Introductory Chemistry 7Th Edition Nivaldo Full Chapter

Introductory Chemistry 7th Edition
Nivaldo
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GLOBAL
EDITION
Introductory
CHEMISTRY
SEVENTH EDITION IN SI UNITS
Nivaldo J. Tro
INTRODUCTORY
CHEMISTRY
SEVENTH EDITION IN SI UNITS
Nivaldo J. Tro
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Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Introductory Chemistry, 7th Edition, ISBN 978-0-137-90133-3 by Nivaldo
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About the Author
Nivaldo Tro has been teaching college chemistry since

1990 and is currently teaching at Santa Barbara City College.
He received his Ph.D. in chemistry from Stanford University for
work on developing and using optical techniques to study the
adsorption and desorption of molecules to and from surfaces
in ultrahigh vacuum. He then went on to the University of
California at Berkeley, where he did postdoctoral research on
ultrafast reaction dynamics in solution. Professor Tro has been
awarded grants from the American Chemical Society Petroleum
Research Fund, from the Research Corporation, and from the
National Science Foundation to study the dynamics of various
processes occurring in thin adlayer films adsorbed on dielectric
surfaces. Professor Tro lives in Santa Barbara with his wife, Ann.
In his leisure time, Professor Tro enjoys cycling, surfing, and
being outdoors.
To Annie
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Contents
Preface 23
1 The Chemical World 28
1.1 Sand and Water 29

1.2 Chemicals Compose Ordinary Things 30
1.3 The Scientific Method: How Chemists Think 31
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Combustion and the
Scientific Method 33
1.4 Analyzing and Interpreting Data 34
Identifying Patterns in Data 34
Interpreting Graphs 35
1.5 A Beginning Chemist: How to Succeed 37
Self-Assessment Quiz 37
Key Terms 39
Exercises 39
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 41
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 41
2 Measurement and
Problem Solving 42 2.6 Problem Solving and Unit Conversion
Converting Between Units 57
57
General Problem-Solving Strategy 59

2.1 The Metric Mix-up: A $125 Million Unit Error 43
2.7 Solving Multistep Unit Conversion
2.2 Scientific Notation: Writing Large and
Problems 61
Small Numbers 43
2.8 Unit Conversion in Both the Numerator
2.3 Significant Figures: Writing Numbers to
and Denominator 63
Reflect Precision 45
Counting Significant Figures 48 2.9 Units Raised to a Power 65
Exact Numbers 49 CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Drug Dosage 65
CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA The COBE Satellite 2.10 Density 67
and Very Precise Measurements That Illuminate Calculating Density 68
Our Cosmic Past 50 Density as a Conversion Factor 69
2.4 Significant Figures in Calculations 50 CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Density, Cholesterol,
Multiplication and Division 51 and Heart Disease 70
Rounding 51 2.11 Numerical Problem-Solving Strategies
Addition and Subtraction 52 and the Solution Map 71
Calculations Involving Both Multiplication/Division
and Addition/Subtraction 53
Key Terms 79
2.5 The Basic Units of Measurement 54
Exercises 79
The Base Units 55
Prefix Multipliers 56 Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 89
Derived Units 56 Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 89
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8 Contents
3.12 Energy and Heat Capacity Calculations 112

Key Terms 120
Exercises 121
4 Atoms and Elements 130
4.1 Experiencing Atoms at Tiburon 131

4.2 Indivisible: The Atomic Theory 132
4.3 The Nuclear Atom 133
4.4 The Properties of Protons, Neutrons,
and Electrons 135
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Solid Matter? 136
4.5 Elements: Defined by Their Numbers
of Protons 137
4.6 Looking for Patterns: The Periodic Law
and the Periodic Table 140
4.7 Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons 144
Ions and the Periodic Table 146
4.8 Isotopes: When the Number
of Neutrons Varies 147
4.9 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass
of an Element’s Atoms 150
3 Matter and Energy 90

CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Radioactive
Isotopes at Hanford, Washington 151
3.1 In Your Room 91 Key Terms 156
3.2 What Is Matter? 92 Exercises 156
3.3 Classifying Matter According to Its State: Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 165
Solid, Liquid, and Gas 93 Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 165
3.4 Classifying Matter According to Its Composition:
Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 95
5
3.5 Differences in Matter: Physical and
Chemical Properties 98 Molecules and
3.6 Changes in Matter: Physical and
Chemical Changes 99
Compounds 166
Separating Mixtures Through Physical
Changes 101 5.1 Sugar and Salt 167
3.7 Conservation of Mass: There Is No New Matter 101 5.2 Compounds Display Constant
3.8 Energy 103 Composition 168
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Getting 5.3 Chemical Formulas: How to Represent
Energy out of Nothing? 103 Compounds 169
Units of Energy 104 Polyatomic Ions in Chemical Formulas 171
Types of Chemical Formulas 172
3.9 Energy and Chemical and Physical Change 105
5.4 A Molecular View of Elements and
3.10 Temperature: Random Motion of
Compounds 173
Molecules and Atoms 107
Atomic Elements 173
3.11 Temperature Changes: Heat Capacity 110 Molecular Elements 173
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Coolers, Camping, Molecular Compounds 173
and the Heat Capacity of Water 111 Ionic Compounds 174
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Contents 9
5.5 Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds 176

Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
Containing Only Monoatomic Ions 176
Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
Containing Polyatomic Ions 177
5.6 Nomenclature: Naming Compounds 178
5.7 Naming Ionic Compounds 178
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
Containing a Metal That Forms Only One
Type of Cation 178
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing
a Metal That Forms More Than One Type
of Cation 180
Naming Ionic Compounds Containing a
Polyatomic Ion 181
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Polyatomic Ions 182
5.8 Naming Molecular Compounds 183
5.9 Naming Acids 184
Naming Binary Acids 184
Naming Oxyacids 185
5.10 Nomenclature Summary 186
Ionic Compounds 186
Molecular Compounds 186
Acids 187
5.11 Formula Mass: The Mass of a Molecule
or Formula Unit 187
Key Terms 193
Exercises 193
6.7 Mass Percent Composition from a
Chemical Formula 218
6 Chemical Composition 202
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Fluoridation
of Drinking Water 220
6.8 Calculating Empirical Formulas for
6.1 How Much Sodium? 203
Compounds 220
6.2 Counting Nails by the Kilogram 204 Calculating an Empirical Formula from
6.3 Counting Atoms by the Gram 205 Experimental Data 221
Converting between Moles and Number 6.9 Calculating Molecular Formulas for
of Atoms 205 Compounds 223
Converting between Grams and Moles
of an Element 206
Converting between Grams of an Element Key Terms 231
and Number of Atoms 209 Exercises 231
6.4 Counting Molecules by the Gram 210 Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 239
Converting between Grams and Moles Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 239
of a Compound 210
Converting between Grams of a Compound
and Number of Molecules 212
6.5 Chemical Formulas as Conversion
Factors 213
7 Chemical Reactions 240
Converting between Moles of a Compound
and Moles of a Constituent Element 214 7.1 Grade School Volcanoes, Automobiles,
Converting between Grams of a Compound and Laundry Detergents 241
and Grams of a Constituent Element 215 7.2 Evidence of a Chemical Reaction 242
6.6 Mass Percent Composition of Compounds 217 7.3 The Chemical Equation 245
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10 Contents
8 Quantities in Chemical
Reactions 282
8.1 Climate Change: Too Much Carbon Dioxide 283

8.2 Making Pancakes: Relationships
between Ingredients 284
8.3 Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole
Conversions 285
8.4 Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass
Conversions 287
8.5 More Pancakes: Limiting Reactant,
Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield 290
8.6 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield,
and Percent Yield from Initial Masses
of Reactants 294
8.7 Enthalpy: A Measure of the Heat
Evolved or Absorbed in a Reaction 298
Sign of ∆H rxn 299
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Bunsen Burners 299
Stoichiometry of ∆H rxn 300
Key Terms 306
Exercises 307
7.4 How to Write Balanced Chemical Equations 247

7.5 Aqueous Solutions and Solubility:
Compounds Dissolved in Water 250
9 Electrons in Atoms and
Aqueous Solutions 250 the Periodic Table 318
Solubility 251
7.6 Precipitation Reactions: Reactions in 9.1 Blimps, Balloons, and Models of the Atom 319
Aqueous Solution That Form a Solid 253 9.2 Light: Electromagnetic Radiation 320
7.7 Writing Chemical Equations for Reactions 9.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 322
in Solution: Molecular, Complete Ionic, and CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Radiation Treatment
Net Ionic Equations 256 for Cancer 324
7.8 Acid–Base and Gas-Evolution Reactions 258 9.4 The Bohr Model: Atoms with Orbits 325
Acid–Base (Neutralization) Reactions 258
9.5 The Quantum-Mechanical Model: Atoms
Gas-Evolution Reactions 259
with Orbitals 328
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Neutralizing Excess
Baseball Paths and Electron Probability
Stomach Acid 261
Maps 328
7.9 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 261 From Orbits to Orbitals 329
7.10 Classifying Chemical Reactions 263 9.6 Quantum-Mechanical Orbitals and
Classifying Chemical Reactions by Electron Configurations 329
What Atoms Do 264 Quantum-Mechanical Orbitals 329
Classification Flowchart 266 Electron Configurations: How Electrons
Self-Assessment Quiz 268 Occupy Orbitals 332
Key Terms 273 9.7 Electron Configurations and the
Exercises 273 Periodic Table 336
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 281 9.8 The Explanatory Power of the
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 281 Quantum-Mechanical Model 339
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Contents 11
9.9 Periodic Trends: Atomic Size, Ionization

Energy, and Metallic Character 341
Atomic Size 341
Ionization Energy 343
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Pumping Ions:
Atomic Size and Nerve Impulses 343
Metallic Character 344
Key Terms 350
Exercises 350
10 Chemical Bonding 358
10.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs 359

