Solution Manual for Marketing 11th Edition Kerin Hartley

Rudelius 0077441842 9780077441845

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CHAPTER CONTENTS
PAGE
POWERPOINT RESOURCES TO USE WITH LECTURES ..........................................2-2

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (LO) ...................................................................................... 2-4

KEY TERMS ...................................................................................................................... 2-4

LECTURE NOTES
Chapter Opener: Want to be an Entrepreneur? Get an “A” in a Correspondence
Course in Ice Cream Making!................................................................................... 2-5
Today’s Organizations (LO1).................................................................................... 2-5
Strategy in Visionary Organizations (LO2; LO3)...................................................... 2-9
Setting Strategic Directions (LO4) ...........................................................................2-17
The Strategic Marketing Process (LO5; LO6)..........................................................2-22

APPLYING MARKETING KNOWLEDGE....................................................................2-29

BUILDING YOUR MARKETING PLAN........................................................................2-32

VIDEO AND APPENDIX D CASES

Video Case 2: IBM: Using Strategy to Build a “Smarter Planet” ..............................2-36
Appendix D Case D-2: Daktronics, Inc.: Global Displays in 68 Billion Colors .........2-41

IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES (ICA): See the ICA CD in the Instructor’s Survival Kit Box
ICA 2-1: Calculating a “Fog Index” for Your Own Writing
ICA 2-2: Marketing Yourself
2-1 Chapter 2
 POWERPOINT RESOURCES TO USE WITH LECTURES1
PowerPoint
Textbook Figures Slide2
Figure 2-1 The board of directors oversees the three levels of strategy in organizations:
corporate, business unit, and functional (p. 27) .................................................................. 2-9
Figure 2-2 Visionary organizations: (1) establish a foundation, (2) set a direction, and
(3) create strategies to successfully develop and market their offerings (p. 28) ........... 2-12
Figure 2-3 An effective marketing dashboard like Sonatica’s helps managers assess a
business situation at a glance (p. 32) ................................................................................ 2-21
Figure 2-3AMarketing Dashboard: Website Traffic Sources........................................................... 2-22
Figure 2-3BMarketing Dashboard: Sales Performance by SBU...................................................... 2-23
Figure 2-3CMarketing Dashboard: Monthly Website Visits by State............................................. 2-24
Figure 2-4 Boston Consulting Group business portfolio analysis for Kodak’s consumer-related
SBUs for 2003 (red circle) and 2012 (white circle) (p. 36) ............................................ 2-31
Figure 2-5 Four alternative market-product strategies for Ben & Jerry’s to expand sales
revenues using diversification analysis (p. 37) ................................................................ 2-33
Figure 2-6 The strategic marketing process has three phases: planning, implementation,
and evaluation (p. 38) ......................................................................................................... 2-35
Figure 2-7 Ben & Jerry’s SWOT analysis that serves as the basis for management actions
regarding growth (p. 39) ................................................................................................... 2-38
Figure 2-8 The elements of the marketing mix must be blended to produce a cohesive
marketing program (p. 41) ................................................................................................ 2-43
Figure 2-9 Organization of a typical manufacturing firm, showing a breakdown of the
marketing department (p. 42)............................................................................................ 2-45
Figure 2-10 The evaluation phase requires that Kodak compare actual results with goals to
identify and act on deviations to fill in the “planning gap” by 2012 (p. 43) ................. 2-47

Selected Textbook Images of Ads, Photos, and Products for Lecture Notes
Chapter Opener: Image of Ben & Jerry’s social mission statement (p. 24) .......................................... 2-4
Photos of Kodak digital camera, film cartridge, digital photo printer, and digital picture frame:
What SBU type in the BCG growth-share matrix? (p. 35).................................................................. 2-30
Video Case 2: Photo of IBM’s logo and a print ad for IBM’s “Smarter Plant” (pp. 46-47).............. 2-48

Marketing Dashboard with an Excel Spreadsheet

How Well is Ben & Jerry’s Doing?: Dollar Sales and Dollar Market Share (p. 33)
[See CH02SalesMktShare.xls] .................................................................................................... ........... 2-25

1
For each PowerPoint resource listed, the page reference (p. x) or [p. y] in the textbook is where the figure or image is located.
2
The slide number references are for the “media rich” PowerPoint presentation for this chapter, which is available only on the
Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM. A “basic” PowerPoint presentation for this chapter that has only textbook figures and image
slides can be downloaded from the Marketing: 11/e website. See www.mhhe.com/kerin.
Chapter 2 2-2
 POWERPOINT RESOURCES TO USE WITH LECTURES
PowerPoint
Marketing Matters, Making Responsible Decisions, and/or Going Online Slide
Making Responsible Decisions—Social Responsibility: Using Social Entrepreneurship to Help
People (p. 27) .............................................................................................................. ............................. 2-7
Marketing Matters—Entrepreneurship: The Netflix Launch and Its Continually Changing
Business Model! (p.31).......................................................................................................................... 2-16

Supplemental Image
Photo of the Starship Enterprise: Why is a mission statement important? [pp. 29-30]..................... 2-14

Supplemental Figures
Figure 2-A How an industry is structured [pp. 29-31] .......................................................................... 2-6
Figure 2-B Elements in typical marketing and business plans targeted at different audiences
[pp. 29-31].......................................................................................................................... 2-26

Quick Response (QR) Codes3

QR 2-1: Teach for America Video (p. 26)
QR 2-2: Medtronic Video (p. 29)
QR 2-3: Ben & Jerry’s Bonnaroo Buzz Ad (p. 37)
QR 2-4: IBM Video Case (p. 46)

3
TV ads, videos, and video cases with QR Codes can be viewed on the Marketing: 11/e website, which is www.kerin.tv/. Please note
that there MUST be the appropriate QR Code reference (qr1-1, qr1-2, qr2-1, qr22-1, etc.) that follows the “/” after kerin.tv in the
URL. So, to view QR 1-1, the proper URL is www.kerin.tv/qr1-1; to view qr22-5, it is www.kerin.tv/qr22-5.
2-3 Chapter 2
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES (LO)

After reading this chapter students should be able to:

LO1: Describe two kinds of organizations and the three levels of strategy in them.

