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GLOBAL
EDITION
Introductory
CHEMISTRY
SEVENTH EDITION IN SI UNITS
Nivaldo J. Tro
INTRODUCTORY
CHEMISTRY
SEVENTH EDITION IN SI UNITS
Nivaldo J. Tro
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Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Introductory Chemistry, 7th Edition, ISBN 978-0-137-90133-3 by Nivaldo
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About the Author
Nivaldo Tro has been teaching college chemistry since

1990 and is currently teaching at Santa Barbara City College.
He received his Ph.D. in chemistry from Stanford University for
work on developing and using optical techniques to study the
adsorption and desorption of molecules to and from surfaces
in ultrahigh vacuum. He then went on to the University of
California at Berkeley, where he did postdoctoral research on
ultrafast reaction dynamics in solution. Professor Tro has been
awarded grants from the American Chemical Society Petroleum
Research Fund, from the Research Corporation, and from the
National Science Foundation to study the dynamics of various
processes occurring in thin adlayer films adsorbed on dielectric
surfaces. Professor Tro lives in Santa Barbara with his wife, Ann.
In his leisure time, Professor Tro enjoys cycling, surfing, and
being outdoors.
To Annie
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Contents
Preface 23
1 The Chemical World 28
1.1 Sand and Water 29

1.2 Chemicals Compose Ordinary Things 30
1.3 The Scientific Method: How Chemists Think 31
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Combustion and the
Scientific Method 33
1.4 Analyzing and Interpreting Data 34
Identifying Patterns in Data 34
Interpreting Graphs 35
1.5 A Beginning Chemist: How to Succeed 37
Self-Assessment Quiz 37
Key Terms 39
Exercises 39
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 41
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 41
2 Measurement and
Problem Solving 42 2.6 Problem Solving and Unit Conversion
Converting Between Units 57
57
General Problem-Solving Strategy 59

2.1 The Metric Mix-up: A $125 Million Unit Error 43
2.7 Solving Multistep Unit Conversion
2.2 Scientific Notation: Writing Large and
Problems 61
Small Numbers 43
2.8 Unit Conversion in Both the Numerator
2.3 Significant Figures: Writing Numbers to
and Denominator 63
Reflect Precision 45
Counting Significant Figures 48 2.9 Units Raised to a Power 65
Exact Numbers 49 CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Drug Dosage 65
CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA The COBE Satellite 2.10 Density 67
and Very Precise Measurements That Illuminate Calculating Density 68
Our Cosmic Past 50 Density as a Conversion Factor 69
2.4 Significant Figures in Calculations 50 CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Density, Cholesterol,
Multiplication and Division 51 and Heart Disease 70
Rounding 51 2.11 Numerical Problem-Solving Strategies
Addition and Subtraction 52 and the Solution Map 71
Calculations Involving Both Multiplication/Division
and Addition/Subtraction 53
Key Terms 79
2.5 The Basic Units of Measurement 54
Exercises 79
The Base Units 55
Prefix Multipliers 56 Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 89
Derived Units 56 Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 89
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8 Contents
3.12 Energy and Heat Capacity Calculations 112

Key Terms 120
Exercises 121
4 Atoms and Elements 130
4.1 Experiencing Atoms at Tiburon 131

4.2 Indivisible: The Atomic Theory 132
4.3 The Nuclear Atom 133
4.4 The Properties of Protons, Neutrons,
and Electrons 135
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Solid Matter? 136
4.5 Elements: Defined by Their Numbers
of Protons 137
4.6 Looking for Patterns: The Periodic Law
and the Periodic Table 140
4.7 Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons 144
Ions and the Periodic Table 146
4.8 Isotopes: When the Number
of Neutrons Varies 147
4.9 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass
of an Element’s Atoms 150
3 Matter and Energy 90

CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Radioactive
Isotopes at Hanford, Washington 151
3.1 In Your Room 91 Key Terms 156
3.2 What Is Matter? 92 Exercises 156
3.3 Classifying Matter According to Its State: Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 165
Solid, Liquid, and Gas 93 Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 165
3.4 Classifying Matter According to Its Composition:
Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 95
5
3.5 Differences in Matter: Physical and
Chemical Properties 98 Molecules and
3.6 Changes in Matter: Physical and
Chemical Changes 99
Compounds 166
Separating Mixtures Through Physical
Changes 101 5.1 Sugar and Salt 167
3.7 Conservation of Mass: There Is No New Matter 101 5.2 Compounds Display Constant
3.8 Energy 103 Composition 168
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Getting 5.3 Chemical Formulas: How to Represent
Energy out of Nothing? 103 Compounds 169
Units of Energy 104 Polyatomic Ions in Chemical Formulas 171
Types of Chemical Formulas 172
3.9 Energy and Chemical and Physical Change 105
5.4 A Molecular View of Elements and
3.10 Temperature: Random Motion of
Compounds 173
Molecules and Atoms 107
Atomic Elements 173
3.11 Temperature Changes: Heat Capacity 110 Molecular Elements 173
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Coolers, Camping, Molecular Compounds 173
and the Heat Capacity of Water 111 Ionic Compounds 174
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Contents 9
5.5 Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds 176

Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
Containing Only Monoatomic Ions 176
Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
Containing Polyatomic Ions 177
5.6 Nomenclature: Naming Compounds 178
5.7 Naming Ionic Compounds 178
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
Containing a Metal That Forms Only One
Type of Cation 178
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing
a Metal That Forms More Than One Type
of Cation 180
Naming Ionic Compounds Containing a
Polyatomic Ion 181
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Polyatomic Ions 182
5.8 Naming Molecular Compounds 183
5.9 Naming Acids 184
Naming Binary Acids 184
Naming Oxyacids 185
5.10 Nomenclature Summary 186
Ionic Compounds 186
Molecular Compounds 186
Acids 187
5.11 Formula Mass: The Mass of a Molecule
or Formula Unit 187
Key Terms 193
Exercises 193
6.7 Mass Percent Composition from a
Chemical Formula 218
6 Chemical Composition 202
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Fluoridation
of Drinking Water 220
6.8 Calculating Empirical Formulas for
6.1 How Much Sodium? 203
Compounds 220
6.2 Counting Nails by the Kilogram 204 Calculating an Empirical Formula from
6.3 Counting Atoms by the Gram 205 Experimental Data 221
Converting between Moles and Number 6.9 Calculating Molecular Formulas for
of Atoms 205 Compounds 223
Converting between Grams and Moles
of an Element 206
Converting between Grams of an Element Key Terms 231
and Number of Atoms 209 Exercises 231
6.4 Counting Molecules by the Gram 210 Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 239
Converting between Grams and Moles Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 239
of a Compound 210
Converting between Grams of a Compound
and Number of Molecules 212
6.5 Chemical Formulas as Conversion
Factors 213
7 Chemical Reactions 240
Converting between Moles of a Compound
and Moles of a Constituent Element 214 7.1 Grade School Volcanoes, Automobiles,
Converting between Grams of a Compound and Laundry Detergents 241
and Grams of a Constituent Element 215 7.2 Evidence of a Chemical Reaction 242
6.6 Mass Percent Composition of Compounds 217 7.3 The Chemical Equation 245
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10 Contents
8 Quantities in Chemical
Reactions 282
8.1 Climate Change: Too Much Carbon Dioxide 283

8.2 Making Pancakes: Relationships
between Ingredients 284
8.3 Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole
Conversions 285
8.4 Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass
Conversions 287
8.5 More Pancakes: Limiting Reactant,
Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield 290
8.6 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield,
and Percent Yield from Initial Masses
of Reactants 294
8.7 Enthalpy: A Measure of the Heat
Evolved or Absorbed in a Reaction 298
Sign of ∆H rxn 299
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Bunsen Burners 299
Stoichiometry of ∆H rxn 300
Key Terms 306
Exercises 307
7.4 How to Write Balanced Chemical Equations 247

7.5 Aqueous Solutions and Solubility:
Compounds Dissolved in Water 250
9 Electrons in Atoms and
Aqueous Solutions 250 the Periodic Table 318
Solubility 251
7.6 Precipitation Reactions: Reactions in 9.1 Blimps, Balloons, and Models of the Atom 319
Aqueous Solution That Form a Solid 253 9.2 Light: Electromagnetic Radiation 320
7.7 Writing Chemical Equations for Reactions 9.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 322
in Solution: Molecular, Complete Ionic, and CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Radiation Treatment
Net Ionic Equations 256 for Cancer 324
7.8 Acid–Base and Gas-Evolution Reactions 258 9.4 The Bohr Model: Atoms with Orbits 325
Acid–Base (Neutralization) Reactions 258
9.5 The Quantum-Mechanical Model: Atoms
Gas-Evolution Reactions 259
with Orbitals 328
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Neutralizing Excess
Baseball Paths and Electron Probability
Stomach Acid 261
Maps 328
7.9 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 261 From Orbits to Orbitals 329
7.10 Classifying Chemical Reactions 263 9.6 Quantum-Mechanical Orbitals and
Classifying Chemical Reactions by Electron Configurations 329
What Atoms Do 264 Quantum-Mechanical Orbitals 329
Classification Flowchart 266 Electron Configurations: How Electrons
Self-Assessment Quiz 268 Occupy Orbitals 332
Key Terms 273 9.7 Electron Configurations and the
Exercises 273 Periodic Table 336
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 281 9.8 The Explanatory Power of the
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 281 Quantum-Mechanical Model 339
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Contents 11
9.9 Periodic Trends: Atomic Size, Ionization

Energy, and Metallic Character 341
Atomic Size 341
Ionization Energy 343
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Pumping Ions:
Atomic Size and Nerve Impulses 343
Metallic Character 344
Key Terms 350
Exercises 350
10 Chemical Bonding 358
10.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs 359

10.2 Representing Valence Electrons with Dots 360
10.3 Lewis Structures of Ionic Compounds:
Electrons Transferred 361
10.4 Covalent Lewis Structures: Electrons Shared 362
Single Bonds 362
Double and Triple Bonds 363
10.5 Writing Lewis Structures for Covalent
Compounds 364
Writing Lewis Structures for
Polyatomic Ions 366
Exceptions to the Octet Rule 367
10.6 Resonance: Equivalent Lewis Structures Pressure Units 397
for the Same Molecule 368 Pressure Unit Conversion 398
10.7 Predicting the Shapes of Molecules 370 11.4 Boyle’s Law: Pressure and Volume 399
Representing Molecular Geometries EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Airplane Cabin
on Paper 373 Pressurization 400
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Fooled by EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Extra-long Snorkels 404
Molecular Shape 374 11.5 Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature 404
10.8 Electronegativity and Polarity: Why Oil 11.6 The Combined Gas Law: Pressure,
and Water Don’t Mix 375 Volume, and Temperature 408
Electronegativity 375
Polar Bonds and Polar Molecules 377 11.7 Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Moles 410
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY How Soap Works 379 11.8 The Ideal Gas Law: Pressure, Volume,
Self-Assessment Quiz 380 Temperature, and Moles 412
Determining Molar Mass of a Gas
Key Terms 383
from the Ideal Gas Law 416
Exercises 383 Ideal and Nonideal Gas Behavior 418
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 391 11.9 Mixtures of Gases 418
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 391 Partial Pressure and Physiology 420
Collecting Gases over Water 421
11.10 Gases in Chemical Reactions 422
11 Gases 392
Molar Volume at Standard Temperature
and Pressure 425
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Air Pollution 427
11.1 Extra-Long Straws 393 Self-Assessment Quiz 428
11.2 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model Key Terms 432
for Gases 394 Exercises 433
11.3 Pressure: The Result of Constant Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 441
Molecular Collisions 396 Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 441
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12 Contents
Hydrogen Bonding 459

Ion–Dipole Force 460
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Hydrogen
Bonding in DNA 461
12.7 Types of Crystalline Solids: Molecular,
Ionic, and Atomic 463
Molecular Solids 463
Ionic Solids 463
Atomic Solids 464
12.8 Water: A Remarkable Molecule 465
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Water
Pollution and the Flint River Water Crisis 466
Key Terms 470
Exercises 470
13 Solutions 478
13.1 Tragedy in Cameroon 479

13.2 Solutions: Homogeneous Mixtures 480
13.3 Solutions of Solids Dissolved in Water:
How to Make Rock Candy 481
Solubility and Saturation 482
Electrolyte Solutions: Dissolved
Ionic Solids 483
How Solubility Varies with Temperature 484
13.4 Solutions of Gases in Water: How Soda
Pop Gets Its Fizz 484
12 Liquids, Solids, and 13.5 Specifying Solution Concentration:
Mass Percent 486
Intermolecular Forces 442 Mass Percent 486
Using Mass Percent in Calculations 487
12.1 Spherical Water 443 13.6 Specifying Solution Concentration:
12.2 Properties of Liquids and Solids 444 Molarity 489
Using Molarity in Calculations 490
12.3 Intermolecular Forces in Action: Ion Concentrations 492
Surface Tension and Viscosity 445
13.7 Solution Dilution 492
Surface Tension 446
Viscosity 446 13.8 Solution Stoichiometry 494
12.4 Evaporation and Condensation 447 13.9 Freezing Point Depression and Boiling
Boiling 448 Point Elevation: Making Water Freeze
Energetics of Evaporation and Colder and Boil Hotter 497
Condensation 449 Freezing Point Depression 497
Heat of Vaporization 450 EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Antifreeze in Frogs 499
12.5 Melting, Freezing, and Sublimation 452 Boiling Point Elevation 499
Energetics of Melting and 13.10 Osmosis: Why Drinking Salt Water
Freezing 452 Causes Dehydration 501
Heat of Fusion 453
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Solutions in Medicine 502
Sublimation 455
12.6 Types of Intermolecular Forces: Dispersion,
Key Terms 508
Dipole–Dipole, Hydrogen Bonding,
Exercises 508
and Ion–Dipole 456
Dispersion Force 456 Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 517
Dipole–Dipole Force 457 Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 517
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Contents 13
14 Acids and Bases 518
14.1 Sour Patch Kids and International

