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Doruk Erkan · Michael D. Lockshin
Editors
Antiphospholipid
Syndrome
123
Antiphospholipid Syndrome
Doruk Erkan • Michael D. Lockshin
Editors
Antiphospholipid Syndrome
Current Research Highlights
and Clinical Insights
Editors
Doruk Erkan, MD, MPH Michael D. Lockshin, MD
Associate Physician-Scientist Director
The Barbara Volcker Center for Women The Barbara Volcker Center for Women
and Rheumatic Diseases and Rheumatic Diseases
Associate Attending Physician Attending Physician
Hospital for Special Surgery Hospital for Special Surgery
Associate Professor of Medicine Professor of Medicine and
Weill Cornell Medicine Obstetrics-Gynecology
New York, NY, USA Weill Cornell Medicine
New York, NY, USA
“Advancing the Field Together” – The Journey that started in planning for the 15th
International Congress on Antiphospholipid Antibodies continues with a State-of-
the-Art Antiphospholipid Syndrome book
1
www.apsistanbul2016.org.
vii
viii Preface
continues with this state-of-the-art book. This book is presented in six sections, each
section focusing on a different aspect of aPL/APS: history; basic science; clinical
and diagnostic features; current and future therapies; task forces; and patient educa-
tion. We want to thank all the authors who participated in this journey, and hope that
this book will add value to the field of thrombosis and APS.
*
Congress Chair
**
Congress Honorary Chair
Acknowledgment
Doruk Erkan
Michael D. Lockshin
Doruk Erkan
ix
Contents
xi
xii Contents
Index.................................................................................................................. 369
Contributors
xv
xvi Contributors
Introduction
If one adds molecular and biological science to clinical description, the history of
antiphospholipid antibody (aPL) and antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) contains
nine phases (Table 1.1). We base this history on personal memory (primarily that of
MDL) and on conversations with the early North American leaders, Samuel
Rapaport, Lawrence Shulman, Sandor Shapiro, Donato Alarcon-Segovia, and Carl
Alving; others have seen the history differently [1–3]. The nine phases emphasize
mechanistic studies as well as clinical ones. Although the North American view
necessarily has a New World bias, we do not wish to understate the important con-
tributions from Europe, Asia, South Africa, Australia, and Central and South
America—it’s just that we have less personal experience with them. This history
omits many investigators, papers, and contributions. For those omissions I (MDL)
apologize.
In 1905 August Paul von Wassermann, recognizing the spirochete, Treponema pal-
lidum, to be the cause of syphilis, used complement fixation, an immunological test
available in his era, to identify an antibody that binds the surface of the spirochete.
Thus, he created a diagnostic test for syphilis that has lasted to this day [4]. It soon
became apparent that Wassermann’s antibody is also found in patients who do not
have syphilis, a finding that led to the concept of biological false-positive test for
syphilis (BFP). By the 1940s physicians recognized that the BFP is a signal of auto-
immunity, since many patients with BFP also have systemic lupus erythematosus
(SLE) or a related autoimmune disease [5]. Over the next two decades a team of
physicians at the Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland (A. McGee Harvey,
Lawrence E. Shulman, J.E. Moore, Philip Tumulty, and C.E. Conley) published a
series of papers that described the relationship between BFP and SLE [6–9].
In 1941 Mary C. Pangborn, from the Division of Laboratories and Research,
New York State Department of Health in Albany, New York, purified the syphilis
antigen responsible for a positive Wassermann test. Because the antigen is a phos-
pholipid extracted from beef hearts, she named it cardiolipin [10]. Forty years later
this phospholipid reappeared at the center of the description of APS.
The association of BFP with SLE created a clinical conundrum because it is not a
practical test. Uncommon in a community and more often true than falsely positive,
to screen for syphilis is a poor way to screen for autoimmune disease. The test for LA
is impractical, since it is also uncommonly present; as initially performed, it requires
fresh plasma and an available, capable laboratory. Furthermore, the test for LA is not
easily standardized. Thus a simpler way of identifying this phenomenon was required.
In 1983, E. Nigel Harris [23], working with Graham R. V. Hughes, used a radio-
immunoassay, followed very shortly by a similar, more convenient, Enzyme-linked
Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) [24], to identify antibodies to cardiolipin. Use of
this test markedly simplified the identification of aPL in patients with SLE. Through
a series of conferences organized by Hughes, Harris, and Azzudin Gharavi, this test
was standardized and internationalized, and the term antiphospholipid antibody (or
anticardiolipin antibody) was first used in a clinical context [25]. The Hughes group
generously shared their assay with others, allowing its widespread use and confir-
mation throughout the world. The first international meeting on aPL and its associ-
ated syndrome, APS (see below), organized by Hughes, took place in 1984 in
London.