LO2: Describe how core values, mission, organizational culture, business, and goals are
important to organizations.
LO3: Explain why managers use marketing dashboards and marketing metrics. LO4:

Discuss how an organization assesses where it is now and where it seeks to be. LO5:

Explain the three steps of the planning phase of the strategic marketing process.

LO6: Describe the elements of the implementation and evaluation phases of the strategic
marketing process.

KEY TERMS
business p. 30 marketing plan p. 34
business model p.30 marketing strategy p. 42

business portfolio analysis p. 35 marketing tactics p. 42

competitive advantage p. 34 mission p. 29

core values p. 29 objectives p. 30

corporate level p. 26 cross-
functional teams p. 28
diversification analysis p. 37
functional level p. 28 goals
p. 30
market segmentation pp. 39-40
market share p. 30 marketing
dashboard p. 32 marketing
metric p. 32
organizational culture p. 30
points of difference p. 40
profit p. 26
situation analysis p. 39
strategic business unit (SBU) p. 28
strategic marketing process p. 38
strategy p. 26
SWOT analysis p. 39

Chapter 2 2-4
 LECTURE NOTES

WANT TO BE AN ENTREPRENEUR? GET AN “A” IN A

CORRESPONDENCE COURSE IN ICE CREAM MAKING!
Entrepreneurs Ben Cohen and Jerry Greenfield “aced” their $5 college course in ice
cream making and headed to Vermont in 1978 to start Ben & Jerry’s. Some facts about their
company, which was acquired by Unilever in 2000:

Buys milk products that are bovine growth hormone-free from a dairy cooperative.

Uses social entrepreneurship to help nonprofit organizations give jobs to and train at-
risk youth and young adults with its PartnerShops programs.

Practices Fair Trade-certified sourcing of key ingredients.

Markets its limited edition “Goodbye Yellow Brickle Road” ice cream to benefit Sir
Elton John’s AIDS Foundation.

The Ben & Jerry’s website reflects its creative, funky approach to business—linking its
prosperity to a concern for social causes.

Ben & Jerry’s is the market leader in the global ice cream industry, which is expected to
reach $68 billion in sales by 2015.

Ben & Jerry’s and other companies set goals to give an overall direction to their
organizational and marketing strategies.

The marketing department converts these goals into plans that are implemented and then
evaluated.

I. TODAY’S ORGANIZATIONS [LO1]

In studying today’s visionary organizations, one must understand:

The kinds of organizations that exist.

What strategy is.

How strategy relates to the three levels of structure found in many large
organizations.
A. Kinds of Organizations

An organization is a legal entity of people who share a common mission.

Organizations develop offerings, which are products, services, or ideas that

create value for both the organization and its customers.

2-5 Chapter 2
 Organizations consist of two types:

1. A business firm is a privately owned organization that serves its customers in

order to earn a profit.
a. One goal of a business firm is profit, which is the:
Money left after a business firm’s total expenses are subtracted from
its total revenues.
Reward for the risk it undertakes in marketing its offerings.

b. Business firms must earn a profit to survive.

2. A nonprofit organization is a nongovernmental organization that serves its

customers but does not have profit as an organizational goal.
a. Goals of nonprofit organizations include operational efficiency or
client satisfaction.
b. Examples of nonprofit organizations include charities and cooperatives.

MAKING RESPONSIBLE DECISIONS

Social Responsibility: Using Social Entrepreneurship to Help People

Teach for America, SightLife, and Hand in Hand International are examples of
“social entrepreneurship.”

Social entrepreneurship applies innovative approaches to organize, create, and

manage a venture to solve the practical needs of society. Social entrepreneurs:
a. Usually are nonprofit organizations.

b. Focus on issues facing people who lack the financial or political means to
solve their own problems.

[QR Code 2-1: Teach For America Video]

Teach for America.

a. Is a national corps of recent college graduates who commit to teach for two years
in urban and rural public schools.
b. In the Fall 2011:
9,300 corps members taught throughout the U.S.
Nearly 24,000 alumni continue working from inside and outside the field of
education for the changes necessary to ensure educational excellence and
equity.

Chapter 2 2-6
 SightLife.

a. Has a mission “to end cornea blindness.”

b. Cornea blindness affects 10 million people globally, who can be cured by

transplanting a donated, healthy cornea to replace a diseased one.
c. SightLife finds cornea donors and prepares tissues for surgery.

d. Hired Tim Schottman to help them create 900 eye banks around the world.

Hand in Hand International.

a. Uses microfinance to provide small loans to women in India, South Africa, and
Afghanistan who want to start and operate a small business.
b. Reaches out to the poorest, least educated, would-be businesswomen:
Gives them basic education.
Then the skills needed to operate a business.

The terms firm, company, corporation, and organization are used interchangeably
to refer to both business and nonprofit operations.

Organizations that develop similar offerings, when grouped together, create an

industry, such as the automobile industry or the ice cream industry.
a. [Figure 2-A] The dynamics of an industry impact the strategic decisions
organizations make.
b. These strategic decisions create a compelling and sustainable competitive
advantage to achieve superior performance for an organization’s offerings.
c. Organizations must clearly understand the industry in which they compete.

B. What Is Strategy?

An organization has limited human, financial, technological, and other resources

available to produce and market its offerings—it can’t be all things to all people!

Strategy is organization’s long-term course of action designed to deliver a

unique customer experience while achieving its goals.
a. All organizations set a strategic direction.

b. Marketing helps to set a strategic direction and to move the organization there.