Spy Movies 519
14.2 Acids: Properties and Examples 520
14.3 Bases: Properties and Examples 522
14.4 Molecular Definitions of Acids and Bases 523
The Arrhenius Definition 523
The Brønsted–Lowry Definition 523
14.5 Reactions of Acids and Bases 525
Neutralization Reactions 525
Acid Reactions 526
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY What Is in My Antacid? 528
Base Reactions 528
14.6 Acid–Base Titration: A Way to Quantify
the Amount of Acid or Base in a Solution 528
14.7 Strong and Weak Acids and Bases 531
Strong Acids 531
Weak Acids 532
Strong Bases 534
Weak Bases 535
14.8 Water: Acid and Base in One 536
14.9 The pH and pOH Scales: Ways to
Express Acidity and Basicity 538
Calculating pH from  H3O +  538
Calculating  H3O +  from pH 540
The pOH Scale 541
14.10 Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change 542 15.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria: The Equilibrium
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Alkaloids 542 Expression for Reactions Involving a Solid or
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH The Danger a Liquid 568
of Antifreeze 544 15.6 Calculating and Using Equilibrium Constants 569
Self-Assessment Quiz 545 Calculating Equilibrium Constants 569
Key Terms 549 Using Equilibrium Constants in Calculations 571
Exercises 550 15.7 Disturbing a Reaction at Equilibrium:
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 557 Le Châtelier’s Principle 572
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 557 15.8 The Effect of a Concentration Change on
Equilibrium 574
15.9 The Effect of a Volume Change on
15 Chemical Equilibrium 558

Equilibrium
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH How a Developing
576
Fetus Gets Oxygen 578

15.1 Life: Controlled Disequilibrium 559
15.10 The Effect of a Temperature Change on
15.2 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction 560 Equilibrium 579
Collision Theory 561
How Concentration Affects the Rate
15.11 The Solubility-Product Constant 581
Using K sp to Determine Molar Solubility 582
of a Reaction 561
How Temperature Affects the Rate 15.12 The Path of a Reaction and the Effect
of a Reaction 562 of a Catalyst 583
15.3 The Idea of Dynamic Chemical How Activation Energies Affect Reaction Rates 584
Catalysts Lower the Activation Energy 585
Equilibrium 563
Enzymes: Biological Catalysts 586
15.4 The Equilibrium Constant: A Measure
of How Far a Reaction Goes 565
Key Terms 592
Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions
for Chemical Reactions 566 Exercises 592
The Significance of the Equilibrium Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 600
Constant 566 Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 601
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14 Contents

Key Terms 629
Exercises 630
17 Radioactivity and
Nuclear Chemistry 638
17.1 Diagnosing Appendicitis 639

17.2 The Discovery of Radioactivity 640
17.3 Types of Radioactivity: Alpha, Beta,
and Gamma Decay 641
Alpha (α) Radiation 642
Beta ( β ) Radiation 644
Gamma ( γ ) Radiation 645
Positron Emission 646
17.4 Detecting Radioactivity 648
17.5 Natural Radioactivity and Half-Life 649
Half-Life 649
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Environmental Radon 651
A Natural Radioactive Decay Series 651
17.6 Radiocarbon Dating: Using Radioactivity
to Measure the Age of Fossils and Other
Artifacts 652
CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA The Shroud of Turin 653
17.7 The Discovery of Fission and the
16 Oxidation and Atomic Bomb
17.8 Nuclear Power: Using Fission to
654
Reduction 602 Generate Electricity 656

17.9 Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun 658
16.1 The End of the Internal Combustion Engine? 603 17.10 The Effects of Radiation on Life 658
16.2 Oxidation and Reduction: Some Definitions 604 Acute Radiation Damage 658
16.3 Oxidation States: Electron Bookkeeping 607 Increased Cancer Risk 659
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY The Bleaching of Hair 609 Genetic Defects 659
Measuring Radiation Exposure 659
16.4 Balancing Redox Equations 610
17.11 Radioactivity in Medicine 659
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Isotope Scanning 659
Photosynthesis and Respiration: Energy for Life 615
Radiotherapy 660
16.5 The Activity Series: Predicting Self-Assessment Quiz 661
Spontaneous Redox Reactions 615
Key Terms 664
The Activity Series of Metals 616
Predicting Whether a Metal Will Exercises 664
Dissolve in Acid 618 Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 669
16.6 Batteries: Using Chemistry to Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 669
Generate Electricity 619
The Voltaic Cell 619
Dry-Cell Batteries 621
Lead–Acid Storage Batteries 622 18 Organic Chemistry 670
Fuel Cells 622
16.7 Electrolysis: Using Electricity to 18.1 What Do I Smell? 671
Do Chemistry 623 18.2 Vitalism: The Difference between
16.8 Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions 624 Organic and Inorganic 672
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY The Fuel-Cell 18.3 Carbon: A Versatile Atom 673
Breathalyzer 625 CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA The Origin of Life 674
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Contents 15
18.4 Hydrocarbons: Compounds Containing

Only Carbon and Hydrogen 675
18.5 Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons 676
CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA Environmental
Problems Associated with Hydrocarbon
Combustion 677
18.6 Isomers: Same Formula, Different Structure 681
18.7 Naming Alkanes 682
18.8 Alkenes and Alkynes 685
About Alkenes and Alkynes 685
Naming Alkenes and Alkynes 687
18.9 Hydrocarbon Reactions 688
Alkane Substitution Reactions 689
Alkene and Alkyne Addition Reactions 689
18.10 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 690
Naming Aromatic Hydrocarbons 691
18.11 Functional Groups 693
18.12 Alcohols 694
Naming Alcohols 694
About Alcohols 695
18.13 Ethers 695
Naming Ethers 695
About Ethers 696
18.14 Aldehydes and Ketones 696
Naming Aldehydes and Ketones 696
About Aldehydes and Ketones 697
18.15 Carboxylic Acids and Esters 698
Naming Carboxylic Acids and Esters 698
About Carboxylic Acids and Esters 698
Secondary Structure 740
18.16 Amines 700
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Why Straight Hair
18.17 Polymers 701
Gets Longer When It Is Wet 742
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Kevlar: Stronger Tertiary Structure 742
Than Steel 703 Quaternary Structure 743
Self-Assessment Quiz 704 19.7 Nucleic Acids: Molecular Blueprints 744
Key Terms 708
19.8 DNA Structure, DNA Replication,
Exercises 709 and Protein Synthesis 746
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 720 DNA Structure 747
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 721 DNA Replication 748
Protein Synthesis 749
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Drugs for Diabetes 751
19 Biochemistry 722 Self-Assessment Quiz 751
Key Terms 754
19.1 The Human Genome Project 723 Exercises 754
19.2 The Cell and Its Main Chemical Components 724 Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 762
19.3 Carbohydrates: Sugar, Starch, and Fiber 724 Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 762
Monosaccharides 725
Disaccharides 726
Polysaccharides 727
19.4 Lipids 729 Appendix: Mathematics Review MR-1
Fatty Acids 729
Fats and Oils 730
Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises A-1
Other Lipids 732
Glossary G-1
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Dietary Fats 734
19.5 Proteins 735 Credits C-1
19.6 Protein Structure 739
Primary Structure 740 Index I-1
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16 Contents
Three-Column Problem-Solving Strategies

How to: Solve Unit Conversion Problems 60
How to: Solve Numerical Problems 71
How to: Write Formulas for Ionic Compounds 176
How to: Obtain an Empirical Formula from Experimental Data 222
How to: Write Balanced Chemical Equations 247
How to: Write Equations for Precipitation Reactions 255
How to: Write Lewis Structures for Covalent Compounds 365
How to: Predict Geometry Using VSEPR Theory 373
How to: Balance Redox Equations Using the Half-Reaction Method 611
How to: Name Alkanes 683
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Interactive Media Contents This icon indicates that this feature is
embedded and interactive in the eTextbook.
Key Concept Videos

1.1 Welcome to the Molecular World 29 9.6 Quantum Mechanical Orbitals and
2.3 Units and Significant Figures 46 Electron Configurations 329
2.4 Significant Figures in Calculations 51 9.7 Writing an Electron Configuration Based on
2.6 Converting between Units 57 an Element’s Position on the Periodic Table 336
3.3 Classifying Matter 94 10.2 The Lewis Model for Chemical Bonding 360
3.4 Energy and Chemical and Physical Change 106 10.5 Writing Lewis Structures for Covalent
3.11 Heat Capacity 110 Compounds 364
4.4 Subatomic Particles and Isotope Symbols 135 10.6 Resonance and Formal Charge 368
4.6 The Periodic Table and the Periodic Law 140 10.7 Predicting the Shapes of Molecules 370
4.9 Atomic Mass 150 11.4 Simple Gas Laws and the Ideal Gas Law 399
5.3 Chemical Formulas 170 11.9 Mixtures of Gases 418
5.7 Naming Ionic Compounds 178 11.10 Gas Reaction Stoichiometry 422
5.8 Naming Molecular Compounds 183 12.4 Evaporation and Condensation 447
6.3 The Mole Concept 205 12.5 Melting, Freezing, and Sublimation 452
6.5 Chemical Formulas as Conversion Factors 213 12.6 Intermolecular Forces 456
6.8 Calculating Empirical Formulas for 13.2 Solutions and Solubility 481
Compounds 220 13.5 Solution Concentration 486
7.3 Writing and Balancing Chemical 13.9 Colligative Properties 497
Equations 245 14.4 Definitions of Acids and Bases 523
7.5 Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility 250 14.9 The pH Scale 538
7.6 Precipitation Reactions 253 14.10 Buffers 542
8.2 Reaction Stoichiometry 284 15.3 Equilibrium and the Equilibrium
8.5 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, Constant 563
and Percent Yield 291 15.7 Le Châtelier’s Principle 572
8.7 Enthalpy 299 16.3 Oxidation States and Redox Reactions 607
9.2 Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum 320 17.3 Types of Radioactivity 641
Key Concept Interactives

2.6 Unit Conversion 57 10.5 Drawing Lewis Structures 364
4.8 Isotopes and Atomic Mass 147 12.6 Intermolecular Forces 456
5.6 Nomenclature 178 15.3 Dynamic Equilibrium and the
6.8 Determining a Chemical Formula Equilibrium Constant 563
from Experimental Data 220 15.7 Le Châtelier’s Principle 573
7.4 Balancing Chemical Equations 247 17.3 Types of Radioactivity 641
8.5 Stoichiometry, Limiting Reactant, 18.4 Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes 675
Excess Reactant, and Theoretical Yield 291 18.11 Functional Groups 693
9.7 Electron Configurations from the 19.5 Proteins and Amino Acids 735
Periodic Table 336
17
F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 17 17/04/23 4:47 PM

18 Interactive Media Contents
Interactive Worked Examples

2.4 Determining the Number of 6.11 Obtain an Empirical Formula
Significant Figures in a Number 49 from Experimental Data 222
2.5 Significant Figures in Multiplication 7.2 Write Balanced Chemical Equations 247
and Division 51 7.6 Determining Whether a Compound
2.6 Significant Figures in Addition and Is Soluble 252
Subtraction 53 7.7 Write Equations for Precipitation
2.8 Unit Conversion 60 Reactions 255
2.10 Solving Multistep Unit Conversion 7.11 Writing Equations for Acid–Base
Problems 62 Reactions 259
2.14 Solving Multistep Conversion Problems 7.12 Writing Equations for Gas-Evolution
Involving Units Raised to a Power 67 Reactions 260
2.16 Density as a Conversion Factor 70 8.2 Mass-to-Mass Conversions 288
3.5 Conversion of Energy Units 104 8.4 Limiting Reactant and Theoretical
3.6 Exothermic and Endothermic Processes 106 Yield from Initial Moles of Reactants 293
3.9 Converting between Fahrenheit and 8.5 Finding Limiting Reactant and
Kelvin Temperature Scales 109 Theoretical Yield 296
3.10 Relating Heat Energy to Temperature 8.7 Stoichiometry Involving ∆Hrxn 301
Changes 113 9.2 Electron Configurations 335
3.11 Relating Specific Heat Capacity to 9.3 Writing Orbital Diagrams 335
Temperature Changes 114 9.5 Writing Electron Configurations
4.2 Classifying Elements as Metals, from the Periodic Table 339
Nonmetals, or Metalloids 142 9.6 Atomic Size 342
4.4 Determining Ion Charge from Numbers 9.7 Ionization Energy 345
of Protons and Electrons 145 9.8 Metallic Character 346
4.5 Determining the Number of Protons 10.4 Write Lewis Structures for
and Electrons in an Ion 146 Covalent Compounds 365
4.8 Numbers of Protons and Neutrons 10.6 Writing Lewis Structures for
from Isotope Symbols 150 Polyatomic Ions 366
4.9 Calculating Atomic Mass 152 10.7 Writing Resonance Structures 369
5.5 Write Formulas for Ionic Compounds 176 10.8 Predict Geometry Using VSEPR Theory 373
5.7 Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds 10.11 Determining Whether a
Containing Polyatomic Ions 177 Molecule Is Polar 378
5.14 Nomenclature Using the Nomenclature 11.2 Boyle’s Law 403
Flowchart 187 11.3 Charles’s Law 407
5.15 Calculating Formula Mass 188 11.4 The Combined Gas Law 409
6.1 Converting between Moles and 11.5 Avogadro’s Law 411
Number of Atoms 206 11.6 The Ideal Gas Law 414
6.2 The Mole Concept—Converting between 11.8 Molar Mass, the Ideal Gas Law, and
Grams and Moles 208 Mass Measurement 417
6.3 The Mole Concept—Converting between 11.11 Gases in Chemical Reactions 424
Grams and Number of Atoms 209
12.1 Using the Heat of Vaporization in
6.5 The Mole Concept—Converting between Calculations 451
Mass of a Compound and Number of
12.2 Using the Heat of Fusion in Calculations 454
Molecules 212
12.4 Dipole–Dipole Forces 458
6.7 Chemical Formulas as Conversion
12.5 Hydrogen Bonding 460
Factors—Converting between Grams
13.1 Calculating Mass Percent 487
of a Compound and Grams of a
13.2 Using Mass Percent in Calculations 488
Constituent Element 216
13.3 Calculating Molarity 490
6.9 Mass Percent Composition 219
F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 18 17/04/23 4:47 PM