10.2 Representing Valence Electrons with Dots 360
10.3 Lewis Structures of Ionic Compounds:
Electrons Transferred 361
10.4 Covalent Lewis Structures: Electrons Shared 362
Single Bonds 362
Double and Triple Bonds 363
10.5 Writing Lewis Structures for Covalent
Compounds 364
Writing Lewis Structures for
Polyatomic Ions 366
Exceptions to the Octet Rule 367
10.6 Resonance: Equivalent Lewis Structures Pressure Units 397
for the Same Molecule 368 Pressure Unit Conversion 398
10.7 Predicting the Shapes of Molecules 370 11.4 Boyle’s Law: Pressure and Volume 399
Representing Molecular Geometries EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Airplane Cabin
on Paper 373 Pressurization 400
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Fooled by EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Extra-long Snorkels 404
Molecular Shape 374 11.5 Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature 404
10.8 Electronegativity and Polarity: Why Oil 11.6 The Combined Gas Law: Pressure,
and Water Don’t Mix 375 Volume, and Temperature 408
Electronegativity 375
Polar Bonds and Polar Molecules 377 11.7 Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Moles 410
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY How Soap Works 379 11.8 The Ideal Gas Law: Pressure, Volume,
Self-Assessment Quiz 380 Temperature, and Moles 412
Determining Molar Mass of a Gas
Key Terms 383
from the Ideal Gas Law 416
Exercises 383 Ideal and Nonideal Gas Behavior 418
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 391 11.9 Mixtures of Gases 418
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 391 Partial Pressure and Physiology 420
Collecting Gases over Water 421
11.10 Gases in Chemical Reactions 422
11 Gases 392
Molar Volume at Standard Temperature
and Pressure 425
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Air Pollution 427
11.1 Extra-Long Straws 393 Self-Assessment Quiz 428
11.2 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model Key Terms 432
for Gases 394 Exercises 433
11.3 Pressure: The Result of Constant Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 441
Molecular Collisions 396 Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 441
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12 Contents
Hydrogen Bonding 459

Ion–Dipole Force 460
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Hydrogen
Bonding in DNA 461
12.7 Types of Crystalline Solids: Molecular,
Ionic, and Atomic 463
Molecular Solids 463
Ionic Solids 463
Atomic Solids 464
12.8 Water: A Remarkable Molecule 465
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Water
Pollution and the Flint River Water Crisis 466
Key Terms 470
Exercises 470
13 Solutions 478
13.1 Tragedy in Cameroon 479

13.2 Solutions: Homogeneous Mixtures 480
13.3 Solutions of Solids Dissolved in Water:
How to Make Rock Candy 481
Solubility and Saturation 482
Electrolyte Solutions: Dissolved
Ionic Solids 483
How Solubility Varies with Temperature 484
13.4 Solutions of Gases in Water: How Soda
Pop Gets Its Fizz 484
12 Liquids, Solids, and 13.5 Specifying Solution Concentration:
Mass Percent 486
Intermolecular Forces 442 Mass Percent 486
Using Mass Percent in Calculations 487
12.1 Spherical Water 443 13.6 Specifying Solution Concentration:
12.2 Properties of Liquids and Solids 444 Molarity 489
Using Molarity in Calculations 490
12.3 Intermolecular Forces in Action: Ion Concentrations 492
Surface Tension and Viscosity 445
13.7 Solution Dilution 492
Surface Tension 446
Viscosity 446 13.8 Solution Stoichiometry 494
12.4 Evaporation and Condensation 447 13.9 Freezing Point Depression and Boiling
Boiling 448 Point Elevation: Making Water Freeze
Energetics of Evaporation and Colder and Boil Hotter 497
Condensation 449 Freezing Point Depression 497
Heat of Vaporization 450 EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Antifreeze in Frogs 499
12.5 Melting, Freezing, and Sublimation 452 Boiling Point Elevation 499
Energetics of Melting and 13.10 Osmosis: Why Drinking Salt Water
Freezing 452 Causes Dehydration 501
Heat of Fusion 453
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Solutions in Medicine 502
Sublimation 455
12.6 Types of Intermolecular Forces: Dispersion,
Key Terms 508
Dipole–Dipole, Hydrogen Bonding,
Exercises 508
and Ion–Dipole 456
Dispersion Force 456 Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 517
Dipole–Dipole Force 457 Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 517
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Contents 13
14 Acids and Bases 518
14.1 Sour Patch Kids and International

Spy Movies 519
14.2 Acids: Properties and Examples 520
14.3 Bases: Properties and Examples 522
14.4 Molecular Definitions of Acids and Bases 523
The Arrhenius Definition 523
The Brønsted–Lowry Definition 523
14.5 Reactions of Acids and Bases 525
Neutralization Reactions 525
Acid Reactions 526
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY What Is in My Antacid? 528
Base Reactions 528
14.6 Acid–Base Titration: A Way to Quantify
the Amount of Acid or Base in a Solution 528
14.7 Strong and Weak Acids and Bases 531
Strong Acids 531
Weak Acids 532
Strong Bases 534
Weak Bases 535
14.8 Water: Acid and Base in One 536
14.9 The pH and pOH Scales: Ways to
Express Acidity and Basicity 538
Calculating pH from  H3O +  538
Calculating  H3O +  from pH 540
The pOH Scale 541
14.10 Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change 542 15.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria: The Equilibrium
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Alkaloids 542 Expression for Reactions Involving a Solid or
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH The Danger a Liquid 568
of Antifreeze 544 15.6 Calculating and Using Equilibrium Constants 569
Self-Assessment Quiz 545 Calculating Equilibrium Constants 569
Key Terms 549 Using Equilibrium Constants in Calculations 571
Exercises 550 15.7 Disturbing a Reaction at Equilibrium:
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 557 Le Châtelier’s Principle 572
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 557 15.8 The Effect of a Concentration Change on
Equilibrium 574
15.9 The Effect of a Volume Change on
15 Chemical Equilibrium 558

Equilibrium
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH How a Developing
576
Fetus Gets Oxygen 578

15.1 Life: Controlled Disequilibrium 559
15.10 The Effect of a Temperature Change on
15.2 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction 560 Equilibrium 579
Collision Theory 561
How Concentration Affects the Rate
15.11 The Solubility-Product Constant 581
Using K sp to Determine Molar Solubility 582
of a Reaction 561
How Temperature Affects the Rate 15.12 The Path of a Reaction and the Effect
of a Reaction 562 of a Catalyst 583
15.3 The Idea of Dynamic Chemical How Activation Energies Affect Reaction Rates 584
Catalysts Lower the Activation Energy 585
Equilibrium 563
Enzymes: Biological Catalysts 586
15.4 The Equilibrium Constant: A Measure
of How Far a Reaction Goes 565
Key Terms 592
Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions
for Chemical Reactions 566 Exercises 592
The Significance of the Equilibrium Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 600
Constant 566 Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 601
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14 Contents

Key Terms 629
Exercises 630
17 Radioactivity and
Nuclear Chemistry 638
17.1 Diagnosing Appendicitis 639

17.2 The Discovery of Radioactivity 640
17.3 Types of Radioactivity: Alpha, Beta,
and Gamma Decay 641
Alpha (α) Radiation 642
Beta ( β ) Radiation 644
Gamma ( γ ) Radiation 645
Positron Emission 646
17.4 Detecting Radioactivity 648
17.5 Natural Radioactivity and Half-Life 649
Half-Life 649
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Environmental Radon 651
A Natural Radioactive Decay Series 651
17.6 Radiocarbon Dating: Using Radioactivity
to Measure the Age of Fossils and Other
Artifacts 652
CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA The Shroud of Turin 653
17.7 The Discovery of Fission and the
16 Oxidation and Atomic Bomb
17.8 Nuclear Power: Using Fission to
654
Reduction 602 Generate Electricity 656

17.9 Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun 658
16.1 The End of the Internal Combustion Engine? 603 17.10 The Effects of Radiation on Life 658
16.2 Oxidation and Reduction: Some Definitions 604 Acute Radiation Damage 658
16.3 Oxidation States: Electron Bookkeeping 607 Increased Cancer Risk 659
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY The Bleaching of Hair 609 Genetic Defects 659
Measuring Radiation Exposure 659
16.4 Balancing Redox Equations 610
17.11 Radioactivity in Medicine 659
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Isotope Scanning 659
Photosynthesis and Respiration: Energy for Life 615
Radiotherapy 660
16.5 The Activity Series: Predicting Self-Assessment Quiz 661
Spontaneous Redox Reactions 615
Key Terms 664
The Activity Series of Metals 616
Predicting Whether a Metal Will Exercises 664
Dissolve in Acid 618 Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 669
16.6 Batteries: Using Chemistry to Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 669
Generate Electricity 619
The Voltaic Cell 619
Dry-Cell Batteries 621
Lead–Acid Storage Batteries 622 18 Organic Chemistry 670
Fuel Cells 622
16.7 Electrolysis: Using Electricity to 18.1 What Do I Smell? 671
Do Chemistry 623 18.2 Vitalism: The Difference between
16.8 Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions 624 Organic and Inorganic 672
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY The Fuel-Cell 18.3 Carbon: A Versatile Atom 673
Breathalyzer 625 CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA The Origin of Life 674
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Contents 15
18.4 Hydrocarbons: Compounds Containing

Only Carbon and Hydrogen 675
18.5 Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons 676
CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA Environmental
Problems Associated with Hydrocarbon
Combustion 677
18.6 Isomers: Same Formula, Different Structure 681
18.7 Naming Alkanes 682
18.8 Alkenes and Alkynes 685
About Alkenes and Alkynes 685
Naming Alkenes and Alkynes 687
18.9 Hydrocarbon Reactions 688
Alkane Substitution Reactions 689
Alkene and Alkyne Addition Reactions 689
18.10 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 690
Naming Aromatic Hydrocarbons 691
18.11 Functional Groups 693
18.12 Alcohols 694
Naming Alcohols 694
About Alcohols 695
18.13 Ethers 695
Naming Ethers 695
About Ethers 696
18.14 Aldehydes and Ketones 696
Naming Aldehydes and Ketones 696
About Aldehydes and Ketones 697
18.15 Carboxylic Acids and Esters 698
Naming Carboxylic Acids and Esters 698
About Carboxylic Acids and Esters 698
Secondary Structure 740
18.16 Amines 700
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Why Straight Hair
18.17 Polymers 701
Gets Longer When It Is Wet 742
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Kevlar: Stronger Tertiary Structure 742
Than Steel 703 Quaternary Structure 743
Self-Assessment Quiz 704 19.7 Nucleic Acids: Molecular Blueprints 744
Key Terms 708
19.8 DNA Structure, DNA Replication,
Exercises 709 and Protein Synthesis 746
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 720 DNA Structure 747
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 721 DNA Replication 748
Protein Synthesis 749
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Drugs for Diabetes 751
19 Biochemistry 722 Self-Assessment Quiz 751
Key Terms 754
19.1 The Human Genome Project 723 Exercises 754
19.2 The Cell and Its Main Chemical Components 724 Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 762
19.3 Carbohydrates: Sugar, Starch, and Fiber 724 Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 762
Monosaccharides 725
Disaccharides 726
Polysaccharides 727
19.4 Lipids 729 Appendix: Mathematics Review MR-1
Fatty Acids 729
Fats and Oils 730
Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises A-1
Other Lipids 732
Glossary G-1
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Dietary Fats 734
19.5 Proteins 735 Credits C-1
19.6 Protein Structure 739
Primary Structure 740 Index I-1
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16 Contents
Three-Column Problem-Solving Strategies