C. Structure of Today’s Organizations

[Figure 2-1] Large organizations are very complex and consist of three levels:

2-7 Chapter 2
 1. Corporate Level. Is the level in an organization where top management directs
overall strategy for the entire organization. Consists of:
a. Board of directors, individuals both inside and outside the organization.

b. Chief executive officer (CEO), the highest ranking officer in the organization.
CEOs must possess leadership skills.
CEOs must have the expertise to:
– Oversee the organization’s daily operations.
– Spearhead its strategic planning efforts.

c. Chief marketing officer (CMO), who is responsible to frame and implement

the organization’s strategy to achieve its goals.
CMOs must think strategically to deliver value to the organization.
Most CMOs have multi-industry backgrounds, possess cross-functional
expertise, use analytical skills, and have intuitive marketing insights.
2. Strategic Business Unit Level. Multimarket, multiproduct firms manage a
portfolio or groups of businesses.
a. A strategic business unit (SBU) refers to a subsidiary, division, or unit of
an organization that markets a set of related offerings to a clearly defined
group of customers.
b. At the strategic business unit level, managers set a more specific strategic
direction for their businesses to exploit value-creating opportunities.
c. For firms with a single business focus like Ben & Jerry’s, the corporate and
business unit levels may merge.
3. Functional Level. Is the level in an organization where groups of specialists
actually create value for the organization.
a. A department refers to those specialized functions, such as marketing or
finance.
b. At this level, the strategic direction becomes more specific and focused.

c. Cross-functional teams:
Consist of a small number of people from different departments in an
organization…
Who are mutually accountable to accomplish a task or common set of
performance goals.
Senior management may form these teams to develop new or improve
existing offerings.

Chapter 2 2-8
 Sometimes these teams will have representatives from outside the
organization, such as suppliers and customers, to assist them.

LEARNING REVIEW
1. What is the difference between a business firm and a nonprofit organization?

Answer: A business firm is a privately owned organization that serves its customers to earn
a profit so that it can survive. A nonprofit organization is a nongovernmental organization
that serves its customers but does not have profit as an organizational goal. Instead, its
goals may be operational efficiency or client satisfaction.
2. What are examples of a functional level in an organization?

Answer: The functional level in an organization is where groups of specialists from the
marketing, finance, manufacturing/operations, accounting, information systems, research &
development, and/or human resources departments focus on a specific strategic direction to
create value for the organization.

II. STRATEGY IN VISIONARY ORGANIZATIONS [LO2]

Successful organizations must be forward looking—anticipating and responding
quickly and effectively to future events.

[Figure 2-2] A visionary organization:

a. Specifies its foundation (why does it exist?).

b. Sets a direction (what will it do?).

c. Formulates strategies (how will it do it?).

A. Organizational Foundation: Why Does It Exist?

An organization’s foundation is its philosophical reason for being—why it exists.

Successful visionary organizations use this foundation to guide and inspire their
employees through their core values, mission, and organizational culture.
1. Core Values.

a. Are the fundamental, passionate, and enduring principles of an organization

that guide its conduct over time.
b. Are developed by an organization’s founders or senior management.

c. Are consistent with their essential beliefs and character.

d. Capture the collective heart and soul of the organization.

2-9 Chapter 2
 e. Serve to inspire and motivate its stakeholders to take productive action.

f. Held by or communicated to stakeholders of an organization, which consist of

its employees, shareholders, board of directors, suppliers, distributors,
creditors, unions, government, local communities, and customers.
g. Are timeless and should not change due to short-term financial, operational, or
marketing concerns.
h. Guide the organization’s conduct.

i. Must be communicated and supported by the chief executive officer and board
of directors.
2. Mission.

a. Is a statement of the organization’s function in society, often identifying its

customers, markets, products, and technologies.
b. Is shaped by an organization’s core values.

c. Is often used interchangeably with vision.

d. A mission statement should be clear, concise, meaningful, inspirational,

focused, and long-term.
e. Medtronic’s founder, Earl Bakken, wrote a mission statement half a century
ago, and it remains virtually unchanged:
“To contribute to human welfare by application of biomedical engineering in
the research, design, manufacture, and sale of instruments or appliances that
alleviate pain, restore health, and extend life.”

[QR Code 2-2: Medtronic Video]

f. Both business firms (Medtronic, Southwest Airlines) and nonprofit
organizations (American Red Cross) have compelling mission statements.
g. Star Trek has one of the best-known mission statements:

“To explore strange new worlds, to seek out new life and new civilizations, to
boldly go where no one has gone before.”
h. Mission statements offer a clear, challenging, and compelling picture of an
envisioned future.
i. Some organizations, such as Ben & Jerry’s, add a social element to
their mission statements to reflect their moral ideals.
j. Stakeholders are asking organizations to be exceptional citizens by providing
long-term value while solving society’s problems.

Chapter 2 2-10
 3. Organizational Culture.

a. An important corporate-level marketing function is communicating its core

values and mission to its stakeholders.
b. An organizational culture is the set of values, ideas, attitudes, and norms of
behavior that is learned and shared among the members of an organization.
B. Organizational Direction: What Will It Do?

[Figure 2-2] shows that the organization’s foundation enables it to set a direction, in
terms of (1) the “business” it is in and (2) its specific goals.
1. Business.

a. A business describes the clear, broad, underlying industry or market sector of

an organization’s offering.
b. An organization defines its business by looking at the set of organizations that
sell similar offerings—those that are in direct competition with each other.
c. The organization answers these questions:
“What do we do?”
“What business are we in?”

d. Harvard professor Theodore Levitt’s Marketing Myopia article states that

organizations must not define their business and customer focus too narrowly.
Railroads are in the “transportation” business, not the railroad business.
Medtronic is in the “healthcare” business, not the medical device business.

e. Given the increase in global competition and the recent economic crisis, many
organizations are rethinking their business models, which:
Consist of the strategies an organization develops to provide value to the
customers it serves.
Are often triggered by technological innovation.