Interactive Media Contents 19
13.4 Using Molarity in Calculations 491 15.7 The Effect of a Temperature

13.7 Solution Stoichiometry 496 Change on Equilibrium 580
13.9 Freezing Point Depression 499 15.9 Calculating Molar Solubility
13.10 Boiling Point Elevation 500 from Ksp 583
14.1 Identifying Brønsted–Lowry Acids 16.3 Assigning Oxidation States 608
and Bases and Their Conjugates 525 16.4 Using Oxidation States to Identify
14.4 Acid–Base Titration 530 Oxidation and Reduction 610
14.8 Calculating pH from  H3O +  539 16.6 Balance Redox Equations Using the
15.1 Writing Equilibrium Constant Half-Reaction Method 611
Expressions for Chemical Reactions 566 16.7 Balancing Redox Reactions 613
15.3 Calculating Equilibrium Constants 570 17.1 Writing Nuclear Equations for
15.4 Using Equilibrium Constants Alpha (α) Decay 643
in Calculations 571
F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 19 17/04/23 4:47 PM

To the Student
This book is for you, and every text feature is meant to help you learn and succeed
in your chemistry course. I wrote this book with two main goals for you in mind:
to see chemistry as you never have before and to develop the problem-solving
skills you need to succeed in chemistry.
I want you to experience chemistry in a new way. I have written each chap-
ter to show you that chemistry is not just something that happens in a labora-
tory; chemistry surrounds you at every moment. Several outstanding artists
have helped me to develop photographs and art that will help you visualize the
molecular world. From the opening example to the closing chapter, you will see
chemistry. My hope is that when you finish this course, you will think differently
about your world because you understand the molecular interactions that under-
lie everything around you.
My second goal is for you to develop problem-solving skills. No one succeeds
in chemistry—or in life, really—without the ability to solve problems. I can’t give
you a one-size-fits-all formula for problem solving, but I can and do give you
strategies that will help you develop the chemical intuition you need to understand
chemical reasoning.
Look for several recurring features throughout this book designed to help
you master problem solving. The most important ones are: (1) a four-step process
(Sort, Strategize, Solve, and Check) designed to help you learn how to develop
a problem-solving approach; (2) the solution map, a visual aid that helps you
navigate your way through problems; (3) two-column Examples, in which the
left column explains in clear and simple language the purpose of each step of
the solution shown in the right column; and (4) three-column Examples, which
describe a problem-solving procedure while demonstrating how it is applied to
two different Examples. In addition, the For More Practice feature at the end of
each worked Example directs you to the end-of-chapter Problems that provide
more opportunity to practice the skill(s) covered in each Example. In addition,
Interactive Worked Examples are digital versions of select worked Examples from
the text that help you break down problems using the book’s “Sort, Strategize,
Solve, and Check” technique.
Recent research has demonstrated that you will do better on your exams if you
take a multiple-choice pre-exam before your actual exam. At the end of each chap-
ter, you will find a Self-Assessment Quiz to help you check your understanding
of the material in that chapter. You can string these together to make a pre-exam.
For example, if your exam covers Chapters 5–7, complete the Self-Assessment
Quizzes for those chapters as part of your preparation for the exam. The ques-
tions you miss on the quiz will reveal the areas you need to spend the most time
studying. Studies show that if you do this, you will do better on the actual exam.
Lastly, I hope this book leaves you with the knowledge that chemistry is not
reserved only for those with some superhuman intelligence level. With the right
amount of effort and some clear guidance, anyone can master chemistry, includ-
ing you.
Sincerely,
Nivaldo J. Tro
nivatro@gmail.com
20
F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 20 17/04/23 4:47 PM

To the Instructor
I thank all of you who have used any of the first six editions of Introductory
Chemistry—you have made this book the best-selling book in its market, and for
that I am extremely grateful. The preparation of the seventh edition has enabled
me to continue to refine the book to meet its fundamental purpose: teaching
chemical skills in the context of relevance.
Introductory Chemistry is designed for a one-semester, college-level, introduc-
tory or preparatory chemistry course. Students taking this course need to develop
problem-solving skills—but they also must see why these skills are important to
them and to their world. Introductory Chemistry extends chemistry from the labo-
ratory to the student’s world. It motivates students to learn chemistry by demon-
strating the role it plays in their daily lives.
This is a visual book. Wherever possible, I use images to help communicate
the subject. In developing chemical principles, for example, I worked with sev-
eral artists to develop multipart images that show the connection between every-
day processes visible to the eye and the molecular interactions responsible for
those processes. This art has been further refined and improved in the seventh
edition, making the visual impact sharper and more targeted to student learn-
ing. For example, many images now include blue annotations that represent the
author voice. These annotations put the narrative closest to its point of relevance
instead of being lost in the figure caption. My intent is to create an art program
that teaches and presents complex information clearly and concisely. Many of the
illustrations showing molecular depictions of a real-world object or process have
three parts: macroscopic (what we can see with our eyes); molecular and atomic
(space-filling models that depict what the molecules and atoms are doing); and
symbolic (how chemists represent the molecular and atomic world). Students
can begin to see the connections between the macroscopic world, the molecular
world, and the representation of the molecular world with symbols and formulas.
The problem-solving pedagogy employs four steps as it has done in the
previous six editions: Sort, Strategize, Solve, and Check. This four-step proce-
dure guides students as they learn chemical problem solving. Students will also
encounter extensive flowcharts throughout the book, allowing them to better
visualize the organization of chemical ideas and concepts.
Throughout the worked Examples in this book, I use a two- or three-column
layout in which students learn a general procedure for solving problems of a par-
ticular type as they see this procedure applied to one or two worked Examples. In
this format, the explanation of how to solve a problem is placed directly beside the
actual steps in the solution of the problem. Many of you have told me that you use
a similar technique in lecture and office hours. Since students have specifically
asked for connections between worked Examples and end-of-chapter Problems, I
include a For More Practice feature at the end of each worked Example that lists
the end-of-chapter review Examples and end-of-chapter Problems that provide
additional opportunities to practice the skill(s) covered in the example. Also in
this edition, we have 78 Interactive Worked Examples, which can be accessed in
the eText or through Mastering™ Chemistry.
A successful feature of previous editions is the Conceptual Checkpoints, a
series of short questions that students can use to test their mastery of key concepts
as they read through a chapter. For this edition, all Conceptual Checkpoints are
embedded in the eText. Emphasizing understanding rather than calculation, they
are designed to encourage active learning even while reading.
21
F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 21 18/04/23 2:43 PM

22 To the Instructor
In my own teaching, I have been influenced by two studies. The first one is
a mega analysis of the effect of active learning on student learning in STEM dis-
ciplines.1 In this study, Freeman and his coworkers convincingly demonstrate
that students learn better when they are active in the process. The second study
focuses on the effect of multiple-choice pretests on student exam performance.2
Here, Pyburn and his coworkers show that students who take a multiple-choice
pretest do better on exams than those who do not. Even more interesting, the
enhancement is greater for lower performing students. In my courses, I have
implemented both active learning and multiple-choice pretesting with good
results. In my books, I have developed tools to allow you to incorporate these
techniques as well.
To help you with active learning, I now have 45 Key Concept Videos that
accompany this book. These three- to five-minute videos each introduce a key
concept from the chapter. They are themselves interactive because every video
has an embedded question posed to the student to test understanding. In addition,
there are now 78 Interactive Worked Example videos in the media package. This
means that you now have a library of 123 interactive videos to enhance your course.
In addition, I have created new digital content called Key Concept Interactives
described in more detail below in the section entitled “New to This Edition.”
In my courses, I use these videos and interactives in conjunction with the book
to implement a before, during, after strategy for my students. My goal is simple:
Engage students in active learning before class, during class, and after class. To that end,
I assign a video or interactive before most class sessions. All videos and interac-
tives are embedded in the eText, allowing students to review and test their under-
standing in real time. The video or interactive introduces students to a concept
or problem that I will cover in the lecture. During class, I expand on the concept
or problem using Learning Catalytics™ to question my students. Instead of sim-
ply passively listening to a lecture, they are interacting with the concepts through
questions that I pose. Sometimes I ask my students to answer individually, other
times in pairs or even groups. This approach has changed my classroom. Students
engage in the material in new ways. They are actively learning and have to think
and process and interact. Finally, after class, I give them another assignment, usu-
ally a short follow-up question, problem, or video. At this point, they must apply
what they have learned to solve a problem.
To help you with multiple-choice pretesting, each chapter contains a Self-
Assessment Quiz, which is also embedded in the eText. These quizzes are
designed so that students can test themselves on the core concepts and skills
of each chapter. I encourage my students to use these quizzes as they prepare
for exams. For example, if my exam covers Chapters 5–8, I assign the quizzes for
those chapters for credit (you can do this in MasteringChemistry). Students then
get a pretest on the core material that will be on the exam.
My goal with this edition is to continue to help you make learning a more active
(rather than passive) process for your students. I hope the tools that I have provided
here continue to aid you in teaching your students better and more effectively. Please
feel free to email me with any questions or comments you might have. I look forward
to hearing from you as you use this book in your course.
Sincerely,
Nivaldo J. Tro
nivatro@gmail.com
1
Freeman, Scott; Eddy, Sarah L.; McDonough, Miles; Smith, Michelle K.; Okoroafor, Nnadozie; Jordt,
Hannah; and Wenderoth, Mary Pat. Active learning increases student performance in science, engi-
neering, and mathematics, 2014, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
2
Pyburn, Daniel T.; Pazicni, Samuel; Benassi, Victor A.; and Tappin, Elizabeth M. The testing effect:
An intervention on behalf of low-skilled comprehenders in general chemistry, J. Chem. Educ., 2014,
91 (12), pp. 2045–2057.
F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 22 17/04/23 4:47 PM

Preface
Teaching Principles
The development of basic chemical principles—such as those of atomic structure,
chemical bonding, chemical reactions, and the gas laws—is one of the main goals
of this text. Students must acquire a firm grasp of these principles in order to
succeed in the general chemistry sequence or the chemistry courses that support
the allied health curriculum. To that end, the book integrates qualitative and
quantitative material and proceeds from concrete concepts to more abstract ones.
Organization of the Text

The main divergence in topic ordering among instructors teaching introductory
and preparatory chemistry courses is the placement of electronic structure and
chemical bonding. Should these topics come early, at the point where models for
the atom are being discussed? Or should they come later, after the student has been
exposed to chemical compounds and chemical reactions? Early placement gives
students a theoretical framework within which they can understand compounds
and reactions. However, it also presents students with abstract models before they
understand why they are necessary. I have chosen a later placement; nonetheless,
I know that every course is unique and that each instructor chooses to cover topics
in his or her own way. Consequently, I have written each chapter for maximum
flexibility in topic ordering.
Acknowledgments
This book has been a group effort, and I am grateful for all of those who helped me.
First and foremost, I would like to thank my editors on this edition, Jessica Moro
and Elizabeth Ellsworth Bell. I have known and worked with both of them for
many years and in various roles, and am grateful to have them as my editors. I am
also deeply grateful to Edward Dodd, my development editor. Ed is an author’s
dream editor. He is thorough, detail-oriented, creative, and incredibly organized.
However, Ed is also gracious, generous, and a joy to work with. Thanks, Ed, for
your unending efforts on this revision. Thanks also to my content producer Beth
Sweeten. Beth has managed the many details and moving parts of producing this
book with care and precision. I appreciate her steady hand, attention to detail,
and hard work. Thanks also to my media developer Jackie Jacob. Jackie and I have
been working together for many years to produce innovative media pieces that
are pedagogically sound and easy to use. She is simply the best in the business,
and I am lucky to get to work with her. I am also grateful to my media editor
Chloe Veylit who has helped tremendously with the development of the new Key
Concept Videos, Interactive Worked Examples, Key Concept Interactives, and
other media elements. Chloe is creative, organized, and a great colleague.
Thanks also to Adam Jaworski, who oversees product management in Science
at Pearson. I am grateful to have his wise and steady, yet innovative, hand at the
wheel, especially during the many changes that are happening within educational
publishing. I am also grateful to Gary Hespeheide for his creativity and hard
work in crafting the design of this text. I also thank Francesca Monaco and her
23
F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 23 17/04/23 4:47 PM

24 Preface
coworkers at Straive. I am a picky author and Francesca is endlessly patient and

a true professional. I am also greatly indebted to my copy editor, Betty Pessagno,
for her dedication and professionalism over many projects.
I am also grateful to those who have supported me personally while working
on this book. First on that list is my wife, Ann. Her patience and love for me are
beyond description, and without her, this book would never have been written.
I am also indebted to my children, Michael, Ali, Kyle, and Kaden, whose smiling
faces and love of life always inspire me. I come from a large Cuban family whose
closeness and support most people would envy. Thanks to my parents, Nivaldo
and Sara; my siblings, Sarita, Mary, and Jorge; my siblings-in-law, Nachy, Karen,
and John; and my nephews and nieces, Germain, Danny, Lisette, Sara, and Kenny.
These are the people with whom I celebrate life.
I am especially grateful to Kyle Tro, who put in many hours proofreading
changes in the manuscript, working problems, and organizing appendices. Kyle,
you are an amazing person—it is my privilege to have you work with me on this
project.
Lastly, I am indebted to the many reviewers, listed next, whose ideas are found
throughout this book. They have corrected me, inspired me, and sharpened my
thinking on how best to teach this subject we call chemistry. I deeply appreciate
their commitment to this project.
Reviewers of the 7th Edition