How to: Solve Unit Conversion Problems 60
How to: Solve Numerical Problems 71
How to: Write Formulas for Ionic Compounds 176
How to: Obtain an Empirical Formula from Experimental Data 222
How to: Write Balanced Chemical Equations 247
How to: Write Equations for Precipitation Reactions 255
How to: Write Lewis Structures for Covalent Compounds 365
How to: Predict Geometry Using VSEPR Theory 373
How to: Balance Redox Equations Using the Half-Reaction Method 611
How to: Name Alkanes 683
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Interactive Media Contents This icon indicates that this feature is
embedded and interactive in the eTextbook.
Key Concept Videos

1.1 Welcome to the Molecular World 29 9.6 Quantum Mechanical Orbitals and
2.3 Units and Significant Figures 46 Electron Configurations 329
2.4 Significant Figures in Calculations 51 9.7 Writing an Electron Configuration Based on
2.6 Converting between Units 57 an Element’s Position on the Periodic Table 336
3.3 Classifying Matter 94 10.2 The Lewis Model for Chemical Bonding 360
3.4 Energy and Chemical and Physical Change 106 10.5 Writing Lewis Structures for Covalent
3.11 Heat Capacity 110 Compounds 364
4.4 Subatomic Particles and Isotope Symbols 135 10.6 Resonance and Formal Charge 368
4.6 The Periodic Table and the Periodic Law 140 10.7 Predicting the Shapes of Molecules 370
4.9 Atomic Mass 150 11.4 Simple Gas Laws and the Ideal Gas Law 399
5.3 Chemical Formulas 170 11.9 Mixtures of Gases 418
5.7 Naming Ionic Compounds 178 11.10 Gas Reaction Stoichiometry 422
5.8 Naming Molecular Compounds 183 12.4 Evaporation and Condensation 447
6.3 The Mole Concept 205 12.5 Melting, Freezing, and Sublimation 452
6.5 Chemical Formulas as Conversion Factors 213 12.6 Intermolecular Forces 456
6.8 Calculating Empirical Formulas for 13.2 Solutions and Solubility 481
Compounds 220 13.5 Solution Concentration 486
7.3 Writing and Balancing Chemical 13.9 Colligative Properties 497
Equations 245 14.4 Definitions of Acids and Bases 523
7.5 Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility 250 14.9 The pH Scale 538
7.6 Precipitation Reactions 253 14.10 Buffers 542
8.2 Reaction Stoichiometry 284 15.3 Equilibrium and the Equilibrium
8.5 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, Constant 563
and Percent Yield 291 15.7 Le Châtelier’s Principle 572
8.7 Enthalpy 299 16.3 Oxidation States and Redox Reactions 607
9.2 Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum 320 17.3 Types of Radioactivity 641
Key Concept Interactives

2.6 Unit Conversion 57 10.5 Drawing Lewis Structures 364
4.8 Isotopes and Atomic Mass 147 12.6 Intermolecular Forces 456
5.6 Nomenclature 178 15.3 Dynamic Equilibrium and the
6.8 Determining a Chemical Formula Equilibrium Constant 563
from Experimental Data 220 15.7 Le Châtelier’s Principle 573
7.4 Balancing Chemical Equations 247 17.3 Types of Radioactivity 641
8.5 Stoichiometry, Limiting Reactant, 18.4 Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes 675
Excess Reactant, and Theoretical Yield 291 18.11 Functional Groups 693
9.7 Electron Configurations from the 19.5 Proteins and Amino Acids 735
Periodic Table 336
17
F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 17 17/04/23 4:47 PM

18 Interactive Media Contents
Interactive Worked Examples

2.4 Determining the Number of 6.11 Obtain an Empirical Formula
Significant Figures in a Number 49 from Experimental Data 222
2.5 Significant Figures in Multiplication 7.2 Write Balanced Chemical Equations 247
and Division 51 7.6 Determining Whether a Compound
2.6 Significant Figures in Addition and Is Soluble 252
Subtraction 53 7.7 Write Equations for Precipitation
2.8 Unit Conversion 60 Reactions 255
2.10 Solving Multistep Unit Conversion 7.11 Writing Equations for Acid–Base
Problems 62 Reactions 259
2.14 Solving Multistep Conversion Problems 7.12 Writing Equations for Gas-Evolution
Involving Units Raised to a Power 67 Reactions 260
2.16 Density as a Conversion Factor 70 8.2 Mass-to-Mass Conversions 288
3.5 Conversion of Energy Units 104 8.4 Limiting Reactant and Theoretical
3.6 Exothermic and Endothermic Processes 106 Yield from Initial Moles of Reactants 293
3.9 Converting between Fahrenheit and 8.5 Finding Limiting Reactant and
Kelvin Temperature Scales 109 Theoretical Yield 296
3.10 Relating Heat Energy to Temperature 8.7 Stoichiometry Involving ∆Hrxn 301
Changes 113 9.2 Electron Configurations 335
3.11 Relating Specific Heat Capacity to 9.3 Writing Orbital Diagrams 335
Temperature Changes 114 9.5 Writing Electron Configurations
4.2 Classifying Elements as Metals, from the Periodic Table 339
Nonmetals, or Metalloids 142 9.6 Atomic Size 342
4.4 Determining Ion Charge from Numbers 9.7 Ionization Energy 345
of Protons and Electrons 145 9.8 Metallic Character 346
4.5 Determining the Number of Protons 10.4 Write Lewis Structures for
and Electrons in an Ion 146 Covalent Compounds 365
4.8 Numbers of Protons and Neutrons 10.6 Writing Lewis Structures for
from Isotope Symbols 150 Polyatomic Ions 366
4.9 Calculating Atomic Mass 152 10.7 Writing Resonance Structures 369
5.5 Write Formulas for Ionic Compounds 176 10.8 Predict Geometry Using VSEPR Theory 373
5.7 Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds 10.11 Determining Whether a
Containing Polyatomic Ions 177 Molecule Is Polar 378
5.14 Nomenclature Using the Nomenclature 11.2 Boyle’s Law 403
Flowchart 187 11.3 Charles’s Law 407
5.15 Calculating Formula Mass 188 11.4 The Combined Gas Law 409
6.1 Converting between Moles and 11.5 Avogadro’s Law 411
Number of Atoms 206 11.6 The Ideal Gas Law 414
6.2 The Mole Concept—Converting between 11.8 Molar Mass, the Ideal Gas Law, and
Grams and Moles 208 Mass Measurement 417
6.3 The Mole Concept—Converting between 11.11 Gases in Chemical Reactions 424
Grams and Number of Atoms 209
12.1 Using the Heat of Vaporization in
6.5 The Mole Concept—Converting between Calculations 451
Mass of a Compound and Number of
12.2 Using the Heat of Fusion in Calculations 454
Molecules 212
12.4 Dipole–Dipole Forces 458
6.7 Chemical Formulas as Conversion
12.5 Hydrogen Bonding 460
Factors—Converting between Grams
13.1 Calculating Mass Percent 487
of a Compound and Grams of a
13.2 Using Mass Percent in Calculations 488
Constituent Element 216
13.3 Calculating Molarity 490
6.9 Mass Percent Composition 219
F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 18 17/04/23 4:47 PM

Interactive Media Contents 19
13.4 Using Molarity in Calculations 491 15.7 The Effect of a Temperature

13.7 Solution Stoichiometry 496 Change on Equilibrium 580
13.9 Freezing Point Depression 499 15.9 Calculating Molar Solubility
13.10 Boiling Point Elevation 500 from Ksp 583
14.1 Identifying Brønsted–Lowry Acids 16.3 Assigning Oxidation States 608
and Bases and Their Conjugates 525 16.4 Using Oxidation States to Identify
14.4 Acid–Base Titration 530 Oxidation and Reduction 610
14.8 Calculating pH from  H3O +  539 16.6 Balance Redox Equations Using the
15.1 Writing Equilibrium Constant Half-Reaction Method 611
Expressions for Chemical Reactions 566 16.7 Balancing Redox Reactions 613
15.3 Calculating Equilibrium Constants 570 17.1 Writing Nuclear Equations for
15.4 Using Equilibrium Constants Alpha (α) Decay 643
in Calculations 571
F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 19 17/04/23 4:47 PM

To the Student
This book is for you, and every text feature is meant to help you learn and succeed
in your chemistry course. I wrote this book with two main goals for you in mind:
to see chemistry as you never have before and to develop the problem-solving
skills you need to succeed in chemistry.
I want you to experience chemistry in a new way. I have written each chap-
ter to show you that chemistry is not just something that happens in a labora-
tory; chemistry surrounds you at every moment. Several outstanding artists
have helped me to develop photographs and art that will help you visualize the
molecular world. From the opening example to the closing chapter, you will see
chemistry. My hope is that when you finish this course, you will think differently
about your world because you understand the molecular interactions that under-
lie everything around you.
My second goal is for you to develop problem-solving skills. No one succeeds
in chemistry—or in life, really—without the ability to solve problems. I can’t give
you a one-size-fits-all formula for problem solving, but I can and do give you
strategies that will help you develop the chemical intuition you need to understand
chemical reasoning.
Look for several recurring features throughout this book designed to help
you master problem solving. The most important ones are: (1) a four-step process
(Sort, Strategize, Solve, and Check) designed to help you learn how to develop
a problem-solving approach; (2) the solution map, a visual aid that helps you
navigate your way through problems; (3) two-column Examples, in which the
left column explains in clear and simple language the purpose of each step of
the solution shown in the right column; and (4) three-column Examples, which
describe a problem-solving procedure while demonstrating how it is applied to
two different Examples. In addition, the For More Practice feature at the end of
each worked Example directs you to the end-of-chapter Problems that provide
more opportunity to practice the skill(s) covered in each Example. In addition,
Interactive Worked Examples are digital versions of select worked Examples from
the text that help you break down problems using the book’s “Sort, Strategize,
Solve, and Check” technique.
Recent research has demonstrated that you will do better on your exams if you
take a multiple-choice pre-exam before your actual exam. At the end of each chap-
ter, you will find a Self-Assessment Quiz to help you check your understanding
of the material in that chapter. You can string these together to make a pre-exam.
For example, if your exam covers Chapters 5–7, complete the Self-Assessment
Quizzes for those chapters as part of your preparation for the exam. The ques-
tions you miss on the quiz will reveal the areas you need to spend the most time
studying. Studies show that if you do this, you will do better on the actual exam.
Lastly, I hope this book leaves you with the knowledge that chemistry is not
reserved only for those with some superhuman intelligence level. With the right
amount of effort and some clear guidance, anyone can master chemistry, includ-
ing you.
Sincerely,
Nivaldo J. Tro
nivatro@gmail.com
20
F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 20 17/04/23 4:47 PM