MARKETING MATTERS
The Netflix Launch and Its ContinuallyChanging Business Model!

Netflix is a movie-rental business.

The Original Business Model.

a. Initially, Netflix was by mail, not subscription-based.

b. In 1999, it became a subscription service, like it is today.

2-11 Chapter 2
 Netflix’s Changing Business Model.

a. The Netflix “DVDs-by-mail” model delivered movies on DVD for a fixed

monthly fee.
b. In 2008, Netflix changed its business model:
From “Watch Now,” which allowed subscribers to watch streaming movies on
a PC.
To partnering with TiVo, Xbox, and others so subscribers can watch
movies on TV using these systems to see one of about 12,000 movies.
c. In mid-2011, Netflix changed its business model once again by:
Deciding to split the company into two.
Introducing controversial new pricing options: DVD only, streaming only, or
both.
d. In late-2011, Netflix changed its business model once again when customer
reaction exploded, Reed Hastings cancelled the plan to separate Netflix’s
DVD-by-mail business from its move streaming service.
2. Goals. Goals or objectives (used interchangeably) are statements of an
accomplishment of a task to be achieved, often by a specific time.
a. Goals convert the organization’s mission and business into performance
targets to measure how well it is doing.
b. Business firms pursue several different types of goals:
Profit. Most firms seek the highest financial return on their investments
(ROI) as possible.
Sales (dollars or units). A firm may elect to maintain or increase sales
even though profitability may not be maximized.
Market share.
– A firm may choose to maintain or increase its market share, which:
– Is the ratio of sales revenue of the firm to…
– The total sales revenue of all firms in the industry, including the firm
itself.
Quality. A firm may choose to focus on high quality.
Customer satisfaction.
– Customers are the reason an organization exists.
– Can monitor their satisfaction through surveys or complaints.

Chapter 2 2-12
 Employee welfare.
– Employees play a critical role in the firm’s success.
– Goals state the firm’s commitment to good employment opportunities
and working conditions.
Social responsibility. A firm may seek to balance the conflicting goals of
its stakeholders to promote their overall welfare, even at the expense of
profits.
c. Nonprofit organizations also set goals:
Private organizations strive to serve customers efficiently.
Government agencies try to serve the public good.

C. Organizational Strategies: How Will It Do It?

[Figure 2-2] shows that the organization’s strategies are concerned with the “how”—
the actual results. Strategies can vary in two ways:
1. Variation by Level. Moving from the corporate to the strategic business unit to
the functional level involves creating increasingly detailed strategies and plans.
2. Variation by Offering. The strategy will be far different when marketing a very
tangible physical product, a service, or an idea.

LEARNING REVIEW
3. What is the meaning of an organization’s mission?

Answer: A mission is a statement of the organization’s function in society, often

identifying its customers, markets, products, and technologies. It is often used
interchangeably with vision.
4. What is the difference between an organization’s business and its goals?

Answer: An organization’s business describes the clear, broad, underlying industry or

market sector of an organization’s offering. An organization’s goals (or objectives) are
statements of an accomplishment of a task to be achieved, often by a specific time. Goals
convert an organization’s mission and business into long- and short-term performance
targets to measure how well it is doing.
D. Tracking Strategic Directions with Marketing Dashboards [LO3]

Marketing dashboards allow marketing managers to know whether they are making
progress regarding their strategic direction.
1. Car Dashboards and Marketing Dashboards.

a. A marketing dashboard is the visual computer display of the essential

information related to achieving a marketing objective.
2-13 Chapter 2
 b. A marketing dashboard can also be an Internet-based display with real-time
information, and active hyperlinks to provide further detail.
c. With a marketing dashboard, a marketing manager glances at a graph or table
and makes a decision whether to:
Take action.
Do more analysis to understand the problem better.

2. Dashboards, Metrics, and Plans.

a. [Figure 2-3] Sonatica’s marketing dashboard graphically displays key

performance indicators linked to its product lines.
b. Each performance variable is a marketing metric, a measure of
the quantitative value or trend of a marketing activity or result.
c. Only a few metrics should be shown on a marketing dashboard so that
managers aren’t overwhelmed with too much information.
d. Today’s marketers use data visualization, which presents information
about an organization's marketing metrics graphically so marketers can:
Spot deviations from plans.
Take corrective actions.

e. Data visualization tools include graphs, maps, charts, spark line graphs, and
others, and provide a snapshot of how parts of a business are performing.
f. [Figure 2-3A] Website Traffic Sources.
The color-coded perimeter of the pie chart shows the three main sources of
website traffic.
Each of eight specific sources represented as one slice in the pie.
– Referral sites at 47%, of which:
* Sonatica’s Facebook visits comprise 15 percent of website traffic.
* Up from a month ago (as shown by the vertical line).
– Search engines at 37 percent.
– Direct traffic at 16 percent.

g. [Figure 2-3B] Sales Performance by SBU.