Lara Baxley Paul Haberstroh Julie Senecoff
Cuesta College Mohave Community College Manor College
David Boyajian Stephanie Katz Linkmeyer Mary Snow Setzer
Palomar College Villanova University University of Alabama, Huntsville
Marissa Cominotti Roy Kennedy Steven Tait
University of North Carolina, Charlotte Massachusetts Bay Community College Indiana University, Bloomington
Jean Dupon Andrea Leonard
Coastline Community College University of Louisiana, Lafayette
Michael Ferguson Dalila Paredes
University of Hawaii, Maui College Clark College
Focus Group Participants

David Baker Ronald Kirkpatrick Steven Schultz
Delta College Ivy Tech Community College Biola University
Marissa Cominotti Diana Leung Mary Snow Setzer
University of North Carolina, Charlotte University of Alabama University of Alabama, Huntsville
Sarah Edwards Peter Nassiff Neeta Sharma
Western Kentucky University Massachusetts Bay Community College Solano Community College
Michael Felty Michael O’Donnell Crystal Sims
Trinity Valley Community College Blue Ridge Community and Technical College University of Arkansas, Cossatot Community
Lee Hoffman Michael Rennekamp College
Drexel University Columbus State Community College Sammer Tekarli
Roy Kennedy Gerald Roy University of North Texas, Denton
Massachusetts Bay Community College Indian River State College
F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 24 17/04/23 4:47 PM

Preface 25
Reviewers of the 6th Edition

Premilla Arasasingham David Futoma Helen Motokane
El Camino College Roger Williams University El Camino College
Crystal Bendenbaugh Galen George David Rodgers
Southeastern University Santa Rosa Junior College North Central Michigan College
Charles Carraher Marcia Gillette Mu Zheng
Florida Atlantic University Indiana University Kokomo Tennessee State University
Cassidy Dobson Ganna Lyubartseva
St. Cloud University Southern Arkansas University
6th Edition Accuracy Reviewers

Kelly Befus Stevenson Flemer Tanea Reed
Anoka-Ramsey Community College University of Vermont Eastern Kentucky University
Katherine G. Stevens Lance Lund Jennifer Zabzydar
Utrecht University Anoka-Ramsey Community College Palomar College
Acknowledgments for the Seventh Edition in SI Units

Pearson would like to acknowledge and thank the following people for their contributions.
Contributor
Katherine G. Stevens
Utrecht University
Reviewers
Kenneth Ozoemena
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg
Katherine G. Stevens
Utrecht University
Yin Yin Teo
Universiti Malaya
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26 Preface
New to This Edition

The book has been extensively revised and contains more small changes than can
be detailed here. The most significant changes to the book and its supplements are
listed below:
New Key Concept Interactives

15 new Key Concept Interactives (KCIs) have been added to the eTextbook and are
assignable in Mastering Chemistry. Each interactive guides a student through a
key topic as they navigate through a series of interactive screens. As they work
through the KCI, they are presented with questions that must be answered to
progress. Wrong answers result in feedback to guide them toward success.
New Interactive Videos

33 new Key Concept Videos (KCVs) and 39 new Interactive Worked Examples (IWEs)
have been added to the media package that accompanies the book. All videos are
available within the eTextbook and are assignable in Mastering Chemistry. The
video library now contains over 120 interactive videos. These tools are designed to
help professors engage their students in active learning.
New and Revised End-of-Chapter Problems

48 New End-of-Chapter questions have been added throughout the book, and
83 have been revised. Many new End-of-Chapter questions involve the interpre-
tation of graphs and data. All new End-of-Chapter questions are assignable in
Mastering Chemistry.
Updated Conceptual Connections

The Conceptual Connections feature within the eTextbook has been updated
to allow students to answer the question and receive feedback, written by the
author, on their response.
Predict
This feature asks students to predict the outcome of the topic they are about to
read. After the student reads the section, Predict Follow-up confirms whether the
student predicted correctly or incorrectly and why. Education research has dem-
onstrated that students learn a topic better if they make a prediction about the
topic before learning it (even if the prediction is wrong).
Accessibility
All the art throughout the text has been updated with color contrast and acces-
sibility in mind.
Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Review

As mentioned previously, the entire book went through a detailed review to
ensure the content reflects the rich diversity of our learners and is inclusive of
their lived experiences.
F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 26 17/04/23 4:47 PM

Preface
Preface 27
xxvii
Teaching and Learning Resources

It is increasingly true today that as valuable as a good textbook is, it is still only one element of a comprehensive
learning package. The teaching and learning package that accompanies Introductory Chemistry, 7th Edition in SI Units
is the most comprehensive and integrated on the market. We have made every effort to provide high-quality instructor
resources that will save you preparation time and will enhance the time you spend in the classroom.
Mastering Chemistry
Mastering Chemistry is the most effective and widely used online homework, tutorial, and assessment system for the
sciences. It delivers self-paced tutorials that focus on your course objectives, provides individualized coaching, and
responds to each student’s progress. The Mastering system helps teachers maximize class time with easy-to assign,
customizable, and automatically graded assessments that motivate students to learn.
Mastering Chemistry is a Learning Platform Designed with You in Mind

New resources in Mastering Chemistry are designed to help students learn and provide more effective instruction for
teachers.
• A complete eText! More than a PDF, the Pearson eText includes embedded videos, interactive self-assessments, and
more—all offline accessible via the Pearson+ app for eText.
• A new Study Area with resources designed to help students master the toughest topics in chemistry.
• Numerous opportunities for students to practice problem solving skills, with feedback right when you need it.
• Teachers can assign hundreds of activities and problems that can be tailored to specific instructional goals.
• Teachers have access to a library of extensively tested end-of-chapter problems and comprehensive tutorials that
incorporate a wide variety of answer types; wrong-answer feedback; and individualized help, including hints or
simpler sub-problems.
• Teachers can develop pre-class and post-class diagnostic tests that are automatically graded, and they can create
weekly homework assignments and exams of appropriate difficulty, duration, and content coverage.
Instructor Resources
A robust set of instructor resources and multimedia accompanies the text and can be accessed through Mastering
Chemistry and the Instructor Resource Center.
• All of the figures, photos, and tables from the text in JPEG and PowerPoint.
• Customizable PowerPoint. Lecture outlines save valuable class prep time.
• An Instructor Solution Manual.
• Test Bank provides a wide variety of customizable questions and is available in Microsoft Word, PDF, and TestGen.
formats.
• An Instructor Manual.
Preview and Adoption Process

Upon textbook purchase, students and teachers are granted access to Mastering Chemistry. High school teachers can
obtain preview or adoption access to Mastering Chemistry in one of the following ways:
Preview Access
Teachers can request preview access by visiting Savvas.com∕Access_Request. Select Initial Access then using Option 2,
select your discipline and title from the drop-down menu and complete the online form. Preview Access information
will be sent to the teacher via email.
Adoption Access
Upon purchase, teachers can request course adoption access by visiting Savvas.com∕Access_Request. Select Initial
Access, then, using Option 3, select your discipline and title from the dropdown menu and complete the online form.
Access codes and registration instructions will be sent to the requester via email.
Students, ask your teacher about access.
Savvas, and any third party for which Savvas serves as the sales agent or distributor, reserve the right to change and/
or update technology platforms, including possible edition updates to customers during the term of access. Customers
will be notified of any change prior to the beginning of the new school year.
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M01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 28 11/03/2023 10:55
1 The Chemical World
“Imagination is more important than knowledge.”
—Albert Einstein (1879–1955)
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 Sand and Water 29 1.4 Analyzing and Interpreting Data 34
1.2 Chemicals Compose Ordinary Things 30 1.5 A Beginning Chemist: How to Succeed 37
1.1 Sand and Water

I love the beach but hate sand. Sand gets everywhere and even comes home with
WATCH Key Concept
you. Sand is annoying because sand particles are so small. They stick to your
NOW! Video 1.1 hands, to your feet, and to any food you might be trying to eat for lunch. But the
Welcome to the Molecular World
smallness of sand particles pales in comparison to the smallness of the particles
This icon indicates that this feature
that compose them. Sand—like all other kinds of ordinary matter—is composed
is embedded and interactive in the of atoms. Atoms are unimaginably small. A single sand grain contains more atoms
eTextbook. than there are sand grains on the largest of beaches.
The idea that matter is composed of tiny particles is among the greatest dis-
coveries of humankind. Nobel laureate Richard Feynman (1918–1988), in a lecture
to first-year physics students at the California Institute of Technology, said that the
most important idea in all human knowledge is that all things are made of atoms.
Why is this idea so important? Because it establishes how we should go about
understanding the properties of the things around us. If we want to understand
how matter behaves, we must understand how the particles that compose that
matter behave.
Atoms, and the molecules they compose, determine how matter behaves—if
they were different, matter would be different. The nature of water molecules, for
example, determines how water behaves. If water molecules were different—even
in a small way—then water would be a different sort of substance. For example,
we know that a water molecule is composed of two hydrogen atoms bonded to an
oxygen atom with a shape that looks like this:
Water molecule
Oxygen
atom
▲ Richard Feynman (1918–1988),

Nobel Prize–winning physicist and
Hydrogen
popular professor at California
atoms
Institute of Technology.
◀ A single grain of sand on a large beach contains more atoms than there are grains of sand on the entire beach.
29
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30 CHAPTER 1 The Chemical World
How would water be different if the shape of the water molecule was different?
What if the hydrogen atoms bonded to oxygen to form a linear molecule instead
of a bent one?
Hypothetical linear water molecule
The answer to this question is not altogether simple. We don’t know exactly how
our hypothetical linear water would behave, but we do know it would be much
different than ordinary water. For example, linear water would probably have a
much lower boiling point than ordinary water. In fact, it may even be a gas (in-
stead of a liquid) at room temperature. Imagine what our world would be like
if water was a gas at room temperature. There would be no rivers, no lakes, no
oceans, and probably no people (since liquid water is such an important part of
what composes us).
There is a direct connection between the world of atoms and molecules and the
world we experience every day (▼ FIGURE 1.1). Chemists explore this connection.
They seek to understand it. A good, simple definition of chemistry is the science
that tries to understand how matter behaves by studying how atoms and molecules behave.
▲ FIGURE 1.1 Virtually everything around you is composed of chemicals.
1.2 Chemicals Compose Ordinary Things

▶ Recognize that chemicals make We just saw how chemists are interested in substances such as sand and water.
up virtually everything we come But are these substances chemicals? Yes. In fact, everything that we can hold or
into contact with in our world. touch is made of chemicals. When most people think of chemicals, however, they
(Note: Most of the sections in may envision a can of paint thinner in their garage, or recall a headline about a
the chapters in this book link to river polluted by industrial waste. But chemicals compose ordinary things, too.
a Learning Objective (LO), which
Chemicals compose the air we breathe and the water we drink. They compose
is listed at the beginning of the
section.)
toothpaste, Tylenol®, and toilet paper. Chemicals make up virtually everything
with which we come into contact. Chemistry explains the properties and behavior
of chemicals, in the broadest sense, by helping us understand the molecules that
compose them.
M01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 30 11/03/2023 10:55

▲ People often have a very narrow view of chemicals, thinking of them

only as dangerous poisons or pollutants.
As you experience the world around you, molecules are interacting to create
your reality. Imagine watching a sunset. Molecules are involved in every step.
Molecules in the air interact with light from the sun, scattering away the blue
and green light and leaving the red and orange light to create the color you see.
Molecules in your eyes absorb that light and, as a result, are altered in a way that
sends a signal to your brain. Molecules in your brain then interpret the signal
to produce images and emotions. This whole process—mediated by molecules—
creates the evocative experience of seeing a sunset.
▲ Chemists are interested in knowing Chemists are interested in why ordinary substances are the way they are. Why
why ordinary things, such as water, is water a liquid? Why is salt a solid? Why does soda fizz? Why is a sunset red?
are the way they are. When a chemist Throughout this book, you will learn the answers to these questions and many
sees a pitcher of water, they think of others. You will learn the connections between the behavior of matter and the structure of
the molecules that compose the liquid
the particles that compose it.
and how those molecules determine
its properties.
1.3 The Scientific Method: How Chemists Think