To the Instructor
I thank all of you who have used any of the first six editions of Introductory
Chemistry—you have made this book the best-selling book in its market, and for
that I am extremely grateful. The preparation of the seventh edition has enabled
me to continue to refine the book to meet its fundamental purpose: teaching
chemical skills in the context of relevance.
Introductory Chemistry is designed for a one-semester, college-level, introduc-
tory or preparatory chemistry course. Students taking this course need to develop
problem-solving skills—but they also must see why these skills are important to
them and to their world. Introductory Chemistry extends chemistry from the labo-
ratory to the student’s world. It motivates students to learn chemistry by demon-
strating the role it plays in their daily lives.
This is a visual book. Wherever possible, I use images to help communicate
the subject. In developing chemical principles, for example, I worked with sev-
eral artists to develop multipart images that show the connection between every-
day processes visible to the eye and the molecular interactions responsible for
those processes. This art has been further refined and improved in the seventh
edition, making the visual impact sharper and more targeted to student learn-
ing. For example, many images now include blue annotations that represent the
author voice. These annotations put the narrative closest to its point of relevance
instead of being lost in the figure caption. My intent is to create an art program
that teaches and presents complex information clearly and concisely. Many of the
illustrations showing molecular depictions of a real-world object or process have
three parts: macroscopic (what we can see with our eyes); molecular and atomic
(space-filling models that depict what the molecules and atoms are doing); and
symbolic (how chemists represent the molecular and atomic world). Students
can begin to see the connections between the macroscopic world, the molecular
world, and the representation of the molecular world with symbols and formulas.
The problem-solving pedagogy employs four steps as it has done in the
previous six editions: Sort, Strategize, Solve, and Check. This four-step proce-
dure guides students as they learn chemical problem solving. Students will also
encounter extensive flowcharts throughout the book, allowing them to better
visualize the organization of chemical ideas and concepts.
Throughout the worked Examples in this book, I use a two- or three-column
layout in which students learn a general procedure for solving problems of a par-
ticular type as they see this procedure applied to one or two worked Examples. In
this format, the explanation of how to solve a problem is placed directly beside the
actual steps in the solution of the problem. Many of you have told me that you use
a similar technique in lecture and office hours. Since students have specifically
asked for connections between worked Examples and end-of-chapter Problems, I
include a For More Practice feature at the end of each worked Example that lists
the end-of-chapter review Examples and end-of-chapter Problems that provide
additional opportunities to practice the skill(s) covered in the example. Also in
this edition, we have 78 Interactive Worked Examples, which can be accessed in
the eText or through Mastering™ Chemistry.
A successful feature of previous editions is the Conceptual Checkpoints, a
series of short questions that students can use to test their mastery of key concepts
as they read through a chapter. For this edition, all Conceptual Checkpoints are
embedded in the eText. Emphasizing understanding rather than calculation, they
are designed to encourage active learning even while reading.
21
F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 21 18/04/23 2:43 PM

22 To the Instructor
In my own teaching, I have been influenced by two studies. The first one is
a mega analysis of the effect of active learning on student learning in STEM dis-
ciplines.1 In this study, Freeman and his coworkers convincingly demonstrate
that students learn better when they are active in the process. The second study
focuses on the effect of multiple-choice pretests on student exam performance.2
Here, Pyburn and his coworkers show that students who take a multiple-choice
pretest do better on exams than those who do not. Even more interesting, the
enhancement is greater for lower performing students. In my courses, I have
implemented both active learning and multiple-choice pretesting with good
results. In my books, I have developed tools to allow you to incorporate these
techniques as well.
To help you with active learning, I now have 45 Key Concept Videos that
accompany this book. These three- to five-minute videos each introduce a key
concept from the chapter. They are themselves interactive because every video
has an embedded question posed to the student to test understanding. In addition,
there are now 78 Interactive Worked Example videos in the media package. This
means that you now have a library of 123 interactive videos to enhance your course.
In addition, I have created new digital content called Key Concept Interactives
described in more detail below in the section entitled “New to This Edition.”
In my courses, I use these videos and interactives in conjunction with the book
to implement a before, during, after strategy for my students. My goal is simple:
Engage students in active learning before class, during class, and after class. To that end,
I assign a video or interactive before most class sessions. All videos and interac-
tives are embedded in the eText, allowing students to review and test their under-
standing in real time. The video or interactive introduces students to a concept
or problem that I will cover in the lecture. During class, I expand on the concept
or problem using Learning Catalytics™ to question my students. Instead of sim-
ply passively listening to a lecture, they are interacting with the concepts through
questions that I pose. Sometimes I ask my students to answer individually, other
times in pairs or even groups. This approach has changed my classroom. Students
engage in the material in new ways. They are actively learning and have to think
and process and interact. Finally, after class, I give them another assignment, usu-
ally a short follow-up question, problem, or video. At this point, they must apply
what they have learned to solve a problem.
To help you with multiple-choice pretesting, each chapter contains a Self-
Assessment Quiz, which is also embedded in the eText. These quizzes are
designed so that students can test themselves on the core concepts and skills
of each chapter. I encourage my students to use these quizzes as they prepare
for exams. For example, if my exam covers Chapters 5–8, I assign the quizzes for
those chapters for credit (you can do this in MasteringChemistry). Students then
get a pretest on the core material that will be on the exam.
My goal with this edition is to continue to help you make learning a more active
(rather than passive) process for your students. I hope the tools that I have provided
here continue to aid you in teaching your students better and more effectively. Please
feel free to email me with any questions or comments you might have. I look forward
to hearing from you as you use this book in your course.
Sincerely,
Nivaldo J. Tro
nivatro@gmail.com
1
Freeman, Scott; Eddy, Sarah L.; McDonough, Miles; Smith, Michelle K.; Okoroafor, Nnadozie; Jordt,
Hannah; and Wenderoth, Mary Pat. Active learning increases student performance in science, engi-
neering, and mathematics, 2014, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
2
Pyburn, Daniel T.; Pazicni, Samuel; Benassi, Victor A.; and Tappin, Elizabeth M. The testing effect:
An intervention on behalf of low-skilled comprehenders in general chemistry, J. Chem. Educ., 2014,
91 (12), pp. 2045–2057.
F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 22 17/04/23 4:47 PM

Preface
Teaching Principles
The development of basic chemical principles—such as those of atomic structure,
chemical bonding, chemical reactions, and the gas laws—is one of the main goals
of this text. Students must acquire a firm grasp of these principles in order to
succeed in the general chemistry sequence or the chemistry courses that support
the allied health curriculum. To that end, the book integrates qualitative and
quantitative material and proceeds from concrete concepts to more abstract ones.
Organization of the Text

The main divergence in topic ordering among instructors teaching introductory
and preparatory chemistry courses is the placement of electronic structure and
chemical bonding. Should these topics come early, at the point where models for
the atom are being discussed? Or should they come later, after the student has been
exposed to chemical compounds and chemical reactions? Early placement gives
students a theoretical framework within which they can understand compounds
and reactions. However, it also presents students with abstract models before they
understand why they are necessary. I have chosen a later placement; nonetheless,
I know that every course is unique and that each instructor chooses to cover topics
in his or her own way. Consequently, I have written each chapter for maximum
flexibility in topic ordering.
Acknowledgments
This book has been a group effort, and I am grateful for all of those who helped me.
First and foremost, I would like to thank my editors on this edition, Jessica Moro
and Elizabeth Ellsworth Bell. I have known and worked with both of them for
many years and in various roles, and am grateful to have them as my editors. I am
also deeply grateful to Edward Dodd, my development editor. Ed is an author’s
dream editor. He is thorough, detail-oriented, creative, and incredibly organized.
However, Ed is also gracious, generous, and a joy to work with. Thanks, Ed, for
your unending efforts on this revision. Thanks also to my content producer Beth
Sweeten. Beth has managed the many details and moving parts of producing this
book with care and precision. I appreciate her steady hand, attention to detail,
and hard work. Thanks also to my media developer Jackie Jacob. Jackie and I have
been working together for many years to produce innovative media pieces that
are pedagogically sound and easy to use. She is simply the best in the business,
and I am lucky to get to work with her. I am also grateful to my media editor
Chloe Veylit who has helped tremendously with the development of the new Key
Concept Videos, Interactive Worked Examples, Key Concept Interactives, and
other media elements. Chloe is creative, organized, and a great colleague.
Thanks also to Adam Jaworski, who oversees product management in Science
at Pearson. I am grateful to have his wise and steady, yet innovative, hand at the
wheel, especially during the many changes that are happening within educational
publishing. I am also grateful to Gary Hespeheide for his creativity and hard
work in crafting the design of this text. I also thank Francesca Monaco and her
23
F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 23 17/04/23 4:47 PM

24 Preface
coworkers at Straive. I am a picky author and Francesca is endlessly patient and

a true professional. I am also greatly indebted to my copy editor, Betty Pessagno,
for her dedication and professionalism over many projects.
I am also grateful to those who have supported me personally while working
on this book. First on that list is my wife, Ann. Her patience and love for me are
beyond description, and without her, this book would never have been written.
I am also indebted to my children, Michael, Ali, Kyle, and Kaden, whose smiling
faces and love of life always inspire me. I come from a large Cuban family whose
closeness and support most people would envy. Thanks to my parents, Nivaldo
and Sara; my siblings, Sarita, Mary, and Jorge; my siblings-in-law, Nachy, Karen,
and John; and my nephews and nieces, Germain, Danny, Lisette, Sara, and Kenny.
These are the people with whom I celebrate life.
I am especially grateful to Kyle Tro, who put in many hours proofreading
changes in the manuscript, working problems, and organizing appendices. Kyle,
you are an amazing person—it is my privilege to have you work with me on this
project.
Lastly, I am indebted to the many reviewers, listed next, whose ideas are found
throughout this book. They have corrected me, inspired me, and sharpened my
thinking on how best to teach this subject we call chemistry. I deeply appreciate
their commitment to this project.
Reviewers of the 7th Edition