The spark lines:
– Are the wavy lines in the far left column.
– Show the 13-month trends of Sonatica’s strategic business units.
The trends in electronics and peripherals are generally up, causing their
sales to exceed their YTD (year to date) targets.
Chapter 2 2-14
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Synagris.—Body rather elongate, covered with ciliated scales of
moderate size. Cleft of the mouth horizontal, with the jaws equal in
length anteriorly. One continuous dorsal, with feeble spines; dorsal
10/9, anal 3/7. Caudal deeply forked. Teeth villiform, with canines at
least in the upper jaw. Infraorbital not armed; præoperculum without,
or with a very indistinct serrature. Cheek with three series of scales.
Branchiostegals six.
Marine fishes of small size; about twenty species are known from
the tropical parts of the Indo-Pacific. Pentapus, Chætopterus, and
Aphareus are allied genera from the same area.
Maena.—Body oblong, compressed, covered with ciliated scales
of moderate size. Mouth very protractile, the intermaxillary pedicles
extending backwards to the occiput. Teeth villiform; minute teeth on
the vomer. One dorsal, scaleless, with feeble spines. D. 11/11, A. 3/9.
Caudal fin forked. Præoperculum without serrature. Branchiostegals
six.
Small fishes from the Mediterranean, known to the ancients;
valueless as food. Three species.
Smaris.—Body oblong or cylindrical, covered with rather small
ciliated scales. Mouth very protractile, the intermaxillary pedicles
extending backwards to the occiput. Teeth villiform. Palate toothless.
One dorsal, scaleless, with eleven or more very feeble spines; anal
with three. Caudal fin forked. Præoperculum without serrature.
Branchiostegals six.
Small fishes from the Mediterranean. Six species.
Cæsio.—Body oblong, covered with ciliated scales of moderate
size. Cleft of the mouth more or less oblique, with the jaws equal in
length anteriorly, or with the lower somewhat projecting. Teeth
villiform; palate generally toothless. One dorsal, with from nine to
thirteen very feeble spines, with the anterior part highest, and the
posterior covered with minute scales. Caudal fin deeply forked.
Præoperculum without, or with minute, serrature.
Small fishes from the Indo-Pacific. Twelve species.
Erythrichthys.—Body elongate, covered with small ciliated
scales. Mouth very protractile, the pedicles of the intermaxillary
extending to the occiput. Dentition quite rudimentary or entirely absent
Two dorsal fins connected by a series of very feeble spines; also the
anterior spines are feeble. Præoperculum not serrated.
Fig. 161.—Erythrichthys nitidus.

Fig. 162.—Enlarged scale.

 Fig. 163.—Protractile mouth.
Small fishes from various tropical and temperate seas. Four
species: the species figured occurs, but is not common, on the
coasts of Western Austria, Tasmania, and New Zealand.
Oligorus.—Body oblong, covered with small scales. Cleft of the
mouth rather oblique, the lower jaw being the longer. Teeth villiform,
without canines; teeth on the vomer and palatine bones. One dorsal,
with eleven spines; anal with three; caudal fin rounded. Præoperculum
with a single smooth or obtusely denticulated margin.
To this genus belong two fishes well known on account of the
excellent flavour of their flesh. The first (O. macquariensis) is called
by the colonists “Murray-Cod,” being plentiful in the Murray River and
other rivers of South Australia. It attains to a length of more than
three feet, and to a weight of nearly 100 lbs. The second (O. gigas)
is found in the sea, on the coast of New Zealand, and called by the
Maoris and colonists “Hapuku.” Its average weight is about 45 lbs.,
but occasionally large specimens of more than a hundredweight are
caught. At certain localities it is so plentiful that it may form an
important article of trade. Dr. Hector, who has had opportunity of
examining it in a fresh state, has pointed out anatomical differences
from the Murray-Cod, from which it appears that it would be better
placed in a distinct genus.
 Fig. 164.—The Murray-Cod, Oligorus macquariensis.
Grystes.—Body oblong, covered with scales of moderate size. All
the teeth villiform, without canines; teeth on the vomer and palatine
bones. One dorsal fin with ten spines; anal with three; caudal fin
rounded. Præoperculum with a single smooth margin.
One species, from the fresh waters of the United States (G.
salmonoides), attains to a length of more than two feet. It is known
by the name of “Growler,” and eaten.
Arripis.—Body oblong, covered with scales of moderate size. All
the teeth villiform, without canines; teeth on the vomer and palatine
bones. One dorsal fin, with nine slender spines; anal with three.
Præoperculum denticulated.

Fig. 165.—Arripis salar, South Australia.

 Three species are known, from the coasts of Southern Australia
and New Zealand. They are named by the colonists Salmon or Trout,
from their elegant form and lively habits, and from the sport they
afford to the angler. Their usual size is from 1 to 3 lbs., but
specimens of double that weight are taken. The smaller specimens
are the more delicate and better flavoured. When not fresh, they are
liable to assume poisonous properties; and cases of poisoning are
not unfrequently caused by them.
Huro.—Body oblong, compressed, covered with scales of
moderate size. All the teeth villiform; bones of the head without
serrature. Mouth rather oblique, with the lower jaw projecting. Two
dorsal fins, the first with six spines.
The “Black Bass” of Lake Huron (Huro nigricans).
Ambassis.—Body short, strongly compressed, covered with large
thin deciduous scales. Mouth oblique, with the lower jaw longest; teeth
villiform, without conspicuously larger canines; teeth on the vomer and
palatine bones. Two dorsal fins, the first with seven, the anal with
three spines; a horizontal spine pointing forwards in front of the dorsal
fin. The lower limb of the præoperculum with a double serrated
margin.
This genus comprises the smallest of all Percoids, some of the
species not much exceeding one inch in length. They are most
abundant on the coasts of the tropical Indo-Pacific, and in the fresh
waters belonging to that area. The species are numerous (some
thirty having been described), and very difficult to distinguish. Their
coloration is very plain, a silvery hue prevailing over the whole fish.
Apogon.—Body rather short, covered with large deciduous scales.
Mouth oblique, with the lower jaw longest; teeth villiform, without
canines; teeth on the vomer and palatine bones. Two dorsal fins, the
first with six or seven, the anal with two spines. Præoperculum with a
double edge on the margin, one or both edges being serrated. Seven
branchiostegals.
 Fig. 166.—Apogon frenatus.
Although of similarly small size, the fishes of this genus represent
a more highly developed form of the Percoid type than Ambassis.
Their distribution coincides very much with that of Ambassis, but
they are chiefly marine, comparatively few of the species entering
fresh water. They belong to the kind of fishes which, from their habit,
are termed “Coral Fishes,” being found in greatest abundance on, or
in the neighbourhood of, coral reefs, in company with Chætodonts,
Pomacentridæ, and others. Their colours also are ornamental and
highly diversified, as is generally the case in coral fishes, the majority
of the species showing transverse or longitudinal bands or large
spots, and numerous other smaller markings which, in the dead fish,
soon disappear. Nearly one hundred species have been described,
of which a few only occur in the Atlantic, one extending northwards
into the Mediterranean.
Chilodipterus, Acropoma, and Scombrops are allied genera, but
with canine teeth in one or both jaws.
 Pomatomus.—Body oblong, covered with scales of moderate size.
Eye very large. All the teeth villiform, without canines; teeth on the
vomer and palatine bones. Two dorsal fins, the first with seven, the
anal with two spines. No serration on any of the bones of the head.
Branchiostegals seven.
One species only is known, P. telescopium, which grows to a
length of nearly two feet. It is not uncommon in the Mediterranean
and neighbouring parts of the Atlantic, but only occasionally caught,
as it lives habitually at a greater depth than any other Percoid as far
as is known at present, probably at depths from 80 to 200 fathoms; a
habit sufficiently indicated by its exceedingly large eye.
Priacanthus.—Body short, compressed, covered with small
rough scales, which extend also over the short snout. Lower jaw and
chin prominent. Eye large. All the teeth villiform, without canines;
teeth on the vomer and palatine bones. One dorsal fin with ten
spines, anal with three. Præoperculum serrated, with a more or less
prominent, flat, triangular spine at the angle.
A very natural genus, easily recognised, and without direct
relation to the other Percoid genera. The species, of which
seventeen are known, are spread over nearly all the tropical seas,
and belong to the more common fishes. They scarcely exceed a
length of twelve inches, and are very uniformly coloured, red, pink,
and silvery prevailing.