▶ Identify and understand the Chemists use the scientific method—a way of learning that emphasizes obser-
key characteristics of the vation and experimentation—to understand the world. The scientific method
scientific method: observation, stands in contrast to ancient philosophies that emphasized reason as the way to
the formulation of hypotheses, understand the world. Although the scientific method is not a rigid procedure that
the testing of hypotheses by
automatically leads to a definitive answer, it does have key characteristics that
experiment, and the formulation
distinguish it from other ways of acquiring knowledge. These key characteristics
of laws and theories.
include observation, the formulation of hypotheses, the testing of hypotheses by
experiment, and the formulation of laws and theories.
The first step in acquiring scientific knowledge (▼ FIGURE 1.2) is often the
observation or measurement of some aspect of nature. Some observations are
simple, requiring nothing more than the naked eye. Other observations rely on
tarting
oint
HYPOTHESIS
THEORY
Confirm Confirm
or re ise or re ise t eor
ot esis
Test Test
E eriments
O ser ations E eriments
Test
Confirm
or re ise la
LAW
▲ FIGURE 1.2 The scientific method.
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the use of sensitive instrumentation. Occasionally, an important observation hap-

pens entirely by chance. Alexander Fleming (1881–1955), for example, discovered
penicillin when he observed a bacteria-free circle around a certain mold that had
accidentally grown on a culture plate. Regardless of how these observations occur,
they usually involve the measurement or description of some aspect of the physi-
cal world. For example, Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794), a French chemist who stud-
ied combustion, burned substances in closed containers. He carefully measured the
Combustion means burning. The mass mass of each container and its contents before and after burning the substance
of an object is a measure of the quantity inside, noting that there was no change in the mass during combustion. Lavoisier
of matter within it.
made an observation about the physical world.
Observations often lead scientists to formulate a hypothesis, a tentative inter-
pretation or explanation of the observations. Lavoisier explained his observations
on combustion by hypothesizing that combustion involved the combination of a
substance with a component of air. A good hypothesis is falsifiable, which means
that further testing has the potential to prove it wrong. Hypotheses are tested by
experiments, highly controlled observations designed to validate or invalidate
hypotheses. The results of an experiment may confirm a hypothesis or show the
hypothesis to be mistaken in some way. In the latter case, the hypothesis may
have to be modified, or even discarded, and replaced by an alternative hypothesis.
Either way, the new or revised hypothesis must also be tested through further
experimentation.
Sometimes a number of similar observations lead to the development of a
scientific law, a brief statement that summarizes past observations and predicts
future ones. For example, based on his observations of combustion, Lavoisier
developed the law of conservation of mass, which states, “In a chemical reaction
matter is neither created nor destroyed.” This statement grew out of Lavoisier’s
observations, and it predicted the outcome of similar experiments on any chemical
reaction. Laws are also subject to experiments, which can prove them wrong or
validate them.
Scientific theories are also called models. One or more well-established hypotheses may form the basis for a scientific
theory. Theories provide a broader and deeper explanation for observations and
laws. They are models of the way nature is, and they often predict behavior
that extends well beyond the observations and laws on which they are founded.
A good example of a theory is the atomic theory of John Dalton (1766–1844).
Dalton explained the law of conservation of mass, as well as other laws and
observations, by proposing that all matter was composed of small, indestructible
particles called atoms. Dalton’s theory was a model of the physical world—it
went beyond the laws and observations of the time to explain these laws and
observations.
▶ (Left) “Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743–1794) and

His Wife (Marie-Anne-Pierrette Paulze, 1758–1836),”
1788, oil on canvas ( 259.7 × 194.6 cm ).
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mr. and
Mrs. Charles Wrightsman Gift, in honor of Everett
Fahy, 1977. (1977.10) Image copyright © The
Metropolitan Museum of Art. Lavoisier’s wife
illustrated his experiments, recorded many of his
results, and translated his most important works.
(Right) John Dalton, the English chemist who
formulated the atomic theory.
M01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 32 11/03/2023 10:55

Theories are also tested and validated by experiments. Notice that the scien-
tific method begins with observation, and then hypotheses, laws, and theories are
developed based on those observations. Experiments—which are carefully con-
trolled observations—determine the validity of hypotheses, laws, or theories. If
a law, hypothesis, or theory is inconsistent with the findings of an experiment,
it must be revised and new experiments must be conducted to test the revisions.
Over time, scientists eliminate poor theories, and good theories—those consistent
with experiments—remain. Established theories with strong experimental sup-
port are the most powerful pieces of scientific knowledge. People unfamiliar with
science sometimes say, “That is just a theory,” as if theories were mere specula-
tions. However, well-tested theories are as close to truth as we get in science. For
example, the idea that all matter is made of atoms is “just a theory,” but it is a
▲ FIGURE 1.3 Are atoms real? The
theory with 200 years of experimental evidence to support it, including the recent
atomic theory has 200 years of experi- imaging of atoms themselves (◀ FIGURE 1.3). Established theories should not be
mental evidence to support it, includ- taken lightly—they are the pinnacle of scientific understanding.
ing recent images, such as this one, of
atoms themselves. This image shows
twelve cobalt atoms arranged in a circle
on a copper surface.
CONCEPTUAL ✔ CHECKPOINT 1.1
ANSWER Which statement most resembles a scientific theory?
NOW! (a) When the pressure on a sample of oxygen gas is increased 10%, the volume
of the gas decreases by 10%.
(b) The volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.
(c) A gas is composed of small particles in constant motion.
(d) A gas sample has a mass of 15.8 g and a volume of 10.5 L.
Note: The answers to all Conceptual Checkpoints appear at the end of the
chapter.
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY
Combustion and the Scientific Method
E arly chemical theories attempted to explain common

phenomena such as combustion. Why did things burn?
What was happening to a substance when it burned? Could
because they contained phlogiston. When things burned
in a closed container, they didn’t burn for very long
because the space within the container became saturated
something that was burned be unburned? Early chemists with phlogiston. When things burned in the open, they
burned different substances and made observations to try to continued to burn until all of the phlogiston within them
answer these questions. They observed that substances stop was gone. This theory also explained how metals that had
burning when placed in a closed container. They found that burned could be unburned. Charcoal was a phlogiston-
many metals burn to form a white powder that they called rich material—they knew this because it burned so well—
a calx (now we know that these white powders are oxides of and when it was combined with a calx, which was a metal
the metal) and that the metal could be recovered from the that had been emptied of its phlogiston, it transferred
calx, or unburned, by combining the calx with charcoal and some of its phlogiston into the calx, converting the calx
heating it. back into the unburned form of the metal. The phlogiston
Chemists in the first part of the eighteenth century theory was consistent with all of the observations of the
formed a theory about combustion to explain these obser- time and was widely accepted as valid.
vations. In this theory, combustion involved a fundamen- Like any theory, the phlogiston theory was tested con-
tal substance that they called phlogiston. This substance tinually by experiment. One set of experiments, conducted in
was present in anything that burned and was released the mid-eighteenth century by Louis-Bernard Guyton de
during combustion. Flammable objects were flammable Morveau (1737–1816), consisted of weighing metals before
continued on page 34
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continued from page 33
and after burning them. In every case the metals gained B1.1 CAN YOU ANSWER THIS? What is the difference between a
weight when they were burned. This observation is inconsis- law and a theory? How does the example of the phlogiston theory
tent with the phlogiston theory, which predicted that metals demonstrate this difference?
should lose weight because phlogiston was supposed to be
lost during combustion. Clearly, the phlogiston theory
needed modification.
The first modification was that phlogiston was a very
light substance, so that it actually “buoyed up” the materials
that contained it. Thus, when phlogiston was released, the
material became heavier. Such a modification seemed to fit
the observations but also seemed far-fetched. Antoine
Lavoisier developed a more likely explanation by devising a
completely new theory of combustion. He proposed that,
when a substance burned, it actually took something out of
the air, and when it unburned, it released something back
into the air. Lavoisier said that burning objects fixed (attached
or bonded) the air and that the fixed air was released during
unburning. In a confirming experiment (▶ FIGURE 1.4),
Lavoisier roasted a mixture of calx and charcoal with the aid
of sunlight focused by a giant burning lens and found that a
huge volume of “fixed air” was released in the process. The ▲ FIGURE 1.4 Focusing on combustion The great burning
scientific method worked. The phlogiston theory was proven lens belonging to the Academy of Sciences. Lavoisier used a
wrong, and a new theory of combustion took its place—a similar lens in 1777 to show that a mixture of calx (metal oxide)
theory that, with a few refinements, is still valid today. and charcoal released a large volume of fixed air when heated.
1.4 Analyzing and Interpreting Data

▶ Identify patterns in data and We just learned how early scientists such as Lavoisier and Dalton saw patterns in
interpret graphs. a series of related measurements. Sets of measurements constitute scientific data,
and learning to analyze and interpret data is an important scientific skill.
Identifying Patterns in Data

Suppose you are an early chemist trying to understand the composition of water.
You know that water is composed of the elements hydrogen and oxygen. You
do several experiments in which you decompose different samples of water into
hydrogen and oxygen, and you get the following results:
Mass of Water Mass of Hydrogen Mass of Oxygen

Sample Sample Formed Formed
A 20.0 g 2.2 g 17.8 g
B 50.0 g 5.6 g 44.4 g
C 100.0 g 11.1 g 88.9 g
Do you notice any patterns in this data? The first and easiest pattern to see is
that the sum of the masses of oxygen and hydrogen always sums to the mass
of the water sample. For example, for the first water sample, 2.2 g hydrogen +
17.8 g oxygen = 20.0 g water. The same is true for the other samples. Another
pattern, which is a bit more difficult to see, is that the ratio of the masses of oxygen
and hydrogen is the same for each sample.
Mass of Hydrogen Mass of Oxygen Mass Oxygen
Sample Formed Formed Mass Hydrogen
A 2.2 g 17.8 g 8.1
B 5.6 g 44.4 g 7.9
C 11.1 g 88.9 g 8.01
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1.4 Analyzing and Interpreting Data 35
Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide The ratio is 8—the small variations are due to experi-
420 mental error, which is common in all measurements and
410 observations.
400 Seeing patterns in data is a creative process that
Carbon dioxide concentration
390 requires you to not just merely tabulate laboratory mea-

380 surements, but to see relationships that may not always be
(parts per million)
370 obvious. The best scientists see patterns that others have
360 missed. As you learn to interpret data in this course, be cre-
350 ative and try looking at data in new ways.
340
330 Interpreting Graphs
320 Data is often visualized using graphs or images, and sci-
310 entists must constantly analyze and interpret graphs. For
300 example, the graph in ◀ FIGURE 1.5 shows the concentra-
290 tion of carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere as a function
1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 of time. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that has been
Year rising as a result of the burning of fossil fuels (such as gaso-
line and coal). When you look at a graph such as this one,
▲ FIGURE 1.5 Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels from 1860 you should first examine the x and y axes and make sure
to 2020.
you understand what each axis represents. You should also
examine the numerical range of the axes. In Figure 1.5, the y axis does not begin at
zero in order to better display the change that is occurring. How would this graph
look different if the y axis began at zero instead of at 290? Notice also that, in this
graph, the increase in carbon dioxide has not been constant over time. The rate of
increase—represented by the slope of the line—has intensified since about 1960.
EXAMPLE 1.1 Interpreting Graphs

Examine the graph in Figure 1.5 and answer each question.
(a) What was the concentration of carbon dioxide in 1960?

(b) What was the concentration in 2010?
(c) How much did the concentration increase between 1960 and 2010?
(d) What is the average rate of increase over this time?
(e) If the average rate of increase from part d remains constant, estimate the carbon dioxide concentration in 2050.
(Use the concentration in 2010 as your starting point.)
SOLUTION
(a) What was the concentration of carbon dioxide in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide
1960?
420
To determine the concentration of carbon dioxide 410
in 1960, draw a vertical line at the year 1960. At the 400
point where the vertical line intersects the carbon
390 Vertical line

dioxide concentration curve, draw a horizontal line. 380 at 1960
The point where the horizontal line intercepts the y
(parts per million)
370
axis represents the concentration in 1960. So, the con- 360
centration in 1960 was 317 ppm. 350
340 317 Horizontal line
330 ppm at intersection
320
310
300
290
1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
continued on page 36 ▶
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continued from page 35

(b) What was the concentration in 2010? Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide
Apply the same procedure as in part a, but now shift 420
the vertical line to the year 2010. The concentration in 410
the year 2010 was 389 ppm. 400
Vertical line
at 2010

390
380 389 Horizontal line
(parts per million)

370 ppm at intersection
360
350
340
330
320
310
300
290
1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
(c) How much did the concentration increase between increase in concentration = concentration in 2010 −
1960 and 2010? concentration in 1960
The increase in the carbon dioxide concentration is = 389 ppm − 317 ppm
the difference between the two concentrations. When = 72 ppm
calculating changes in quantities such as this, take the
final quantity minus the initial quantity.
(d) What is the average rate of increase over this time? number of years = final year − initial year
The average rate of increase over this time is the = 2010 − 1960
change in the concentration divided by the number of = 50 years
years that have passed.
Determine the number of years that have passed by
subtracting the initial year from the final year.
Determine the average rate of increase by dividing change in concentration
the change in concentration (from part c) by the num- average rate =
number of years
ber of years that you just calculated.
72 ppm
=
50 years
1.4 ppm
=
year
(e) If the average rate of increase remains constant, 1.4 ppm
estimate the carbon dioxide concentration in 2050. increase = 40 years ×
year
Determine the increase in concentration between = 56 ppm
2010 and 2050 by multiplying the number of years
that pass in that time interval by the average rate of
change (from part d).
Lastly, determine the concentration in 2050 by adding concentration in 2050 = 389 ppm + 56 ppm
the increase between 2010 and 2050 to the concentra-
tion in 2010. = 445 ppm
▶ SKILLBUILDER 1.1 |
What was the average rate of increase in carbon dioxide concentration between 1880 and 1920? Why might that rate
be different from the rate between 1960 and 2010?
▶ FOR MORE PRACTICE Problem 25.
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Chapter in Review 37
1.5 A Beginning Chemist: How to Succeed