Lara Baxley Paul Haberstroh Julie Senecoff
Cuesta College Mohave Community College Manor College
David Boyajian Stephanie Katz Linkmeyer Mary Snow Setzer
Palomar College Villanova University University of Alabama, Huntsville
Marissa Cominotti Roy Kennedy Steven Tait
University of North Carolina, Charlotte Massachusetts Bay Community College Indiana University, Bloomington
Jean Dupon Andrea Leonard
Coastline Community College University of Louisiana, Lafayette
Michael Ferguson Dalila Paredes
University of Hawaii, Maui College Clark College
Focus Group Participants

David Baker Ronald Kirkpatrick Steven Schultz
Delta College Ivy Tech Community College Biola University
Marissa Cominotti Diana Leung Mary Snow Setzer
University of North Carolina, Charlotte University of Alabama University of Alabama, Huntsville
Sarah Edwards Peter Nassiff Neeta Sharma
Western Kentucky University Massachusetts Bay Community College Solano Community College
Michael Felty Michael O’Donnell Crystal Sims
Trinity Valley Community College Blue Ridge Community and Technical College University of Arkansas, Cossatot Community
Lee Hoffman Michael Rennekamp College
Drexel University Columbus State Community College Sammer Tekarli
Roy Kennedy Gerald Roy University of North Texas, Denton
Massachusetts Bay Community College Indian River State College
F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 24 17/04/23 4:47 PM

Preface 25
Reviewers of the 6th Edition

Premilla Arasasingham David Futoma Helen Motokane
El Camino College Roger Williams University El Camino College
Crystal Bendenbaugh Galen George David Rodgers
Southeastern University Santa Rosa Junior College North Central Michigan College
Charles Carraher Marcia Gillette Mu Zheng
Florida Atlantic University Indiana University Kokomo Tennessee State University
Cassidy Dobson Ganna Lyubartseva
St. Cloud University Southern Arkansas University
6th Edition Accuracy Reviewers

Kelly Befus Stevenson Flemer Tanea Reed
Anoka-Ramsey Community College University of Vermont Eastern Kentucky University
Katherine G. Stevens Lance Lund Jennifer Zabzydar
Utrecht University Anoka-Ramsey Community College Palomar College
Acknowledgments for the Seventh Edition in SI Units

Pearson would like to acknowledge and thank the following people for their contributions.
Contributor
Katherine G. Stevens
Utrecht University
Reviewers
Kenneth Ozoemena
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg
Katherine G. Stevens
Utrecht University
Yin Yin Teo
Universiti Malaya
F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 25 19/04/23 12:42 PM

26 Preface
New to This Edition

The book has been extensively revised and contains more small changes than can
be detailed here. The most significant changes to the book and its supplements are
listed below:
New Key Concept Interactives

15 new Key Concept Interactives (KCIs) have been added to the eTextbook and are
assignable in Mastering Chemistry. Each interactive guides a student through a
key topic as they navigate through a series of interactive screens. As they work
through the KCI, they are presented with questions that must be answered to
progress. Wrong answers result in feedback to guide them toward success.
New Interactive Videos

33 new Key Concept Videos (KCVs) and 39 new Interactive Worked Examples (IWEs)
have been added to the media package that accompanies the book. All videos are
available within the eTextbook and are assignable in Mastering Chemistry. The
video library now contains over 120 interactive videos. These tools are designed to
help professors engage their students in active learning.
New and Revised End-of-Chapter Problems

48 New End-of-Chapter questions have been added throughout the book, and
83 have been revised. Many new End-of-Chapter questions involve the interpre-
tation of graphs and data. All new End-of-Chapter questions are assignable in
Mastering Chemistry.
Updated Conceptual Connections

The Conceptual Connections feature within the eTextbook has been updated
to allow students to answer the question and receive feedback, written by the
author, on their response.
Predict
This feature asks students to predict the outcome of the topic they are about to
read. After the student reads the section, Predict Follow-up confirms whether the
student predicted correctly or incorrectly and why. Education research has dem-
onstrated that students learn a topic better if they make a prediction about the
topic before learning it (even if the prediction is wrong).
Accessibility
All the art throughout the text has been updated with color contrast and acces-
sibility in mind.
Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Review

As mentioned previously, the entire book went through a detailed review to
ensure the content reflects the rich diversity of our learners and is inclusive of
their lived experiences.
F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 26 17/04/23 4:47 PM

Preface
Preface 27
xxvii
Teaching and Learning Resources

It is increasingly true today that as valuable as a good textbook is, it is still only one element of a comprehensive
learning package. The teaching and learning package that accompanies Introductory Chemistry, 7th Edition in SI Units
is the most comprehensive and integrated on the market. We have made every effort to provide high-quality instructor
resources that will save you preparation time and will enhance the time you spend in the classroom.
Mastering Chemistry
Mastering Chemistry is the most effective and widely used online homework, tutorial, and assessment system for the
sciences. It delivers self-paced tutorials that focus on your course objectives, provides individualized coaching, and
responds to each student’s progress. The Mastering system helps teachers maximize class time with easy-to assign,
customizable, and automatically graded assessments that motivate students to learn.
Mastering Chemistry is a Learning Platform Designed with You in Mind

New resources in Mastering Chemistry are designed to help students learn and provide more effective instruction for
teachers.
• A complete eText! More than a PDF, the Pearson eText includes embedded videos, interactive self-assessments, and
more—all offline accessible via the Pearson+ app for eText.
• A new Study Area with resources designed to help students master the toughest topics in chemistry.
• Numerous opportunities for students to practice problem solving skills, with feedback right when you need it.
• Teachers can assign hundreds of activities and problems that can be tailored to specific instructional goals.
• Teachers have access to a library of extensively tested end-of-chapter problems and comprehensive tutorials that
incorporate a wide variety of answer types; wrong-answer feedback; and individualized help, including hints or
simpler sub-problems.
• Teachers can develop pre-class and post-class diagnostic tests that are automatically graded, and they can create
weekly homework assignments and exams of appropriate difficulty, duration, and content coverage.
Instructor Resources
A robust set of instructor resources and multimedia accompanies the text and can be accessed through Mastering
Chemistry and the Instructor Resource Center.
• All of the figures, photos, and tables from the text in JPEG and PowerPoint.
• Customizable PowerPoint. Lecture outlines save valuable class prep time.
• An Instructor Solution Manual.
• Test Bank provides a wide variety of customizable questions and is available in Microsoft Word, PDF, and TestGen.
formats.
• An Instructor Manual.
Preview and Adoption Process