The following three genera form a group by themselves, which,

however, is defined rather by its geographical limits and similarity of
general appearance than by distinctive anatomical characters. The
species are abundant in the fresh waters of the United States, and
well known by the name of “Sun Fishes.” They rarely exceed a
length of six inches, and are not used as food. The number of
species is uncertain.
Centrarchus.—Body short, compressed, with scales of
moderate size. All the teeth villiform, without canines; teeth on the
vomer, palatines, and on the tongue. One dorsal fin; anal generally
 with more than three spines. Præoperculum without serrature;
operculum not lobed.
Bryttus.—Body short, compressed, with scales of moderate size.
All the teeth villiform, without canines; teeth on the vomer and palatine
bones. One dorsal fin with nine or ten, anal with three spines.
Præoperculum not serrated; operculum with a rounded
membranaceous coloured lobe behind.
Pomotis.—Body short, compressed, with scales of moderate
length. All the teeth villiform, without canines; teeth on the vomer, but
none on the palatine bones. One dorsal, with from nine to eleven
spines, anal with three. Præoperculum entire or minutely serrated;
operculum with a rounded membranaceous coloured lobe behind.

A North American Freshwater genus, Aphredoderus, occupies a

perfectly isolated position in the system, and is evidently the type of
a distinct family. It resembles the “Sun-fishes” of the same country
with regard to the structure of the vertical fins, but has the vent
situated in front of the ventrals, which are composed of more than
five soft rays. The body is oblong, compressed, covered with ctenoid
scales. The dorsal fin is single, and has three spines in front.
Infraorbital and præoperculum with spinous teeth. Villiform teeth in
the jaws, on the vomer and palatine bones. A. sayanus from the
southern streams and fresh waters of the Atlantic States.
To complete the list of Percoid genera, we have to mention the
following:—Siniperca, Etelis, Niphon, Aprion, Apsilus, Pentaceros,
Velifer, Datnioides, Percilia, Lanioperca.

Second Family—Squamipinnes.
Body compressed and elevated, covered with scales, either finely
ctenoid or smooth. Lateral line continuous, not continued over the
caudal fin. Mouth in front of the snout, generally small, with lateral
cleft. Eye lateral, of moderate size. Six or seven branchiostegals.
Teeth villiform or setiform, in bands, without canines or incisors.
Dorsal fin consisting of a spinous and soft portion of nearly equal
development; anal with three or four spines, similarly developed as
the soft dorsal, both being many-rayed. The vertical fins more or less
densely covered with small scales. The lower rays of the pectoral fin
branched, not enlarged; ventrals thoracic, with one spine and five
soft rays. Stomach coecal.
The typical forms of this family are readily recognised by the form
of their body, and by a peculiarity from which they derive their name
Squamipinnes; the soft, and frequently also the spinous part of their
dorsal and anal fins are so thickly covered with scales that the
boundary between fins and body is entirely obliterated. The majority
are inhabitants of the tropical seas, and abound chiefly in the
neighbourhood of coral-reefs. The beauty and singularity of
distribution of the colours of some of the genera, as Chætodon,
Heniochus, Holacanthus, is scarcely surpassed by any other group
of fishes. They remain within small dimensions, and comparatively
few are used as food. They are carnivorous, feeding on small
invertebrates. Only a few species enter brackish water.
Extinct representatives of this family are not scarce at Monte
Bolca and in other tertiary formations. All, at least those admitting of
definite determination, belong to existing genera, viz. Holacanthus,
Pomacanthus, Ephippium, Scatophagus. Very singular is the
occurrence of Toxotes in the Monte Bolca strata.
The following genera have no teeth on the palate:—
Chætodon.—One dorsal fin, without any notch in its upper
margin, and with the soft and spinous portions similarly developed;
none of the spines elongate. Snout short or of moderate length.
Præoperculum without, or with a fine, serration, and without spine at
the angle. Scales generally large or of moderate size.
 Fig. 167.—Chætodon ephippium.
Seventy species are known from the tropical parts of the Atlantic
and Indo-Pacific, nearly all being beautifully ornamented with bands
or spots. Of the ornamental markings a dark or bicoloured band,
passing through the eye and ascending towards the back, is very
generally found in these fishes; it frequently occurs again in other
marine Acanthopterygians, in which it is not rarely a sign of the
immature condition of the individual. The Chætodonts are most
numerous in the neighbourhood of the coral-reefs of the Indo-Pacific,
the species figured (C. ephippium) being as common in the East
Indian Archipelago as in Polynesia, like many others of its
congeners.
Chelmo differs from Chætodon only in having the snout produced
into a more or less long tube.
 Fig. 168.—Chelmo marginalis, from the coast of Australia.
Only four species are known, locally distributed in the tropical
seas. Ch. rostratus, the oldest species known, is said to have the
instinct of throwing a drop of water from its bill so as to light upon
any insect resting on a leaf, and thus make it fall, that it may instantly
dart upon it. This statement is erroneous, and probably rests upon
the mistaken notion that the long bill is especially adapted for this
manœuvre, which, indeed, is practised by another fish of this family
(Toxotes). The long slender bill of Chelmo (which is a true saltwater
fish) rather enables it to draw from holes and crevices animals which
otherwise could not be reached by it.
Heniochus.—One dorsal, with from eleven to thirteen spines, the
fourth of which is more or less elongate and filiform. Snout rather short
or of moderate length. Præoperculum without spine. Scales of
moderate size.
Four species are known from the tropical Indo-Pacific. H.
macrolepidotus is one of the most common fishes of that area; the
species figured (H. varius) retains in a conspicuous manner horn-like
protuberances on bones of the head, with which the young of all the
species of this genus seem to be armed.