You are a beginning chemist. This may be your first chemistry course, but it may
not be your last. To succeed as a beginning chemist, keep the following ideas in
mind. First, chemistry requires curiosity and imagination. If you are content know-
ing that the sky is blue but don’t care why it is blue, then you may have to redis-
cover your curiosity. I say “rediscover” because even children—or better, especially
children—have this kind of curiosity. To succeed as a chemist, you must have the
curiosity and imagination of a child—you must want to know the why of things.
Second, chemistry requires calculation. Throughout this course, you will be
asked to calculate answers and quantify information. Quantification involves mea-
surement as part of observation—it is one of the most important tools in science.
Quantification allows you to go beyond merely saying that this object is hot and
that one is cold or that this one is large and that one is small. It allows you to spec-
ify the difference precisely. For example, two samples of water may feel equally
hot to your hand, but when you measure their temperatures, you may find that
one is 40 °C and the other is 44 °C. Even small differences can be important in a
calculation or experiment, so assigning numbers to observations and manipulat-
ing those numbers become very important in chemistry.
Lastly, chemistry requires commitment. To succeed in this course, you must
commit to learning chemistry. Roald Hoffmann (1937–), winner of the 1981 Nobel
Prize for chemistry, said,
▲ To succeed as a scientist, you must
I like the idea that human beings can do anything they want to. They need to be trained
have the curiosity of a child.
sometimes. They need a teacher to awaken the intelligence within them. But to be a
chemist requires no special talent, I’m glad to say. Anyone can do it, with hard work.
Professor Hoffmann is right. The key to success in this course is hard work,
and that requires commitment. You must do your work regularly and carefully.
If you do, you will succeed, and you will be rewarded by seeing a whole new
world—the world of molecules and atoms. This world exists beneath the surface
of nearly everything you encounter. I welcome you to this world and consider it a
privilege, together with your professor, to be your guide.
Chapter 1 in Review
Self-Assessment Quiz QUIZ YOURSELF NOW!
Q1. Where can you find chemicals? Q3. According to the scientific method, what is a law?
MISSED THIS? Read Section 1.1, 1.2; Watch KCV 1.1 MISSED THIS? Read Section 1.3
(a) In a hardware store (a) A short statement that summarizes a large number of
(b) In a chemical stockroom observations
(c) All around you and even inside of you (b) A fact that can never be refuted
(d) All of the above (c) A model that gives insight into how nature is
Q2. Which statement best defines chemistry? (d) An initial guess with explanatory power
MISSED THIS? Read Section 1.1; Watch KCV 1.1 Q4. Which statement is an example of an observation?
(a) The science that studies solvents, drugs, and MISSED THIS? Read Section 1.3
insecticides (a) In a chemical reaction, matter is conserved.
(b) The science that studies the connections between the (b) All matter is made of atoms.
properties of matter and the particles that compose (c) When a given sample of gasoline is burned in a
that matter closed container, the mass of the container and its
(c) The science that studies air and water pollution contents does not change.
(d) The science that seeks to understand processes that (d) Atoms bond to one another by sharing electrons.
occur only in chemical laboratories
M01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 37 11/03/2023 10:55

Q5. The graph below shows the area of a circle as a function (a) 7.0 centimeters
of its radius. What is the radius of a circle that has an area (b) 6.5 centimeters
of 155 square centimeters? MISSED THIS? Read Section 1.4 (c) 6.8 centimeters
(d) 6.2 centimeters
350
Q6. Which characteristic is necessary for success in under-
300 standing chemistry? MISSED THIS? Read Section 1.5
Area (square centimeters)
(a) Curiosity
250 (b) Calculation
(c) Commitment
200 (d) All of the above
150
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Radius (centimeters) Answers: 1: d, 2: b, 3: a, 4: c, 5: a, 6: d
Chemical Principles Relevance

Matter and Molecules
Chemists are interested in all matter, even ordinary matter such Chemists want to understand matter for several reasons. First,
as water or air. You don’t need to go to a chemical storeroom to chemists are simply curious—they want to know why. Why are
find chemicals because they are all around you. Chemistry is the some substances reactive and others not? Why are some sub-
science that studies the connections between the properties of stances gases, some liquids, and others solids? Chemists are also
matter and the particles that compose that matter. practical; they want to understand matter so that they can con-
trol it and produce substances that are useful to society and to
humankind.
The Scientific Method

Chemists employ the scientific method, which makes use of The scientific method is a way to understand the world. Since
observations, hypotheses, laws, theories, and experiments. the inception of the scientific method, knowledge about the nat-
Observations involve measuring or observing some aspect of ural world has grown rapidly. The application of the scientific
nature. Hypotheses are tentative interpretations of observations. method has produced technologies that have raised living stan-
Laws summarize the results of a large number of observations, dards throughout the world with advances such as increased
and theories are models that explain and give the underlying food production, rapid transportation, unparalleled access to
causes for observations and laws. Hypotheses, laws, and the- information, and longer life spans.
ories must be tested and validated by experiment. If they are
not confirmed, they are revised and tested through further
experimentation.
Analyzing and Interpreting Data

A series of measurements are often referred to as data. Scien- Virtually all scientists have to analyze and interpret the data
tific data can be graphed to better see relationships between they collect. This skill is an important part of understanding
variables. chemistry.
Success as a Beginning Chemist

To succeed as a beginning chemist, you must be curious and To succeed as a beginning chemist, you must be curious and
imaginative, be willing to do calculations, and be committed to imaginative, be willing to do calculations, and be committed to
learning the material. learning the material.
M01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 38 11/03/2023 10:55

Exercises 39
Key Terms
atomic theory [1.3] experiment [1.3] law of conservation of observation [1.3] scientific method [1.3]
chemistry [1.1] hypothesis [1.3] mass [1.3] scientific law [1.3] theory [1.3]
Exercises
Questions
Answers to all questions numbered in blue appear in the Answers section at the back of the book.
1. Why does soda fizz? 8. Cite an example from this chapter of the scientific method
2. What are chemicals? Give some examples. at work.
3. What do chemists try to do? How do they understand the 9. What is the difference between a law and a theory?
natural world? 10. What is the difference between a hypothesis and a theory?
4. What is meant by the statement, “Matter does what mole- 11. What is wrong with the statement, “It is just a theory”?
cules do”? Give an example. 12. What is the law of conservation of mass, and who discov-
5. Define chemistry. ered it?
6. How is chemistry connected to everyday life? How is 13. What is the atomic theory, and who formulated it?
chemistry relevant outside the chemistry laboratory? 14. What are three things you need to do to succeed in this
7. Explain the scientific method. course?
Problems
Note: The exercises in the Problems section are paired, and the answers to the odd-numbered exercises (numbered in blue) appear in the Answers
section at the back of the book.
15. Classify each statement as an observation, a law, or a 16. Classify each statement as an observation, a law, or a
theory. MISSED THIS? Read Section 1.3 theory.
(a) In a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor (a) In living systems, solar energy is converted to chemical
destroyed. energy first, and then into mechanical energy.
(b) Helium balloons float as helium is less dense than air. (b) For every action, there is an equal and opposite
(c) Matter can only change its form in chemical reactions. reaction.
(d) When a piece of wood burns in a closed container, it is (c) The total amount of matter and energy in the universe
converted to ashes and gases, but the total mass does is always constant.
not change. (d) In an atomic bomb, a small amount of matter is re-
quired to produce a large quantity of energy.
17. A student prepares several samples of the same gas and 18. A student measures the volume of a gas sample at several
measures their mass and volume. The results are tabulated different temperatures. The results are tabulated below.
below. Formulate a tentative law from the measurements. Formulate a tentative law from the measurements.
MISSED THIS? Read Section 1.3
Mass of Gas (in g) Volume of Gas (in L) Temperature of Gas (in K) Volume of Gas (in L)
23.5 1.68 300 4.58
36.8 2.63 320 4.89
71.2 5.08 340 5.19
99.5 7.11 355 5.42
M01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 39 11/03/2023 10:55

19. A chemist in an imaginary universe performs an experi- 20. A chemist decomposes several samples of nitrogen dioxide
ment which attempts to correlate the concentration of a into nitrogen and oxygen and measures the mass of the
reactant with its chemical reactivity. The results are tabu- nitrogen and the oxygen obtained. The results are tabulated
lated as follows: MISSED THIS? Read Section 1.3 as follows:
Concentration of Reactants Chemical Reactivity Sample Number Grams of Nitrogen Grams of Oxygen
low low 1 1.8 2.06
moderate intermediate 2 2.8 3.20
high high 3 3.0 3.43
(a) Formulate a law from this data. (a) Summarize these observations in a short statement.
(b) Formulate a theory to explain the law. Next, the chemist decomposes several samples of
ammonia into nitrogen and hydrogen. The results are
tabulated as follows:
Sample Number Grams of Nitrogen Grams of Hydrogen

1 0.8 0.17
2 21.1 4.53
3 24.8 5.33
(b) Summarize these observations in a short statement.

(c) Formulate a law from the observations in (a) and (b).
(d) Formulate a theory that might explain your law in (c).
Questions for Group Work

Discuss these questions with the group and record your consensus answer.
21. The manufacturer of a particular brand of toothpaste claims 23. In your own words, provide a brief definition for each of
that the brand contains “no chemicals.” Using a few sen- the following: observation, law, hypothesis, and theory.
tences, describe what you think the company means by that 24. How curious are you? How good are your quantitative
statement. Would a scientist consider the manufacturer’s skills? How hard are you willing to work to succeed in
statement to be correct? Why or why not? chemistry? Answer these questions individually on a scale
22. Make a list (including up to 10 items) of all the atoms or of 1 (= not at all) to 5 (= very), then share your answers with
molecules group members can name off the top of their your group. Report the group average for each question.
heads. Get at least one contribution from each group
member.
M01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 40 11/03/2023 10:55

Data Interpretation and Analysis World Population Versus Time

8
World Population (billions)

25. The graph displays world population over time. Study the
graph and answer the following questions. 7
(a) What was the world population in 1950? 6
(b) What was the world population in 2010? 5
(c) How much did the population increase between 1950 4
and 2010? 3
(d) What is the average rate of increase over this time? 2
(e) If the average rate of increase remains constant, esti- 1
mate the world population in 2035. 0
1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050
Year
Source: http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints

Skillbuilder 1.1.................0.33 ppm/yr; The rate is smaller 1.1. (c) Answers a and d are observations. Answer b is a scien-
because less fossil fuels were being tific law. Answer c is the only answer that proposes a
used. model for what a gas is like.
M01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 41 11/03/2023 10:55

M02_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 42 11/03/2023 12:17
2.2 Scientific Notation: Writing Large and Small Numbers 43
2 Measurement and
Problem Solving
“The important thing in science is not so much to obtain new facts as to discover new ways of
thinking about them.”
—Sir William Lawrence Bragg (1890–1971)
CHAPTER OUTLINE
2.1 The Metric Mix-up: A $125 Million Unit Error 43 2.7 Solving Multistep Unit Conversion Problems 61
2.2 Scientific Notation: Writing Large and Small Numbers 43 2.8 Unit Conversion in Both the Numerator and
2.3 Significant Figures: Writing Numbers to Reflect Denominator 63
Precision 45 2.9 Units Raised to a Power 65
2.4 Significant Figures in Calculations 50 2.10 Density 67
2.5 The Basic Units of Measurement 54 2.11 Numerical Problem-Solving Strategies and the
2.6 Problem Solving and Unit Conversion 57 Solution Map 71
2.1 The Metric Mix-up: A $125 Million Unit Error

On December 11, 1998, NASA launched the Mars Climate Orbiter, which was to
become the first weather satellite for a planet other than Earth. The Orbiter’s mis-
sion was to monitor the atmosphere on Mars and to serve as a communications
relay for the Mars Polar Lander, a probe that was to follow the Orbiter and land on
the planet’s surface three weeks later. Unfortunately, the mission ended in disaster.
A unit mix-up caused the Orbiter to enter the Martian atmosphere at an altitude
that was too low. Instead of settling into a stable orbit, the Orbiter likely disinte-
grated. The cost of the failed mission was estimated at $125 million.
Later investigations showed that the Orbiter had come within 57 km of the
planet surface, which was too close. When a spacecraft enters a planet’s atmosphere
too close to the planet’s surface, friction with the atmosphere can cause the spacecraft
to burn up. The on-board computers that controlled the trajectory corrections were
programmed in metric units ( newton i second ) , but the ground engineers entered
the trajectory corrections in English units ( pound i second ). The English and the
metric units are not equivalent ( 1 pound i second = 4.45 newton i second ). The
corrections that the ground engineers entered were 4.45 times too small and did
not alter the trajectory enough to keep the Orbiter at a sufficiently high altitude. In
A unit is a standard, agreed on quantity chemistry, as in space exploration, units (see Section 2.5) are critical. If we get them
by which other quantities are measured. wrong, the consequences can be disastrous.
2.2 Scientific Notation: Writing Large and Small Numbers

▶ Express very large and very small Science constantly pushes the boundaries of the very large and the very small. We
numbers using scientific notation. can, for example, now measure time periods as short as 0.000000000000001 second
and distances as great as 14,000,000,000 light-years. Because the many zeros in
43
M02_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 43 11/03/2023 12:17