Upon textbook purchase, students and teachers are granted access to Mastering Chemistry. High school teachers can
obtain preview or adoption access to Mastering Chemistry in one of the following ways:
Preview Access
Teachers can request preview access by visiting Savvas.com∕Access_Request. Select Initial Access then using Option 2,
select your discipline and title from the drop-down menu and complete the online form. Preview Access information
will be sent to the teacher via email.
Adoption Access
Upon purchase, teachers can request course adoption access by visiting Savvas.com∕Access_Request. Select Initial
Access, then, using Option 3, select your discipline and title from the dropdown menu and complete the online form.
Access codes and registration instructions will be sent to the requester via email.
Students, ask your teacher about access.
Savvas, and any third party for which Savvas serves as the sales agent or distributor, reserve the right to change and/
or update technology platforms, including possible edition updates to customers during the term of access. Customers
will be notified of any change prior to the beginning of the new school year.
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Another random document with
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the Court of Madrid the project of acquisition of the two Floridas. Then
perhaps the Emperor might think that this country is less suited to
Spain now that it is separated from her other colonies, and that it is
better suited to the United States because a part of their Western
rivers cross the Floridas before flowing into the Gulf of Mexico; and
finally, that Spain may see in her actual situation, and in the expenses
entailed on her by the war, some motives for listening to the offers of
the Federal government.”
Talleyrand had great need to insist on “the forms of civility and
decorum from which governments should never depart”! Perhaps
Talleyrand already foresaw the scene, said to have occurred some
two years later, when Napoleon violently denounced him to his face
as “a silk stocking stuffed with filth,” and the minister coldly retaliated
by the famous phrase, “Pity that so great a man should be so ill
brought up!” The task of teaching manners to Jefferson was not
Napoleon’s view of his own functions in the world. He probably gave
more attention to the concluding lines of the report, which suggested
that he should decide whether a Spanish colony, made worthless by
an arbitrary act of his own, could be usefully employed in sustaining
his wars.
This report, dated Nov. 19, 1804, lay some weeks in the
Emperor’s hands. Monroe left Paris for Madrid December 8, and still
no answer had been sent to his note. He wrote from Bordeaux,
December 16, a long and interesting letter to Madison, and resumed
his journey. He could hardly have crossed the Bidassoa when
Armstrong received from Talleyrand, December 21, the long-
expected answer,[225] which by declaring the claim to West Florida
emphatically unfounded struck the ground from under Monroe’s feet,
and left him to repent at leisure his defiance of Talleyrand’s advice.
Under the forms of perfect courtesy, this letter contained both
sarcasm and menace. Talleyrand expressed curiosity to learn the
result of Monroe’s negotiation:—
“This result his Imperial Majesty will learn with real interest. He
saw with pain the United States commence their difficulties with Spain
in an unusual manner, and conduct themselves toward the Floridas by
acts of violence which, not being founded in right, could have no other
effect but to injure the lawful owner. Such an aggression gave the
more surprise to his Majesty because the United States seemed in
this measure to avail themselves of their treaty with France as an
authority for their proceedings, and because he could scarcely
reconcile with the just opinion which he entertains of the wisdom and
fidelity of the Federal government a course of proceedings which
nothing can authorize toward a Power which has long occupied, and
still occupies, one of the first ranks in Europe.”
Madison and Monroe, as well as Jefferson, in the course of their
diplomacy had many mortifications to suffer; but they rarely received
a reprimand more keen than this. Yet its sharpness was so delicately
covered by the habitual forms of Talleyrand’s diplomacy that
Americans, who were accustomed to hear and to use strong
language, hardly felt the wound it was intended to inflict. After
hearing Yrujo denounce an act of their government as an “atrocious
libel,” they were not shocked to hear Talleyrand denounce the same
act as one of violence which nothing could authorize. The force of
Talleyrand’s language was more apparent to Godoy than to Madison,
for it bore out every expression of Yrujo and Cevallos. The Prince of
Peace received a copy of Talleyrand’s note at the moment when
Monroe, after almost a month of weary winter travel, joined
Pinckney, who had for six months been employed only in writing
letter after letter begging for succor and support. Don Pedro
Cevallos, with this public pledge in his hand, and with secret French
pledges covering every point of the negotiation in his desk, could
afford to meet with good humor the first visit of the new American
plenipotentiary.
Pinckney’s humiliation was extreme. After breaking off relations
with Cevallos and pledging himself to demand his passports and to
leave Spain, he had been reduced to admit that his Government
disavowed him; and not only was he obliged to remain at Madrid, but
also to sue for permission to resume relations with Cevallos. The
Spanish government good-naturedly and somewhat contemptuously
permitted him to do so; and he was only distressed by the fear that
Monroe might refuse to let him take part in the new negotiation, for
he was with reason confident that Monroe would be obliged to follow
in his own footsteps,—that the United States could save its dignity
and influence only by war.
At the beginning of the new year, Jan. 2, 1805, Monroe entered
Madrid to snatch Florida from the grasp of Spain and France. The
negotiation fell chiefly within Jefferson’s second term, upon which it
had serious results. But while Monroe, busy at Madrid with a quarrel
which could lead only to disappointment or war, thus left the legation
at London for eight months to take care of itself, events were
occurring which warned President Jefferson that the supreme test of
his principles was near at hand, and that a storm was threatening
from the shores of Great Britain compared with which all other
dangers were trivial.
CHAPTER XIV.
For eighteen years after 1783 William Pitt guided England
through peace and war with authority almost as absolute as that of
Don Carlos IV. or Napoleon himself. From him and from his country
President Jefferson had much to fear and nothing to gain beyond a
continuance of the good relations which President Washington, with
extreme difficulty, had succeeded in establishing between the two
peoples. So far as England was concerned, this understanding had
been the work of Pitt and Lord Grenville, who rather imposed it on
their party than accepted it as the result of any public will. The
extreme perils in which England then stood inspired caution; and of
this caution the treaty of 1794 was one happy result. So long as the
British government remained in a cautious spirit, America was safe;
but should Pitt or his successors throw off the self-imposed restraints
on England’s power, America could at the utmost, even by a
successful war, gain nothing materially better than a return to the
arrangements of 1794.
The War of Independence, which ended in the definitive treaty of
1783, naturally left the English people in a state of irritation and
disgust toward America; and the long interregnum of the
Confederation, from 1783 to 1789, allowed this disgust to ripen into
contempt. When at length the Constitution of 1789 restored order in
the American chaos, England felt little faith in the success of the
experiment. She waited for time to throw light on her interests.
This delay was natural; for American independence had
shattered into fragments the commercial system of Great Britain, and
powerful interests were combined to resist further concession.
Before 1776 the colonies of England stretched from the St.
Lawrence to the Mississippi, and across the Gulf of Mexico to the
coast of South America, mutually supporting and strengthening each
other. Jamaica and the other British islands of the West Indies drew
their most necessary supplies from the Delaware and the Hudson.
Boston and New York were in some respects more important to them
than London itself. The timber, live-stock, and provisions which came
from the neighboring continent were essential to the existence of the
West Indian planters and negroes. When war cut off these supplies,
famine and pestilence followed. After the peace of 1783 even the
most conservative English statesmen were obliged to admit that the
strictness of their old colonial system could not be maintained, and
that the United States, though independent, must be admitted to
some of the privileges of a British colony. The government unwillingly
conceded what could not be refused, and the West Indian colonists
compelled Parliament to relax the colonial system so far as to allow
a restricted intercourse between their islands and the ports of the
United States. The relaxation was not a favor to the United States,—
it was a condition of existence to the West Indies; not a boon, but a
right which the colonists claimed and an Act of Parliament defined.
[226]
The right was dearly paid for. The islands might buy American
timber and grain, but they were allowed to make return only in
molasses and rum. Payment in sugar would have been cheaper for
the colonists, and the planters wished for nothing more earnestly
than to be allowed this privilege; but as often as they raised the
prayer, English shipowners cried that the navigation laws were in
peril, and a chorus of familiar phrases filled the air, all carrying a
deep meaning to the English people. “Nursery of seamen” was one
favorite expression; “Neutral frauds” another; and all agreed in
assuming that at whatever cost, and by means however extravagant,
the navy must be fed and strengthened. Under the cover of
supporting the navy any absurdity could be defended; and in the
case of the West Indian trade, the British shipowner enjoyed the right
to absurdities sanctioned by a century and a half of law and custom.
The freight on British sugars belonged of right to British shippers,
who could not be expected to surrender of their own accord, in
obedience to any laws of political economy, a property which was the
source of their incomes. The colonists asked permission to refine
their own sugar; but their request not only roused strong opposition
from the shipowners who wanted the bulkier freight, but started the
home sugar-refiners to their feet, who proved by Acts of Parliament
that sugar-refining was a British and not a colonial right. The colonist
then begged a reduction of the heavy duty on sugar; but English
country gentlemen cried against a measure which might lead to an
increase of the income-tax or the imposition of some new burden on
agriculture. In this dilemma the colonists frankly said that only their
weakness, not their will, prevented them from declaring themselves
independent, like their neighbors at Charleston and Philadelphia.
Even when the qualified right of trade was conceded, the
colonists were not satisfied; and the concession itself laid the
foundation of more serious changes. From the moment that
American produce was admitted to be a necessity for the colonists, it
was clear that the Americans must be allowed a voice in the British
system. Discussion whether the Americans had or had not a right to
the colonial trade was already a long step toward revolution. One
British minister after another resented the idea that the Americans
had any rights in the matter; yet when they came to practical
arrangements the British statesmen were obliged to concede that
they were mistaken. From the necessity of the case, the Americans
had rights which never could be successfully denied. Parliament
struggled to prevent the rebel Americans from sharing in the
advantages of the colonial system from which they had rebelled; but
unreasonable as it was that the United States should be rewarded
for rebellion by retaining the privileges of subjects, this was the
inevitable result. Geography and Nature were stronger than
Parliament and the British navy.
At first Pitt hoped that the concession to the colonists might entail
no concession to the United States; while admitting a certain hiatus
in the colonial system, he tried to maintain the navigation laws in
their integrity. The admission of American produce into the West
Indies was no doubt an infraction of the protectionist principle on
which all the civilized world, except America, founded its economical
ideas; but in itself it was not serious. To allow the flour, potatoes,
tobacco, timber, and horses of the American continent to enter the
harbors of Barbadoes and Jamaica; to allow in turn the molasses
and rum of the islands to be sent directly to New York and Boston,—
harmed no one, and was advantageous to all parties, so long as
British ships were employed to carry on the trade. At first this was
the case. The Act of Parliament allowed only British subjects, in
British-built ships, to enter colonial ports with American produce.
Whether the United States government would long tolerate such
legislation without countervailing measures was a question which
remained open for a time, while the system itself had a chance to
prove its own weakness. The British shipping did not answer colonial
objects. Again and again the colonists found themselves on the
verge of starvation; and always in this emergency the colonial
governors threw open their ports by proclamation to American
shipping, while with equal regularity Parliament protected the
governors by Acts of Indemnity. To this extent the navigation system
suffered together with the colonial system, but in theory it was intact.
Ministry, Parliament, and people clung to the navigation laws as their
ark of safety; and even the colonists conceded that although they
had a right to eat American wheat and potatoes, they had no right to
eat those which came to them in the hold of a Marblehead schooner.
Such a principle, however convenient to Great Britain, was not
suited to the interests of New England shippers. In peace their
chances were comparatively few, and the chief diplomatic difficulties
between European governments and the United States had their
source in the American attempt to obtain legal recognition of trade
which America wished to maintain with the colonies; but in war the
situation changed, and more serious disputes occurred. Then the
French and Spanish West Indian ports were necessarily thrown open
to neutral commerce, because their own ships were driven from the
ocean by the superiority of the British navy. Besides the standing
controversy about the admission of American produce to British