Fig. 169.—Heniochus varius.

Holacanthus.—Præoperculum with a strong spine at the angle.
One dorsal, with from twelve to fifteen spines. Scales of moderate or
small size.
Forty species are known, which, in their geographical distribution
accompany, and are quite analogous to, the Chætodonts. One of the
most common and most beautiful is called “Emperor of Japan” by the
Dutch, which name has been adopted by Bloch for its specific
designation, Holacanthus imperator. Its body is blue, longitudinally
traversed by about thirty yellow bands; the ocular band, and the side
behind the head, are black, edged with yellow; the caudal fin is
yellow. It is a large species of this genus, sometimes attaining a
length of 15 inches, and as an article of food is one of the most
esteemed of all the Indian species. With regard to beauty of colours
it is surpassed by another allied species, H. diacanthus, which
likewise ranges from the east coast of Africa to Polynesia.
 Pomacanthus differs from Holacanthus in having from eight to ten
spines only in the dorsal fin.
The single species (P. paru) on which this genus is founded is
one of the most common fishes of the West Indies, and offers one of
the most remarkable instances of variation of colour within the limits
of the same species: some specimens being ornamented with more
or less distinct yellowish cross-bands, others with yellow crescent-
shaped spots; in others black spots predominate.

Fig. 170.—Scatophagus multifasciatus.

Scatophagus.—Two dorsal fins, united at the base, the first with
ten or eleven spines; only the second is scaly. A recumbent spine
before the dorsal, pointing forwards. Anal with four spines. Snout
rather short. Præoperculum without spine. Scales very small.

Four species are known, from the Indian Ocean, of which S.

argus is the most generally known, in fact, one of the most common
Indian shore-fishes. It freely enters large rivers, and is said not to be
particular in the selection of its food. The species figured (S.
multifasciatus) represents S. argus on the coasts of Australia.
 Fig. 171.—Bony enlargement
of cranial bones of Ephippus. a,
Enlargement of the frontal, and b,
of the supraoccipital bones; c,
interorbital septum; d, basis
cranii. ⅓ nat. size.
Ephippus.—Snout short, with the upper profile parabolic. Dorsal
fin deeply emarginate between the spinous and soft portions, the
former with nine spines, the third of which is rather elongate, and
flexible; spinous portion not scaly; anal spines three. Pectoral fin
short. Præoperculum without spine. Scales of moderate size, or rather
small.

Two or three species are known from the warmer parts of the
Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The Atlantic species (E. faber) shows
the remarkable peculiarity that in old specimens (12 and more inches
long) the occipital crest, and sometimes some of the anterior neural
and hæmal spines are enormously enlarged into a globular bony
mass. This can hardly be regarded as a pathological change of the
bone, as it has been found in all old specimens, without exception.
Drepane is allied to Ephippus, but has very long falciform
pectoral fins. The single species D. punctata is common in the Indian
Ocean and on the coasts of Australia. Hypsinotus, from Japan,
appears to inhabit a greater depth than the other Squamipinnes.
 Scorpis and Atypichthys are genera distinguished from the
preceding by the presence of vomerine teeth. They belong to the
coast-fauna of Australia, New Zealand, and Chili.
Toxotes.—Body short, compressed, covered with scales of
moderate size. Snout pointed, with a wide lateral mouth and projecting
lower jaw. One dorsal, with five strong spines situated on the posterior
part of the back; the soft portion and the anal fin scaly, the latter with
three spines. Villiform teeth in the jaws, on the vomer and palatine
bones. Scales of moderate size, cycloid.

Fig. 172.—Toxotes jaculator.

Two species are known from the East Indies, one (T. jaculator),
which is the more common, ranging to the north coast of Australia. It
has received its name from its habit of throwing a drop of water at an
insect which it perceives close to the surface, in order to make it fall
into it. The Malays, who call it “Ikan sumpit,” keep it in a bowl, in
order to witness this singular habit, which it continues even in
captivity.