44 CHAPTER 2 Measurement and Problem Solving
these numbers are cumbersome to write, we use scientific notation to write

them more compactly. In scientific notation, 0.000000000000001 is 1 × 10 −15 , and
14,000,000,000 is 1.4 × 10 10. A number written in scientific notation consists of a
decimal part, a number that is usually between 1 and 10, and an exponential part,
10 raised to an exponent, n.
exponent (n)
1.2 * 10-10
decimal exponential
part part
A positive exponent (n) means 1 multiplied by 10 n times.
10 0 = 1
10 1 = 1 × 10 = 10
10 2 = 1 × 10 × 10 = 100
10 3 = 1 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 1000
▲ Lasers such as this one can measure A negative exponent (−n ) means 1 divided by 10 n times.
time periods as short as 1 × 10 −15 s.
1
10 −1 = = 0.1
10
1
10 −2 = = 0.01
10 × 10
1
10 −3 = = 0.001
10 × 10 × 10
To convert a number to scientific notation, we move the decimal point (either
to the left or to the right, as needed) to obtain a number between 1 and 10 and then
multiply that number (the decimal part) by 10 raised to the power that reflects the
movement of the decimal point. For example, to write 5983 in scientific notation,
we move the decimal point to the left three places to get 5.983 (a number between
1 and 10) and then multiply the decimal part by 1000 to compensate for moving
the decimal point.
5983 = 5.983 : 1000
1000 is 103
= 5.983 : 103
We can do this in one step by counting how many places we move the decimal
point to obtain a number between 1 and 10 and then by writing the decimal part
multiplied by 10 raised to the number of places we moved the decimal point.
5983 = 5.983 * 103 ...the exponent

is positive.
If the decimal 321
moves left...
If the decimal point is moved to the left, as in the previous example, the exponent
is positive. If the decimal is moved to the right, the exponent is negative.
The Mathematics Review Appendix
(p. MR-2) includes a review of 0.00034 = 3.4 * 10-4 ...the exponent
mathematical operations for numbers is negative.
written in scientific notation.
If the decimal 1234
moves right...
M02_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 44 11/03/2023 12:18

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
were the guardians of that little flock which he, amid perils and
death, had gathered from the heathen waste of Ionic Asia, to the fold
of Christ. When he left it last, the raging wolves of persecution and
wrath,――the wild beasts of Ephesus,――were howling death and
destruction to the devoted believers of Christ, and they were still
environed with temptations and dangers, that threatened to
overwhelm these feeble ones, left thus early without the fostering
care of their apostolic shepherd. Passing on his way to the great
scene of his coming trials, he could not venture among them to give
them his parting counsels, and could now only intrust to their
constituted guardians, this dear charge, with renewed exhortations to
them to be faithful, as in the presence of their God, to those objects
of his labors, his cares, his prayers, and his daily tears. Amid the
sorrows of that long farewell, arose on the prophetic vision of the
apostle some gloomy foreshadowings of future woes to fall on that
Ephesian charge, and this deepened the melancholy feeling of his
heart almost to agony. This no doubt was the burden of his last
prayer, when with their elders, and for them, he kneeled down on the
shore and sent up in earnest petition to God, that voice which they
were doomed to hear no more forever.
Such passages as this in the life and words of Paul, constitute a

noble addition to the reader’s idea of his character. They show how
nobly were intermingled in the varied frame of his spirit, the
affectionate, the soft, and the winning traits, with the high, the stern,
and the bitter feelings that so often were called out by the
unparalleled trials of his situation. They show ♦that he truly felt and
acted out, to the life, that divine principle of Christian love which
inspired the most eloquent effort of his pen;――and that he trusted
not to the wonder-working powers that moved his lips, as with the
eloquence of men and angels,――not to the martyr-spirit, that,
sacrificing all earthly substance, devoted itself to the raging flames of
persecution, in the cause of God,――not to the genius whose
discursive glance searched all the mysteries of human and divine
knowledge,――but to that pure, exalted and exalting spirit of ardent
love for those for whom he lived like his Savior, and for whom he
was ready to die like him, also. This was the inspiration of his words,
his writings, and his actions,――the motive and spirit of his
devotion,――the energy of his being. Wherever he went and
whatever he did,――in spite of the frequent passionate outbreaks of
his rougher nature, this honest, fervent, animated spirit of
charity,――glowing not to inflame, but to melt,――softened the
austerities of his character, and kindled in all who truly knew him, a
deep and lasting affection for him, like that which was so strikingly
manifested on this occasion. Who can wonder that to a man thus
constituted, the lingering Ephesians still clung with such enthusiastic
attachment? In the fervid action of that oriental clime, they fell on his
neck and kissed him, sorrowing most of all for the words which he
said,――that they should see his face no more. Still loth to take their
last look at one so loved, they accompanied him to the ship, which
bore him away from them, to perils, sufferings and chains.
♦ duplicate word “that” removed
“Assos was a sea-port town, situated on the south-west part of the province of Troas,
and over against the island Lesbos. By land it is much nearer Troas than by sea, because of
a promontory that runs a great way into the sea, and must be doubled to come to Assos,
which was perhaps the reason that the apostle chose rather to walk it.” (Wells’s Geography
and Calmet’s Commentary.)
MYTELENE. Acts xx. 14.

“Mitylene, (chapter xx. verse 14,) was one of the principal cities in the island of Lesbos,
situated on a peninsula with a commodious haven on each side; the whole island was also
called by that name, as well as Pentapolis, from the five cities in it, viz. Issa or Antissa,
Pyrrhe, Eressos, Arisba, and Mitylene. It is at present called Metelin. The island is one of
the largest in the Archipelago, and was renowned for the many eminent persons it
produced; such as Sappho, the inventress of Sapphic verses,――Alcaeus, a famous lyric
poet,――Pittacus, one of the seven wise men of Greece,――Theophrastus, the noble
physician and philosopher,――and Arion, the celebrated musician. It is now in the
possession of the Turks. As mentioned by St. Luke, it may be understood either the island
or the city itself.” (Wells’s Geography and Whitby’s Table.)
“Chios, (verse 15,) was an island in the Archipelago, next to Lesbos, both as to situation
and size. It lies over against Smyrna, and is not above four leagues distant from the Asiatic
continent. Horace and Martial celebrate it for the wine and figs that it produced. It is now
renowned for producing the best mastic in the world.
“Sir Paul Ricaut, in his ‘Present State of the Greek Church,’ tells us, that there is no
place in the Turkish dominions where Christians enjoy more freedom in their religion and
estates than in this island, to which they are entitled by an ancient capitulation made with
Sultan Mahomet II.” (Wells’s Geography.)
“Samos, (verse 15,) was another island of the Archipelago, lying south-east of Chios,
and about five miles from the Asiatic continent. It was famous among heathen writers for the
worship of Juno; for one of the Sibyls called Sibylla Samiana; for Pherecydes, who foretold
an earthquake that happened there, by drinking of the waters; and more especially for the
birth of Pythagoras. It was formerly a free commonwealth; at present, the Turks have
reduced it to a mean and depopulated condition; so that ever since the year 1676, no Turk
has ventured to live on it on account of its being frequented by pirates, who carry all whom
they take into captivity.” (Wells’s Geography and Whitby’s Table.)
“Trogyllium, (verse 15,) is a promontory at the foot of Mount Mycale, opposite to, and
five miles from Samos: there was also a town there of the same name, mentioned by Pliny,
Lib. v, c. 29. p. 295.” (Whitby’s Table.)
“Miletus, (verse 15,) a sea-port town on the continent of Asia Minor, and in the province
of Caria, memorable for being the birth-place of Thales, one of the seven wise men of
Greece, and father of the Ionic philosophy; of Anaximander, his scholar; Timotheus, the
musician; and Anaximenes, the philosopher. It is called now, by the Turks, Melas; and not
far distant from it is the true Meander.” (Whitby’s Table and Wells’s Geography.) [Williams
on Pearson. pp. 66, 67.]
Tearing himself thus from the embraces of his Ephesian brethren,

Paul sailed off to the southward, hurrying on to Jerusalem, in order
to reach there if possible, before the Pentecost. After leaving Miletus,
the apostolic company made a straight course to Coos, and then
rounding the great northwestern angle of Asia Minor, turned
eastwardly to Rhodes, and passing probably through the strait,
between that island and the continent, landed at Patara, a town on
the coast of Lycia, which was the destination of their first vessel.
They therefore at this place engaged a passage in a vessel bound to
Tyre, and holding on southeastward, came next in sight of Cyprus,
which they passed, leaving it on the left, and then steering straight
for the Syrian coast, landed at Tyre, where their vessel was to
unlade; so that they were detained here for a whole week, which
they passed in the company of some Christian brethren who
constituted a church there. These Tyrian disciples hearing of Paul’s
plan to visit Jerusalem, and knowing the dangers to which he would
there be exposed by the deadly hate of the Jews, were very urgent
with him against his journey; but he still resolutely held on his
course, as soon as a passage could be procured, and bade them
farewell, with prayer on the shore, to which the brethren
accompanied him with their women and children. Standing off from
the shore, they then sailed on south, to Ptolemais, where they spent
a day with the Christians in that place, and then re-embarking, and
passing round the promontory of Carmel, reached Caesarea, where
their sea-voyage terminated. Here they passed several days in the
house of Philip the evangelist, one of the seven deacons, who had
four daughters that were prophetesses. While they were resting
themselves in this truly religious family, from the fatigues of their long
voyage, they were visited by Agabus, a prophet from
Jerusalem,――the same who had formerly visited Antioch when
Paul was there, and who had then foretold the coming famine, which
threatened all the world. This remarkable man predicted to Paul the
misfortunes which awaited him in Jerusalem. In the solemnly
impressive dramatic action of the ancient prophets, he took Paul’s
girdle, and binding his own hands with it, said――“Thus says the
Holy Spirit, ‘So shall the Jews at Jerusalem, bind the man that owns
this girdle, and shall deliver him to the Gentiles.’” On hearing this
melancholy announcement, all the companions of Paul and the
Christians of Caesarea, united in beseeching Paul to give up his
purpose of visiting Jerusalem. But he, resolute against all entreaty,
declared himself ready not only to be bound, but to die in Jerusalem
for the Lord Jesus. And when they found that he would not be
persuaded, they all ceased to harass him with their supplications,
and resigned him to Providence, saying,――“The will of the Lord be
done.” They then all took carriages, and rode up to Jerusalem,
accompanied by some brethren from Caesarea, and by Mnason, an
old believer, formerly of Cyprus, but now of Jerusalem, who had
engaged them as his guests in that city.
“Coos, (chapter xxi. verse 1,) an island in the Aegean or Icarian sea, near Mnydos and
Cnidus, which had a city of the same name, from which Hippocrates, the celebrated
physician, and Apelles, the famous painter, were called Coi. Here was a large temple of
Aesculapius, and another of Juno. It abounded in rich wines, and is very often mentioned by
the classic poets.” (Whitby’s Alphabetic Table.)
Witsius very absurdly defines the situation of this island by saying that it is “near
Crete.”――“Coos, quae maris Mediterranei insula est prope Cretam.” It is in the Aegean
sea properly, and not in the Mediterranean; and can not be less than one hundred and
twenty miles from Crete, much farther off from it than is Rhodes,――the next island in
Paul’s route, and there are many islands between Coos and Crete, so that the statement
gives no just idea of the situation of the island. It would be as proper to say that Barbadoes
is near Cuba, or the isle of Man near France.
“Rhodes, (verse 1,) an island, supposed to have taken its name απο των Ροδων from the
many roses which were known to grow there. It lies south of the province of Caria, and it is
accounted next to Cyprus and Lesbos, for its dignity among the Asiatic islands. It was
remarkable among the ancients for the expertness of its inhabitants in navigation; for a
college, in which the students were eminent for eloquence and mathematics; and for the
clearness of its air, insomuch that there was not a day in which the sun did not shine upon
it; and more especially celebrated for its prodigious statue of brass, consecrated especially
to the sun, and called his Colossus. This statue was seventy cubits high, and every finger
as large as an ordinary sized man, and as it stood astride over the mouth of the harbor,
ships passed under its legs.” (Whitby’s Table and Wells’s Geography.) [Williams on
Pearson, pp. 67, 68.]
last visit to jerusalem.
Paul was now received in Jerusalem by the brethren with great

joy, and going, on the day after his arrival, to see James, now the
principal apostle resident in the Holy city, communicated to him and
all the elders a full account of all his various labors. Having heard his
very interesting communications, they were moved with gratitude to
God for this triumph of his grace; but knowing as they did, with what
rumors against Paul these events had been connected by common
fame, they desired to arrange his introduction to the temple in such a
manner, as would most effectually silence these prejudicial stories.
The plan proposed by them was, that he should, in the company of
four Jews of the Christian faith, who had a vow on them, go through
with all the usual forms of purification prescribed under such
circumstances for a Jew, on returning from the daily impurities to
which he was exposed by a residence among the Gentiles, to a
participation in the holy services of solemn worship in the temple.
The apostles and elders, however, in recommending this course,
declared to him, that they believed that the Gentiles ought not to be
bound to the performance of the Jewish rituals, but should be
exempt from all restrictions, except such as had formerly been
decided on, by the council of Jerusalem. Paul, always devout and
exact in the observance of the institutions of his national religion,
followed their advice accordingly, and went on quietly and
unpretendingly in the regular performance of the prescribed
ceremonies, waiting for the termination of the seven days of
purification, when the offering should be made for himself, and one
for each of his companions, after which, they were all to be admitted
of course, to the full honors of Mosaic purity, and the religious
privileges of conforming Jews. But these ritual observances were not
destined to save him from the calamities to which the hatred of his
enemies had devoted him. Near the close of the seven days allotted
by the Mosaic ritual for the purification of a regenerated Israelite,
some of the Asian Jews, who had known Paul in his missionary
journeys through their own country, and who had come to
Jerusalem, to attend the festival, seeing their old enemy in the midst
of the temple, against whose worship they had understood him to
have been preaching to the Gentiles,――instantly raised a great
outcry, and fell upon him, dragging him along, and shouting to the
multitude around, “Men of Israel! help! This is the man, that every
where teaches all men against the people, and the law, and this
place; and he has furthermore, brought Greeks into the temple, and
has polluted this holy place.” It seems they had seen Trophimus, one
of his Gentile companions from Ephesus, with him in the city, and
imagined also that Paul had brought him into the temple, within the
sanctuary, whose entrance was expressly forbidden to all Gentiles,
who were never allowed to pass beyond the outermost court. The
sanctuary or court of the Jews could not be crossed by an
uncircumcised Gentile, and the transgression of the holy limit was
punished with death. Within this holy court, the scene now described
took place; and as the whole sanctuary was then crowded with Jews,
who had come from all parts of the world to attend the festival in
Jerusalem, the outcry raised against Paul immediately drew
thronging thousands around him. Hearing the complaint that he was
a renegade Jew, who, in other countries, had used his utmost
endeavors to throw contempt on his own nation, and to bring their
holy worship into disrepute, and yet had now the impudence to show
himself in the sanctuary, which he had thus blasphemed,――and
had, moreover, even profaned it by introducing into the sacred
precincts one of those Gentiles for whose company he had forsaken
the fellowship of Israel,――they all joined in the rush upon him, and
dragged him out of the temple, the gates of which were immediately
shut by the Levites on duty, lest in the riot that was expected to
ensue, the consecrated pavement should be polluted with the blood
of the renegade. Not only those in the temple, but also all those in
the city, were called out by the disturbance, and came running
together to join in the mob against the profaner of the sanctuary, and
Paul now seemed in a fair way to win the bloody crown of
martyrdom.
The great noise made by the swarming multitudes who were

