatingly suggests that his host should smoke first; this is
declined by a sweeping gesture. He now offers it to the other guests,
if any, and, on receiving a negative gesture, commences to inhale.
Should, however, the host be much superior in position, the visitor
will either refuse to smoke first, or, if he has the bad taste to do so,
the host does not smoke at all, but sends the pipe away. When there
are many visitors and only one pipe, the greatest one smokes first,
then the rest smoke in order of rank, previously paying the
compliment of suggesting that some one else should precede them.
These little punctilios are endless.
Priests or holy men do not, as a rule, like to smoke the pipe of the
European, or to smoke even out of the same pipe. Of course the
only plan to be then adopted is to feign a disinclination to smoke at
all. As a rule, Persians (the Frenchmen of the East) are usually so
polite as to prevent any sign of this disinclination to be apparent, and
will bring their own pipes, or smoke those of friends, and so get over
any hitch. But at times bigoted men will try to be offensive. I well
remember a case in point. A priest of Hamadan, high in office, had
occasion to call on our superintendent, Captain Pierson, R.E.
Pierson, with whom I lived at the time, sought to provide against any
possible unpleasantness by purchasing a pipe with a clay bottle and
head (it was summer-time, and such pipes are liked then), and told
his servant that if the priest didn’t provide his own smoke, this
particular pipe was to be brought to him, with a hint in a whisper to
the guest that it was an entirely new one.
As he had expected, so it turned out; the holy man came without
his pipe, and on the usual procession of pipebearers entering, he
roughly informed Pierson that he did not smoke after Europeans.
Pierson drew his attention to the fact that a new pipe had been
specially provided.
He took it, smoked it, and then had the gross impertinence to hand
it to Pierson; the latter politely declined, but the priest was not
content, and drew from Pierson the following:—
“Just as it would be painful to you to smoke after a European, so it
would pain me to do so after a Mussulman. I provided against you
having to do without your pipe, and respected your prejudices; as

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Phytochemicals in Citrus: Applications

in Functional Foods 1st Edition

Phytochemicals in Goji Berries-Applications in

Functional Foods and Biotechnology-Biotransformation

Functional foods nutraceuticals and natural products

Knowledge-Driven Board-Level Functional Fault Diagnosis

Functional Foods and Beverages In vitro Assessment of

Natural antioxidants applications in foods of animal

Water activity in foods fundamentals and applications

Handbook of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods 3rd

Phytochemicals in Citrus: Applications in Functional Foods (2017)

Food as Medicine: Functional Food Plants of Africa (2016)

Chinese Dates: A Traditional Functional Food (2016)

Functional Food Ingredients and Nutraceuticals: (2015)

Marine Products for Healthcare: Functional and Bioactive (2009)

Methods of Analysis for Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals, (2008)

Handbook of Fermented Functional Foods, Second Edition (2008)

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Dictionary of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods (2006)

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Chapter 1 Citrus Fruits, Varieties, Chemical Properties, and Products

Chapter 2 Bioactive Components in Citrus Fruits and Their Health Benefits..... 41

Chapter 3 Citrus Bioactives as Prospective Therapeutic Agents

Chapter 4 Citrus Polysaccharides and Their Biofunctions................................ 133

Chapter 5 Phenolic Compounds and Bioactive Agents in Citrus Fruits............ 169

Chapter 6 Carotenoids in Citrus........................................................................ 211

Chapter 7 Properties and Use of Citrus Flavonoids........................................... 237

Chapter 8 Neuroprotection by Dietary and Citrus Flavonoids.......................... 275

Chapter 9 Health Benefits of Orange Juice and Citrus Flavonoids.................... 299

Chapter 10 Citrus Flavonoids and Their Effect on Obesity................................. 325

Chapter 12 Antioxidative and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Citrus Peel

Chapter 13 Citrus Coumarins and Their Health Properties................................ 389

Chapter 14 Main Industrial Citrus By-Products in Spain—Citrus Dietary

Chapter 15 Grapefruit-Like Varieties with Low Furanocoumarin Content........ 437

Chapter 16 Young Citrus Fruits as By-Products and Their Chemical

John Shi, PhD

Xingqian Ye, PhD

Thais Borges Cesar Shi Feng

Jianchu Chen Paula Souza Ferreira

Jianle Chen Danielle R. Gonçalves

Shiguo Chen Sam-Long Hwang

Huan Cheng Gurpreet Kaur

Jasleen Kaur Ana Ortuño

Carlos A. Ledesma-Escobar Jiang Ping

Junhui Li Ron Porat

Shan Li Eran Raveh

Donghong Liu Laura Reuss

María D. Luque de Castro José Antonio del Río

John Shi Yu Wang

Joon Hyuk Suh Jianguo Xu

1.4.1.4 Distribution and Determination of Flavonoids

1.1 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR BIOLOGICAL STRUCTURE

1.1.1 The External Form of Citrus Fruits

1.1 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR BIOLOGICAL STRUCTURE

1.1.1 The External Form of Citrus Fruits

1.1.2 Size and Shape

1.1.3 The Internal Structure of Citrus Fruits

1.1.3.8 Central Core or Pith

1.2 CITRUS FRUIT PRODUCTION

1.3 MAIN CITRUS SPECIES AND PRODUCTION