Third Family—Mullidæ.
 Body rather low and slightly compressed, covered with large thin
scales, without or with an extremely fine serrature. Two long erectile
barbels are suspended from the hyoid, and are received between the
rami of the lower jaw and opercles. Lateral line continuous. Mouth in
front of the snout, with the cleft lateral and rather short; teeth very
feeble. Eye lateral, of moderate size. Two short dorsal fins remote
from each other, the first with feeble spines; anal similar to the
second dorsal. Ventrals with one spine and five rays. Pectorals short.
Branchiostegals four; stomach siphonal.
The “Red Mullets” form a very natural family, which, on account
of slight modifications of the dentition, has been divided into several
sub-genera—Upeneoides, Upeneichthys, Mullus, Mulloides, and
Upeneus. They are marine fishes, but many species enter brackish
water to feed on the animalcules abounding in the flora of brack-
water. About forty different species are known chiefly from tropical
seas, the European species (M. barbatus, see p. 43, Fig. 7),
extending far northwards into the temperate zone. None attain to a
large size, specimens of from two to three lbs. being not common,
but all are highly esteemed as food.
The most celebrated is the European species (of which there is
one only, M. surmuletus being probably the female). The ancient
Romans called it Mullus, the Greeks τριγλη. The Romans priced it
above any other fish; they sought for large specimens far and wide,
and paid ruinous prices for them.
“Mullus tibi quatuor emptus
Librarum, cœnæ pompa caputque fuit,
Exclamare libet, non est hic improbe, non est
Piscis: homo est; hominem, Calliodore, voras.”
Martial, x. 31.

Then, as nowadays, it was considered essential for the

enjoyment of this delicacy that the fish should exhibit the red colour
of its integuments. The Romans brought it, for that purpose, living
into the banqueting room, and allowed it to die in the hands of the
guests, the red colour appearing in all its brilliancy during the death
struggle of the fish. The fishermen of our times attain the same
object by scaling the fish immediately after its capture, thus causing
a permanent contraction of the chromatophors containing the red
pigment (see p. 183).

Fourth Family—Sparidæ.
Body compressed, oblong, covered with scales, the serrature of
which is very minute, and sometimes altogether absent. Mouth in
front of the snout, with the cleft lateral. Eye lateral, of moderate size.
Either cutting teeth in front of the jaws, or molar teeth on the side;
palate generally toothless. One dorsal fin, formed by a spinous and
soft portion of nearly equal development. Anal fin with three spines.
The lower rays of the pectoral fin are generally branched, but in one
genus simple. Ventrals thoracic, with one spine and five rays.
The “Sea-breams” are recognised chiefly by their dentition, which
is more specialised than in the preceding families, and by which the
groups, into which this family has been divided, are characterised.
They are inhabitants of the shores of all the tropical and temperate
seas. Their coloration is very plain. They do not attain to a large size,
but the majority are used as food.
The extinct forms found hitherto are rather numerous; the oldest
come from the cretaceous formation of Mount Lebanon; some
belong to living genera, as Sargus, Pagellus; of others from Eocene
and Miocene formations no living representative is known—
Sparnodus, Sargodon, Capitodus, Soricidens, Asima.
First Group—Cantharina.—More or less broad cutting,
sometimes lobate, teeth in front of the jaws; no molars or vomerine
teeth; the lower pectoral rays are branched. Partly herbivorous,
partly carnivorous. The genera belonging to this group are:—
Cantharus from the European and South African coasts, of which
one species (C. lineatus), is common on the coasts of Great Britain,
and locally known by the names “Old Wife,” “Black Sea-bream;” Box,
Scatharus, and Oblata from the Mediterranean and neighbouring
parts of the Atlantic; Crenidens and Tripterodon from the Indian
Ocean; Pachymetopon, Dipterodon, and Gymnocrotaphus from the
Cape of Good Hope; Girella and Tephræops from Chinese,
Japanese, and Australian Seas; Doydixodon from the Galapagos
Islands and the coasts of Peru.

Fig. 173.—Tephræops richardsonii, from King George’s Sound.

Second Group—Haplodactylina.—In both jaws flat and generally
tricuspid teeth; no molars; vomerine teeth. The lower pectoral rays
simple, not branched. Vegetable feeders. Only one genus is known,
Haplodactylus, from the temperate zone of the Southern Pacific.
Third Group—Sargina.—Jaws with a single series of incisors in
front, and with several series of rounded molars on the side. One
genus is known, Sargus, which comprises twenty species; several of
them occur in the Mediterranean and the neighbouring parts of the
Atlantic, and are popularly called “Sargo,” “Sar,” “Saragu:” names
derived from the word Sargus, by which name these fishes were well
known to the ancient Greeks and Romans. One of the largest
species is the “Sheep’s-head” (Sargus ovis), from the coasts of the
United States, which attains to a weight of 15 lbs., and is highly
esteemed on account of the excellency of its flesh. Singularly
enough, this genus occurs also on the east coast of Africa, one of
these East-African species being identical with S. noct from the
Mediterranean. These fishes evidently feed on hard-shelled animals,
which they crush with their molar teeth.
Fig. 174.—The Sheep’s-head, Sargus ovis, of North America.
 Fig. 175.—Scale of
Lethrinus.
Fourth Group—Pagrina.—Jaws with conical teeth in front and
molar teeth on the sides. Feeding, as the preceding, on hard-shelled
animals, like Mollusks and Crustaceans. This group is composed of
several genera:—
Lethrinus.—Cheeks scaleless. Body oblong, covered with scales
of moderate size (L. lat. 45–50). Canine teeth in front; lateral teeth in a
single series, broadly conical or molar-like. Formula of the fins: D.
10/9, A. 3/8.
More than twenty species are known, all of which, with one
exception, occur in the tropical Indo-Pacific. The species, forming
this exception, occurs, singularly enough, on the west coast of
Africa, where more than one Indian genus reappears in isolated
representative species. Some Lethrini attain to a length of three feet.
Sphærodon is closely allied to Lethrinus, but has scales on the
cheek. One species from the Indo-Pacific.
Pagrus.—Body oblong, compressed, with scales of moderate
size. Several pairs of strong canine-like teeth in both jaws; molars
arranged in two series. Cheeks scaly. The spines of the dorsal fin,
eleven or twelve in number, are sometimes elongate, and can be
received in a groove; anal spines three.
Thirteen species are known, chiefly distributed in the warmer
parts of the temperate zones, and more scantily represented