islands, the British government found itself harassed by doubts to
what extent it might safely admit the Americans into the French or
Spanish West Indies, and allow them to carry French property, as
though their flag were competent to protect whatever was under it.
Granting that an article like French sugar might be carried in a
neutral vessel, there were still other articles, called contraband,
which ought not to be made objects of neutral commerce; and
England was obliged to define the nature of contraband. She was
also forced to make free use of the right of blockade. These delicate
questions were embittered by another and more serious quarrel. The
European belligerents claimed the right to the military service of their
subjects, and there was no doubt that their right was perfect. In
pursuance of the claim they insisted upon taking their seamen from
American merchant-vessels wherever met on the high seas. So far
as France was concerned, the annoyance was slight; but the identity
of race made the practice extremely troublesome as concerned
England.
At the outbreak of the French wars, Nov. 6, 1793, the British
government issued instructions directing all British armed vessels to
seize every neutral ship they should meet, loaded with the produce
of a French colony or carrying supplies for its use.[227] These orders
were kept secret for several weeks, until the whole American
commerce with the Antilles, and all American ships found on the
ocean, laden in whole or in part with articles of French colonial
produce or for French colonial use, were surprised and swept into
British harbors, where they were condemned by British admiralty
courts, on the ground known as the “Rule of the War of 1756,”—that
because trade between the French colonies and the United States
was illegal in peace, it was illegal in war. From the point of view in
which European Powers regarded their colonies, much could be said
in support of this rule. A colony was almost as much the property of
its home government as a dockyard or a military station. France and
Spain could hardly complain if England chose to treat the commerce
of such governmentstations as contraband; but a rule which might
perhaps be applied by European governments to each other worked
with great injustice when applied to the United States, who had no
colonies, and made no attempt to build up a navy or support an army
by such means. Taken in its broadest sense, the European colonial
system might be defined by the description which the best of British
commentators gave to that of England,[228]—a “policy pursued for
rendering the foreign trade of the whole world subservient to the
increase of her shipping and navigation.” American Independence
was a protest against this practice; and the first great task of the
United States was to overthrow and destroy the principle, in order to
substitute freedom of trade. America naturally objected to becoming
a martyr to the rules of a system which she was trying to
revolutionize.
When these British instructions of Nov. 26, 1793, became known
in the United States, the Government of President Washington
imposed an embargo, threatened retaliation, and sent Chief-Justice
Jay to London as a last chance of maintaining peace. On arriving
there, Jay found that Pitt had already voluntarily retreated from his
ground, and that new Orders, dated Jan. 8, 1794, had been issued,
exempting from seizure American vessels engaged in the direct
trade from the United States to the French West Indies. In the end,
the British government paid the value of the confiscated vessels. The
trade from the United States to Europe was not interfered with; and
thus American ships were allowed to carry French colonial produce
through an American port to France, while Russian or Danish ships
were forbidden by England to carry such produce to Europe at all,
although their flags and harbors were as neutral as those of the
United States. America became suddenly a much favored nation,
and the enemies of England attributed this unexpected kindness to
fear. In truth it was due to a natural mistake. The British Treasury
calculated that the expense and trouble of carrying sugar and coffee
from Martinique or St. Domingo to Boston, of landing it, paying
duties, re-embarking it, receiving the drawback, and then carrying it
to Bordeaux or Brest, would be such as to give ample advantages to
English vessels which could transship more conveniently at London.
The mistake soon became apparent. The Americans quickly proved
that they could under these restrictions carry West Indian produce to
Europe not only more cheaply than British ships could do it, but
almost as quickly; while it was a positive advantage on the return
voyage to make double freight by stopping at an American port. The
consequence of this discovery was seen in the sudden increase of
American shipping, and was largely due to the aid of British seamen,
who found in the new service better pay, food, and treatment than in
their own, and comparative safety from the press-gang and the lash.
At the close of the century the British flag seemed in danger of
complete exclusion from the harbors of the United States. In 1790
more than 550 British ships, with a capacity of more than 115,000
tons, had entered inward and outward, representing about half that
number of actual vessels; in 1799 the custom-house returns showed
not 100 entries, and in 1800 about 140, representing a capacity of
40,000 tons. In the three years 1790–1792, the returns showed an
average of some 280 outward and inward entries of American ships
with a capacity of 54,000 tons; in 1800 the entries were 1,057, with a
capacity of 236,000 tons. The Americans were not only beginning to
engross the direct trade between their own ports and Europe, but
were also rapidly obtaining the indirect carrying-trade between the
West Indies and the European continent, and even between one
European country and another. The British government began to feel
seriously uneasy. At a frightful cost the people of England were
striving to crush the navies and commerce of France and Spain, only
to build up the power of a dangerous rival beyond the ocean.
Doubtless the British government would have taken measures to
correct its mistake, if the political situation had not hampered its
energies. Chief-Justice Jay, in 1794, negotiated a treaty with Lord
Grenville which was in some respects very hard upon the United
States, but was inestimably valuable to them, because it tied Pitt’s
hands and gave time for the new American Constitution to acquire
strength. Ten years of steady progress were well worth any
temporary concessions, even though these concessions
exasperated France, and roused irritation between her and the
United States which in 1798 became actual hostility. The prospect
that the United States would become the ally of England was so fair
that Pitt dared not disturb it. His government was in a manner forced
to give American interests free play, and to let American shipping
gain a sudden and unnatural enlargement. His liberality was well
paid. For a moment France drove the United States to reprisals; and
as the immediate consequence, St. Domingo became practically
independent, owing to the support given by the United States to
Toussaint. Even the reconciliation of France with America effected by
Bonaparte and Talleyrand in 1800 did not at first redress the
balance. Not till the Peace of Amiens, in 1802, did France recover
her colonies; and not till a year later did Bonaparte succeed, by the
sacrifice of Louisiana, in bringing the United States back to their old
attitude of jealousy toward England.
Nevertheless, indications had not been wanting that England was
aware of the advantage she had given to American commerce, and
still better of the advantages which had been given it by Nature. All
the Acts of Parliament on the statute-book could not prevent the
West Indies from being largely dependent on the United States; yet
the United States need not be allowed the right to carry West Indian
produce to France,—a right which depended only on so-called
international law, and was worthless unless supported by the
stronger force. A new Order was issued, Jan. 25, 1798, which
admitted European neutrals to enemies’ colonies, and allowed them
to bring French colonial produce to England or to their own ports.
This Order was looked upon as a side-blow at American shipping,
which was not allowed the same privilege of sailing direct from the
Antilles to Europe. The new Order was justified on the ground that
the old rule discriminated in favor of American merchants, whose
competition might be injurious to the commercial interests of
England.[229]
Further than this the British government did not then go; on the
contrary, it officially confirmed the existing arrangement. The British
courts of admiralty conformed closely to the rules of their political
chiefs. Sir William Scott, better known as Lord Stowell, whose great
reputation as a judge was due to the remarkable series of judgments
in which he created a new system of admiralty law, announced with
his usual clearness the rules by which he meant to be guided. In the
case of the “Emmanuel,” in November, 1799, he explained the
principle on which the law permitted neutrals to carry French
produce from their own country to France. “By importation,” he said,
“the produce became part of the national stock of the neutral
country; the inconveniences of aggravated delay and expense were
a safeguard against this right becoming a special convenience to
France or a serious abridgement of belligerent rights.” Soon
afterward, in the case of the “Polly,” April 29, 1800, he took occasion
to define what he meant by importation into a neutral country. He
said it was not his business to decide what was universally the test
of a bona fide importation; but he was strongly disposed to hold that
it would be sufficient if the goods were proved to have been landed
and the duties paid; and he did accordingly rule that such proof was
sufficient to answer the fair demands of his court.
Rufus King, then American minister in London, succeeded in
obtaining from Pitt an express acceptance of this rule as binding on
the government. On the strength of a report[230] from the King’s
Advocate, dated March 16, 1801, the British Secretary of State
notified the American minister that what Great Britain considered as
the general principle of colonial trade had been relaxed in a certain
degree in consideration of the present state of commerce. Neutrals
might import French colonial produce, and convey it by re-
exportation to France. Landing the goods and paying the duties in
America legalized the trade, even though these goods were at once
re-shipped and forwarded to France on account of the same owners.
With this double guaranty Jefferson began his administration, and
the American merchants continued their profitable business. Not only
did they build and buy large numbers of vessels, and borrow all the
capital they could obtain, but doubtless some French and Spanish
merchants, besides a much greater number of English, made use of
the convenient American flag. The Yankees exulted loudly over the
decline of British shipping in their harbors; the British masters
groaned to see themselves sacrificed by their own government; and
the British admirals complained bitterly that their prize-money was
cut off, and that they were wearing out their lives in the hardest
service, in order to foster a commerce of smugglers and perjurers,
whose only protection was the flag of a country that had not a single
line-of-battle ship to fly it.
Yet President Jefferson had reason to weigh long and soberly the
pointed remark with which the King’s Advocate began his report,—
that the general principle with respect to the colonial trade had been
to a certain extent relaxed in consideration of the present state of
commerce. No doubt the British pretension, as a matter of
international law, was outrageous. The so-called rule of 1756 was
neither more nor less than a rule of force; but when was international
law itself anything more than a law of force? The moment a nation
found itself unable to show some kind of physical defence for its
protection, the wisdom of Grotius and Bynkershoek could not
prevent it from being plundered; and how could President Jefferson
complain merely because American ships were forbidden by
England to carry French sugars to France, when he looked on
without a protest while England and France committed much greater
outrages on every other country within their reach?
President Jefferson believed that the United States had ample
means to resist any British pretension. As his letters to Paine and
Logan showed, he felt that European Powers could be controlled
through the interests of commerce.[231] He was the more firmly
convinced by the extraordinary concessions which Pitt had made,
and by the steady encouragement he gave to the American
merchant. Jefferson felt sure that England could not afford to
sacrifice a trade of some forty million dollars, and that her colonies
could not exist without access to the American market. What need to
spend millions on a navy, when Congress, as Jefferson believed,
already grasped England by the throat, and could suffocate her by a
mere turn of the wrist!
This reasoning had much in its favor. To Pitt the value of the
American trade at a time of war with France and Spain was
immense; and when taken in connection with the dependence of the
West Indian colonies on America, it made a combination of British
interests centring in the United States which much exceeded the
entire value of all England’s other branches of foreign commerce. Its
prospective value was still greater if things should remain as they
were, and if England should continue to undersell all rivals in articles
of general manufacture. England could well afford to lose great sums
of money in the form of neutral freights rather than drive Congress to
a protective system which should create manufactures of cotton,
woollen, and iron. These were motives which had their share in the
civility with which England treated America; and year by year their
influence should naturally have increased.
Of all British markets the American was the most valuable; but
next to the American market was that of the West Indies. In some
respects the West Indian was of the two the better worth preserving.
From head to foot the planters and their half-million negroes were
always clad in cottons or linens made by the clothiers of Yorkshire,
Wiltshire, or Belfast. Every cask and hoop, every implement and
utensil, was supplied from the British Islands. The sailing of a West
Indian convoy was “an epoch in the diary of every shop and
warehouse throughout the Kingdom.”[232] The West Indian colonies
employed, including the fisheries, above a thousand sail of shipping
and twenty-five thousand seamen. While America might, and one
day certainly would, manufacture for herself, the West Indies could
not even dream of it; there the only profitable or practicable industry
was cultivation of the soil, and the chief article of cultivation was the