The links between LA, SLE, and thrombosis have been known since the early
1960s. The association of LA with pregnancy loss was first published in 1975 by
Inga Marie Nilsson [26], in English, in a not widely read Scandinavian journal. The
same association was noted and published in French by J. P. Soulier and Marie-
Claire Boffa in 1980 [27]. These papers were not widely cited until the radioimmu-
noassay and ELISA tests for anticardiolipin became available in 1983. Initially, aCL
was thought to be a more rapid, more reliable, test for LA, that is, equivalent to LA,
6 M.D. Lockshin and E.N. Harris
and to impart the same clinical features. Clinical studies on the frequent occurrence
of aCL in SLE patients rapidly led to the recognition that both thrombosis and preg-
nancy loss occur primarily in those who carry aCL/LA. This special form of SLE
was soon called anticardiolipin syndrome, or lupus anticoagulant syndrome, or APS
(the preferred term) [28].
The rapid use of the aCL ELISA worldwide led to an explosion of clinical papers
that further defined the classical (thrombosis and pregnancy loss) manifestations of
APS as well as nonclassical manifestations, like livedo reticularis, heart valve
abnormality, thrombocytopenia, and cognitive dysfunction. Parameters of APS-
associated pregnancy complication—early preeclampsia, growth restriction, throm-
bocytopenia, and HELLP syndrome (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low
platelets)—were described in more detail [29, 30].
Within a few years many investigators, beginning with Ronald A. Asherson from
Hughes’ group in England in 1985 [31], described patients with APS who did not
have diagnosable SLE. In 1987 Harris, in an editorial in which he described the
essential features of APS, suggested that APS is an independent entity distinct from
SLE. He called it the “syndrome of the black swan” [32]. 1989 brought several more
reports from the Hughes group in England (Asherson [33] and Charles G. Mackworth-
Young [34]) and Mexico (Alarcón-Segovia [35]) that dissociated APS from SLE
and distinguished “primary” antiphospholipid syndrome (PAPS), in which SLE is
not present, from “secondary” antiphospholipid syndrome (sAPS), in which APS
accompanies SLE or a related illness.
Beginning in the 1990s, animal models enhanced our understanding of the mecha-
nisms of APS. D. Ware Branch published a pregnancy loss model in 1990 [44], and
Miri Blank and Yehuda Shoenfeld offered a similar model in 1991 [45]. Silvia
Pierangeli described an animal model for thrombosis in 1994 [46]. The pregnancy
and the thrombosis models have been widely and successfully exploited for mecha-
nistic and treatment studies since that time. They remain in use today [47–49].
1990–1999: β2-Glycoprotein I
In vitro the ELISA for aCL behaves aberrantly, becoming nonlinear when the tested
serum sample is diluted with albumin or fetal calf serum instead of adult human or
animal serum. This anomaly led investigators in Maastricht, Sydney, Sapporo, and
Paris nearly simultaneously to identify a cofactor necessary for immunoglobulin
binding to phospholipid [50–54]. This cofactor is now known to be β2-glycoprotein
I (apolipoprotein H, β2GPI); aPLs are now thought to be primarily antibodies to
β2GPI and only secondarily, through β2GPI, are they directed against phospholipids.
Extensive molecular biological studies have defined the molecular and tertiary
structures of β2GPI, its five domains, its binding sites, and its antigenic sites.
Many papers on the biology of aPL and APS [55–57] focus on the molecular
biology of β2GPI, its antibodies and its receptors, its role in complement activation,
endothelial and platelet activation, cytokines, pro- and antithrombotic proteins, pla-
cental biology, genomics and microbiomics, and other areas. The induction of aPL
or antibody to β2GPI by infectious agents, from viral (Epstein-Barr virus) to myco-
bacterial (leprosy), is a topic under active exploration. Alternatively, aPL may
cross-react with antibodies to infectious agents. Treatments, including inhibitors of
peptides on β2GPI, complement, receptors, and B cells, competing antibodies, anti-
platelet agents, and new and old anticoagulants, all target novel pathogenic path-
ways and mechanisms.