sugar-cane. Rival industries to those of Great Britain were
impossible; the only danger that threatened British control was the
loss of naval supremacy or the revolt of the negroes.
A great majority of British electors would certainly have felt no
hesitation in deciding, as between the markets of the United States
and of the West Indies, that if a choice must be made, good policy
required the government to save at all hazards the West Indies. Both
as a permanent market for manufactures and as a steady support for
shipping, the West Indian commerce held the first place in British
interests. This fact needed to be taken into account by the United
States government before relying with certainty on the extent to
which Great Britain could be controlled by the interests involved in
the American trade. At the most critical moment all Jefferson’s
calculations might be upset by the growth of a conviction in England
that the colonial system was in serious danger; and to make this
chance stronger, another anxiety was so closely connected with it as
to cause incessant alarm in the British mind.
The carrying-trade between the French West Indies and Europe
which had thus fallen into American hands, added to the natural
increase of national exports and imports, required a large amount of
additional shipping; and what was more directly hostile to English
interests, it drew great numbers of British sailors into the American
merchant-service. The desertion of British seamen and the
systematic encouragement offered to deserters in every seaport of
the Union were serious annoyances, which the American
government was unable to excuse or correct. Between 1793 and
1801 they reached the proportions of a grave danger to the British
service. Every British government packet which entered the port of
New York during the winter before Jefferson’s accession to power
lost almost every seaman in its crew; and neither people nor
magistrates often lent help to recover them. At Norfolk the crew of a
British ship deserted to an American sloop-of-war, whose
commander, while admitting the fact, refused to restore the men,
alleging his construction of official orders in his excuse.[233] In most
American harbors such protection as the British shipmaster obtained
sprang from the personal good-will of magistrates, who without strict
legal authority consented to apply, for the benefit of the foreign
master, the merchant-shipping law of the United States; but in one
serious case even this voluntary assistance was stopped by the
authority of a State government.
This interference was due to the once famous dispute over
Jonathan Robbins, which convulsed party politics in America during
the heated election of 1800. Thomas Nash, a boatswain on the
British frigate “Hermione,” having been ringleader in conspiracy and
murder on the high seas, was afterward identified in the United
States under the name and with the papers of Jonathan Robbins of
Danbury, in Connecticut. On a requisition from the British minister,
dated June 3, 1799, he was delivered under the extradition clause of
Jay’s treaty, and was hung. The Republican party, then in opposition,
declared that Robbins, or Nash, was in their belief an American
citizen whose surrender was an act of base subservience to Great
Britain. An effigy of Robbins hanging to a gibbet was a favorite
electioneering device at public meetings. The State of Virginia,
having a similar grievance of its own, went so far as to enact a
law[234] which forbade, under the severest penalties, any magistrate
who acted under authority of the State to be instrumental in
transporting any person out of its jurisdiction. As citizens of the
Union, sworn to support the Constitution, such magistrates were
equally bound with the Federal judges to grant warrants of
commitment, under the Twenty-seventh Article of Jay’s treaty,
against persons accused of specified crimes. The Virginia Act
directly contravened the treaty; while indirectly it prevented
magistrates from granting warrants against deserters and holding
them in custody, so that every English vessel which entered a
Virginia port was at once abandoned by her crew, who hastened to
enter the public or private ships of the United States.[235]
The captain of any British frigate which might happen to run into
the harbor of New York, if he went ashore, was likely to meet on his
return to the wharf some of his boat’s crew strolling about the town,
every man supplied with papers of American citizenship. This was
the more annoying, because American agents in British ports
habitually claimed and received the benefit of the British law; while
so far as American papers were concerned, no pretence was made
of concealing the fraud, but they were issued in any required
quantity, and were transferred for a few dollars from hand to hand.
Not only had the encouragement to desertion a share in the
decline of British shipping in American harbors, but it also warranted,
and seemed almost to render necessary, the only countervailing
measure the British government could employ. Whatever happened
to the merchant-service, the British navy could not be allowed to
suffer. England knew no conscription for her armies, because for
centuries she had felt no need of general military service; but at any
moment she might compel her subjects to bear arms, if
circumstances required it. Her necessities were greater on the
ocean. There, from time immemorial, a barbarous sort of
conscription, known as impressment, had been the ordinary means
of supplying the royal navy in emergencies; and every seafaring man
was liable to be dragged at any moment from his beer-cellar or
coasting-vessel to man the guns of a frigate on its way to a three-
years’ cruise in the West Indies or the Mediterranean. Mere
engagement in a foreign merchant-service did not release the British
sailor from his duty. When the captain of a British frigate overhauled
an American merchant-vessel for enemy’s property or contraband of
war, he sent an officer on board who mustered the crew, and took
out any seamen whom he believed to be British. The measure, as
the British navy regarded it, was one of self-protection. If the
American government could not or would not discourage desertion,
the naval commander would recover his men in the only way he
could. Thus a circle of grievances was established on each side.
Pitt’s concessions to the United States irritated the British navy and
merchant-marine, while they gave great profits to American shipping;
the growth of American shipping stimulated desertions from the
British service to the extent of injuring its efficiency; and these
desertions in their turn led to a rigorous exercise of the right of
impressment. To find some point at which this vicious circle could be
broken was a matter of serious consequence to both countries, but
most so to the one which avowed that it did not mean to protect its
interests by force.
Great Britain could have broken the circle by increasing the pay
and improving the condition of her seamen; but she was excessively
conservative, and the burdens already imposed on her commerce
were so great that she could afford to risk nothing. In the face of a
combined navy like that of Spain and France, her control of the seas
at any given point, such as the West Indies, was still doubtful; and in
the face of American competition, her huge convoys suffered under
great disadvantage. Conscious of her own power, she thought that
the United States should be first to give way. Had the American
government been willing to perform its neutral obligations strictly, the
circle might have been broken without much trouble; but the United
States wished to retain their advantage, and preferred to risk
whatever England might do rather than discourage desertion, or
enact and enforce a strict naturalization law, or punish fraud. The
national government was too weak to compel the States to respect
neutral obligations, even if it had been disposed to make the attempt.
The practice of impressment brought the two governments to a
deadlock on an issue of law. No one denied that every government
had the right to command the services of its native subjects, and as
yet no one ventured to maintain that a merchant-ship on the high
seas could lawfully resist the exercise of this right; but the law had
done nothing to define the rights of naturalized subjects or citizens.
The British government might, no doubt, impress its own subjects;
but almost every British sailor in the American service carried papers
of American citizenship, and although some of these were
fraudulent, many were genuine. The law of England, as declared
from time out of mind by every generation of her judges, held that
the allegiance of a subject was indefeasible, and therefore that
naturalization was worthless. The law of the United States, as
declared by Chief-Justice Ellsworth in 1799, was in effect the same;
[236] he held that no citizen could dissolve the compact of protection
and defence between himself and society without the consent or
default of the community. On both sides the law was emphatic to the
point that naturalization could not bind the government which did not
consent to it; and the United States could hardly require England to
respect naturalization papers which the Supreme Court of the United
States declared itself unable to respect in a similar case.
Nevertheless, while courts and judges declare what the law is or
ought to be, they bind only themselves, and their decisions have no
necessary effect on the co-ordinate branches of government. While
the judges laid down one doctrine in Westminster Hall, Parliament
laid down another in St. Stephen’s chapel; and no one could say
whether the law or the statute was final. The British statute-book
contained Acts of Parliament as old as the reign of Queen Anne[237]
to encourage the admission of foreign seamen into the British navy,
offering them naturalization as an inducement. American legislation
went not quite so far, but by making naturalization easy it produced
worse results. A little perjury, in no wise unsafe, was alone required
in order to transform British seamen into American citizens; and
perjury was the commonest commodity in a seaport. The British
government was forced to decide whether papers so easily obtained
and transferred should be allowed to bar its claims on the services of
its subjects, and whether it could afford to become a party to the
destruction of its own marine, even though the United States should
join with France and carry on endless war.
That there were some points which not even the loss of American
trade would bring England to concede was well known to Jefferson;
and on these points he did not mean to insist. Setting the matter of
impressment aside, the relations between England and America had
never been better than when the new President took office March 4,
1801. The British government seemed earnest in conciliation, and
lost no opportunity of showing its good-will. Under the Sixth Article of
Jay’s treaty, a commission had been appointed to settle long-
standing debts due to British subjects, but held in abeyance by State
legislation in contravention of the treaty of 1783. After long delays
the commission met at Philadelphia and set to work, but had made
little progress when the two American commissioners, with the
President’s approval, in the teeth of the treaty which created the
Board, refused to accept its decisions, and seceded. This violent
measure was not taken by the Administration without uneasiness, for
England might reasonably have resented it; but after some further
delay the British government consented to negotiate again, and at
last accepted a round sum of three million dollars in full discharge of
the British claim. This was a case in which England was the
aggrieved party; she behaved equally well in other cases where the
United States were aggrieved. Rufus King complained that her
admiralty courts in the West Indies and at Halifax were a scandal; in
deference to his remonstrances these courts were thoroughly
reformed by Act of Parliament. The vice-admiralty court at Nassau
condemned the American brigantine “Leopard,” engaged in carrying
Malaga wine from the United States to the Spanish West Indies. The
American minister complained of the decision, and within three days
the King’s Advocate reported in his favor.[238] The report was itself
founded on Sir William Scott’s favorable decision in the case of the
“Polly.” Soon afterward the American minister complained that
Captain Pellew, of the “Cleopatra,” and Admiral Parker had not
effectually restrained their subordinates on the American station;
both officers were promptly recalled. Although the Ministry had not
yet consented to make any arrangement on the practice of
impressment, Rufus King felt much hope that they might consent
even to this reform; meanwhile Lord Grenville checked the practice,
and professed a strong wish to find some expedient that should take
its place.
There was no reason to doubt the sincerity of the British Foreign
Office in wishing friendship. Its policy was well expressed in a
despatch written from Philadelphia by Robert Liston, the British
minister, shortly before he left the United States to return home:[239]
—

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Nivaldo Tro has been teaching college chemistry since

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1 The Chemical World 28

1.1 Sand and Water 29

General Problem-Solving Strategy 59

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3.12 Energy and Heat Capacity Calculations 112

4 Atoms and Elements 130

4.1 Experiencing Atoms at Tiburon 131

3 Matter and Energy 90

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5.5 Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds 176

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8.1 Climate Change: Too Much Carbon Dioxide 283

7.4 How to Write Balanced Chemical Equations 247

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9.9 Periodic Trends: Atomic Size, Ionization

10 Chemical Bonding 358

10.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs 359

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Hydrogen Bonding 459

13.1 Tragedy in Cameroon 479

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14 Acids and Bases 518

14.1 Sour Patch Kids and International

15 Chemical Equilibrium 558

Fetus Gets Oxygen 578

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Self-Assessment Quiz 626

17.1 Diagnosing Appendicitis 639

Reduction 602 Generate Electricity 656

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18.4 Hydrocarbons: Compounds Containing

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Three-Column Problem-Solving Strategies

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Key Concept Videos

Key Concept Interactives

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Interactive Worked Examples

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13.4 Using Molarity in Calculations 491 15.7 The Effect of a Temperature

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Organization of the Text