Largely through the efforts of the Hughes group in London, the field of APS has
been collaborative since the beginning. International meetings have taken place
every 2 or 3 years since 1984, the conference in Istanbul (relocated to North Cyprus)
(www.apsistanbul2016.org) in 2016 being the Fifteenth. (Pierangeli and Harris
summarized the history of these meetings through the Thirteenth [58].) The
European Forum began in 1996 [59]; APS Alliance for Clinical Trials and
International Networking (APS-ACTION), a group dedicated to clinical trials,
8 M.D. Lockshin and E.N. Harris
began in 2010 [60]. International consensus committees have devised clinical and
laboratory criteria for classification, first in Sapporo in 1998 [61], with revision in
Sydney in 2004 [62], and further efforts to develop new classification criteria under
the auspices of the Fifteenth Congress [63]. Major hospital clinics focused on APS
now exist in most areas of the world.
The Future
This history necessarily focuses on past events. Many important clinical ques-
tions—clear predictive ability, fully satisfactory treatment, possibly cures—are not
yet available. The following questions require answers:
When these questions are answered, we will begin to believe that we will see an
end to the devastation caused by APS.
References
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8. Harvey AM, Shulman LE, Tumulty PA, Conley CL, Shoenrich EH. Systemic lupus erythema-
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diolipin antibodies by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA): standardization and
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29. Lockshin MD, Druzin ML, Goei S, et al. Antibody to cardiolipin as a predictor of fetal distress
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51. McNeil HP, Simpson RJ, Chesterman CN, Krilis SA. Anti-phospholipd antibodies are directed
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1 History of Antiphospholipid Antibody 11
Introduction
β2-Glycoprotein I
— Aleksei, isäkulta.
— Oletko kaukaa?
4.
Heikkouskoinen rouva
— Minä sain henkisesti niin paljon, niin paljon, kun katselin tuota
liikuttavaa kohtausta… — sanoi hän voimatta lopettaa lausettaan
liikutukselta. — Oi, minä ymmärrän, että kansa teitä rakastaa, minä
itsekin rakastan kansaa, tahdon sitä rakastaa, ja kuinka voisikaan
olla rakastamatta kansaa, ihanaa, kaikessa suuruudessaan
avomielistä Venäjän kansaa!
— Kuinka tyttärenne voi? Tehän halusitte taas keskustella
kanssani?
— Oi, minä pyysin sitä hartaasti, minä rukoilin, olisin ollut valmis
lankeamaan polvilleni ja olemaan siinä asennossa vaikka kolme
päivää ikkunoittenne edessä, kunnes olisitte päästänyt minut
puheillenne. Me tulimme luoksenne, suuri terveeksitekijä,
lausuaksemme teille innostuneen kiitoksemme. Tehän olette tehnyt
Liseni terveeksi, aivan terveeksi, ja miten? Siten, että torstaina
rukoilitte hänen puolestaan, panitte kätenne hänen päällensä.
Riensimme suutelemaan noita käsiä, tuomaan esille tunteemme ja
hartaan kunnioituksemme.
— Kärsin… epäuskosta…
Rouva itki.
Lise oli todellakin kaiken aikaa tuolla tavoin kujeillut. Hän oli jo
pitkän aikaa, viime kerrasta asti, huomannut, että Aljoša joutuu
hänen seurassaan hämilleen ja koettaa olla häneen katsomatta, ja
tämäpä häntä oli alkanut suuresti huvittaa. Lise katseli Aljošaan
kiinteästi ja koetti saada heidän katseensa sattumaan yhteen. Aljoša
ei voinut kestää häneen itsepintaisesti suunnattua katsetta ja alkoi
äkkiä tahtomattaan, vastustamattoman voiman pakosta, itse katsella
tyttöä, mutta silloin tyttö samassa alkoi hymyillä voitonriemuista
hymyä katsellen suoraan hänen silmiinsä. Aljoša oli yhä enemmän
hämillään ja harmissaan. Viimein hän kääntyi kokonaan pois ja
piiloutui vanhuksen selän taakse. Muutaman minuutin kuluttua hän
taas saman vastustamattoman voiman pakottamana kääntyi
katsomaan, katsooko tyttö häntä vai eikö, ja näki, että Lise melkein
riippuen ulos lepotuolistaan katseli häntä sivulta päin ja odotti kaikin
voimin, milloin hän katsoo. Mutta kun Aljošan ja hänen katseensa
sattuivat yhteen, alkoi tyttö nauraa ääneensä, niin että vanhus ei
malttanut olla sanomatta:
5.