gathering around Paul, soon reached the ears of the Roman garrison
in castle Antonia, and the soldiers instantly hastened to tell the
commanding officer, that “the whole city was in an uproar.” The
tribune, Claudius Lysias, probably thinking of a rebellion against the
Romans, instantly ordered a detachment of several companies
under arms, and hurried down with them, in a few moments, to the
scene of the riot. The mob meanwhile were ♦diligently occupied in
beating Paul; but as soon as the military force made their way
among the crowd, the rioters left off beating him, and fell back. The
tribune coming near, and seeing Paul alone in the midst, who
seemed to be the object and occasion of all the disturbance, without
hesitation seized him, and putting him in chains, took him out of the
throng. He then demanded what all this riot meant. To his inquiry, the
whole mob replied with various accounts; some cried one thing and
some another; and the tribune finding it utterly impossible to learn
from the rioters who he was or what he had done, ordered him to be
taken up to the castle. Castle Antonia stood at the northwestern
angle of the temple, close by one of the great entrances to it, near
which the riot seems to have taken place. To this, Paul was now
taken, and was borne by the surrounding soldiers, to keep off the
multitude, who were raging for his blood, like hungry wolves after the
prey snatched from their jaws,――and they all pressed after him,
shouting, “kill him!” In this way Paul was carried up the stairs which
led to the high entrance of the castle, which of course the soldiers
would not allow the multitude to mount; and when he had reached
the top of the stairs, he was therefore perfectly protected from their
violence, though perfectly well situated for speaking to them so as to
be distinctly seen and heard. As they were taking him up the stairs,
he begged the attention of the tribune, saying, “May I speak to
thee?” The tribune hearing this, in some surprise asked, “Canst thou
speak Greek? Art thou not that Egyptian that raised a sedition some
time ago, and led away into the wilderness a band of four thousand
cut-throats?” This alarming revolt had been but lately put down with
great trouble, and was therefore fresh in the mind of Lysias, who had
been concerned in quelling it, along with the whole Roman force in
Palestine,――and from some of the outcries of the mob, he now
took up the notion that Paul was the very ringleader of that revolt,
and had now just returned from his place of refuge to make new
trouble, and had been detected by the multitude in the temple. Paul
answered the foolish accusation of the tribune, by saying, “I am a
Jewish citizen of Tarsus, in Cilicia, which is no mean city; and I beg
of thee, to let me speak to the people.” The tribune, quite glad to
have his unpleasant suspicions removed, as an atonement for the
unjust accusation immediately granted the permission as requested,
and Paul therefore turned to the raging multitude, waving his hand in
the usual gesture for requesting silence. The people, curious to hear
his account of himself, listened accordingly, and he therefore uplifted
his voice in a respectful request for their attention to his plea in his
own behalf. “Men! Brethren! and Fathers! Hear ye my defence which
I make to you!”
♦ “dilgently” replaced with “diligently”
Those words were spoken in the vernacular language of

Palestine, the true Hebraistic dialect of Jerusalem, and the multitude
were thereby immediately undeceived about his character, for they
had been as much mistaken about him, as the tribune was, though
their mistake was of a very opposite character; for they supposed
him to be entirely Greek in his habits and language, if not in his
origin; and the vast concourse was therefore hushed in profound
silence, to hear his address made in the true Jewish language.
Before this strange audience, Paul then stood up boldly, to declare
his character, his views, and his apostolic commission. On the top of
the lofty rampart of Castle Antonia,――with the dark iron forms of
the Roman soldiery around him, guarding the staircase from top to
bottom, against the raging mob,――and with the enormous mass of
the congregated thousands of Jerusalem, and of the strangers who
had come up to the festival, all straining their fierce eyes in wrath
and hate upon him, as a convicted renegade,――one feeble, slender
man, now stood, the object of the most painful attention to
all,――yet, less moved with passion and anxiety than any one
present. Thus stationed, he began, and gave to the curious multitude
an interesting account of the incidents connected with that great
change in his feelings and belief, which was the occasion of the
present difficulty. After giving them a complete statement of these
particulars, he was narrating the circumstance of a revelation made
to him in the temple, while in a devotional trance there, on his first
return to Jerusalem, after his conversion. In repeating the solemn
commission there confirmed to him by the voice of God, he repeated
the crowning sentence, with which the Lord removed his doubts
about engaging in the work of preaching the gospel, when his hands
were yet, as it were, red with the blood of the martyred
faithful,――“And he said to me, ‘Go: for I will send thee far hence,
unto the Gentiles.’” But when the listening multitude heard this clear
declaration of his having considered himself authorized to
communicate to the Gentiles those holy things which had been
especially consigned by God to his peculiar people,――they took it
as a clear confession of the charge of having desecrated and
degraded his national religion, and all interrupted him with the
ferocious cry, “Take him away from the earth! for such a fellow does
not deserve to live.” The tribune, finding that this discussion was not
likely to answer any good purpose, instantly put a stop to it, by
dragging him into the castle, and gave directions that he should be
examined by scourging, that they might make him confess truly who
he was, and what he had done to make the people cry out so against
him,――a very foolish way, it would seem, to find out the truth about
an unknown and abused person, to flog him until he should tell a
story that would please them. While the guard were binding him with
thongs, before they laid on the scourge, Paul spoke to the centurion,
who was superintending the operation, and said in a sententiously
inquiring way, “Is it lawful for you to scourge a Roman citizen without
legal condemnation?” This question put a stop to all proceedings at
once. The centurion immediately dropped the thongs, and ran to the
tribune, saying, “Take heed what thou doest, for this man is a Roman
citizen.” The tribune then came to Paul, in much trepidation, and with
great solemnity said――“Tell me truly, art thou a Roman citizen?”
Paul distinctly declared, “Yes.”
Desirous to learn the mode in which the prisoner had obtained this
most sacred and unimpeachable privilege, the tribune remarked of
himself, that he had obtained this right by the payment of a large
sum of money,――perhaps doubting whether a man of Paul’s poor
aspect could have ever been able to buy it; to which Paul boldly
replied――“But I was born free.” This clear declaration satisfied the
tribune that he had involved himself in a very serious difficulty, by
committing this illegal violence on a person thus entitled to all the
privileges of a subject of law. All the subordinate agents also, were
fully aware of the nature of the mistake, and all immediately let him
alone. Lysias now kept Paul with great care in the castle, as a place
of safety from his Jewish persecutors; and the next day, in order to
have a full investigation of his character and the charges against
him, he took him before the Sanhedrim, for examination. Paul there
opened his defence in a very appropriate and self-vindicating style.
“Men! Brethren! and Fathers! I have heretofore lived before God with
a good conscience.” At these words, Ananias the high priest,
provoked by Paul’s seeming assurance in thus vindicating himself,
when under the accusation of the heads of the Jewish religion,
commanded those that stood next to Paul to slap him on the mouth.
Paul, indignant at the high-handed tyranny of this outrageous attack
on him, answered in honest wrath――“God shall smite thee, thou
whited wall! For dost thou command me to be smitten contrary to the
law, when thou sittest as a judge over me?” The other by-standers,
enraged at his boldness, asked him, “Revilest thou God’s high
priest?” To which Paul, not having known the fact that Ananias then
held that office, which he had so disgraced by his infamous conduct,
replied――“I knew not, brethren, that he was the high priest; for it is
written, thou shalt not speak evil of the ruler of thy people.” Then,
perceiving the mixed character of the council, he determined to avail
himself of the mutual hatred of the two great sects, for his defense,
by making his own persecution a kind of party question; and
therefore called out to them――“I am a Pharisee, the son of a
Pharisee. Of the hope of the resurrection of the dead, I am called in
question.” These words had the expected effect. Instantly, all the
violent party feeling between these two sects broke out in full force,
and the whole council was divided and confused,――the scribes
who belonged to the Pharisaic order, arising, and declaring, “We find
no occasion of evil in this man. But if a spirit or an angel has spoken
to him, let us not fight against God.” This last remark, of course, was
throwing down the gauntlet at the opposite sect; for the Sadducees,
denying absolutely the existence of either angel or spirit, could of
course believe no part of Paul’s story about his vision and spiritual
summons. They all therefore broke out against the Pharisees, who
being thus involved, took Paul’s side very determinedly, and the
party strife grew so hot that Paul was like to be torn in pieces
between them. The tribune, seeing the pass to which matters had
come, then ordered out the castle-guard, and took him by force,
bringing him back to his former place of safety.
“The reason why St. Paul chose to speak in the Hebrew tongue, may be accounted for
thus. There were at this time two sorts of Jews, some called by Chrysostom οἱ βαθεις
Ἑβραιοι, profound Hebrews, who used no other language but the Hebrew, and would not
admit the Greek Bible into their assemblies, but only the Hebrew, with the Jerusalem
Targum and Paraphrase. The other sort spoke Greek, and used that translation of the
scriptures; these were called Hellenists. This was a cause of great dissension among these
two parties, even after they had embraced Christianity, (Acts vi. 1.) Of this latter sort was St.
Paul, because he always made use of the Greek translation of the Bible in his writings, so
that in this respect he might not be acceptable to the other party. Those of them who were
converted to Christianity, were much prejudiced against him, (Acts xxi. 21,) which is given
as a reason for his concealing his name in his Epistle to the Hebrews. And as for those who
were not converted, they could not so much as endure him: and this is the reason which
Chrysostom gives, why he preached to the Hellenists only. Acts ix. 28. Therefore, that he
might avert the great displeasure which the Jews had conceived against him, he accosted
them in their favorite language, and by his compliance in this respect, they were so far
pacified as to give him audience.” (Hammond’s Annotations.) [Williams’s Pearson, p. 70.]
“Scourging was a method of examination used by Romans and other nations, to force
such as were supposed guilty to confess what they had done, what were their motives, and
who were accessory to the fact. Thus Tacitus tells us of Herennius Gallus, that he received
several stripes, that it might be known for what price, and with what confederates, he had
betrayed the Roman army. It is to be observed, however, that the Romans were punished in
this wise, not by whips and scourges, but with rods only; and therefore it is that Cicero, in
his oration pro Rabirio, speaking against Labienus, tells his audience that the Porcian law
permitted a Roman to be whipped with rods, but he, like a good and merciful man,
(speaking ironically,) had done it with scourges; and still further, neither by whips nor rods
could a citizen of Rome be punished, until he were first adjudged to lose his privilege, to be
uncitizened, and to be declared an enemy to the commonwealth, then he might be
scourged or put to death. Cicero Oratio in Verres, says, ‘It is a foul fault for any praetor, &c.
to bind a citizen of Rome; a piacular offense to scourge him; a kind of parricide to kill him:
what shall I call the crucifying of such an one?’” (Williams’s notes on Pearson, pp. 70, 71.)
“Ananias, the son of Nebedaeus, was high priest at the time that Helena, queen of
Adiabene, supplied the Jews with corn from Egypt, (Josephus Antiquities, lib. xx. c. 5. § 2,)
during the famine which took place in the fourth year of Claudius, mentioned in the eleventh
chapter of the Acts. St. Paul, therefore, who took a journey to Jerusalem at that period,
(Acts xv.) could not have been ignorant of the elevation of Ananias to that dignity. Soon after
the holding of the first council, as it is called, at Jerusalem, Ananias was dispossessed of
his office, in consequence of certain acts of violence between the Samaritans and the Jews,
and sent prisoner to Rome, (Josephus, Antiquities, lib. xx. c. 6. § 2,) whence he was
afterwards released and returned to Jerusalem. Now from that period he could not be called
high priest, in the proper sense of the word, though Josephus (Antiquities, lib. xx. c. 9. § 2,
and Jewish War lib. ii. c. 17. § 9,) has sometimes given him the title of αρχιερευς, taken in
the more extensive meaning of a priest, who had a seat and voice in the Sanhedrim;
αρχιερεις in the plural number is frequently used in the New Testament, when allusion is
made to the Sanhedrim;) and Jonathan, though we are not acquainted with the
circumstances of his elevation, had been raised, in the mean time, to the supreme dignity in
the Jewish church. Between the death of Jonathan, who was murdered (Josephus
Antiquities of the Jews lib. xx. c. 8. § 5,) by order of Felix, and the high priesthood of Ismael,
who was invested with that office by Agrippa, (Josephus Antiquities lib. xx. c. 8. § 3,)
elapsed an interval in which this dignity continued vacant. Now it happened precisely in this
interval, that St. Paul was apprehended at Jerusalem; and, the Sanhedrim being destitute of
a president, he undertook of his own authority the discharge of that office, which he
executed with the greatest tyranny. (Josephus Antiquities lib. xx. c. 9. § 2.) It is possible
therefore that St. Paul, who had been only a few days at Jerusalem, might be ignorant that
Ananias, who had been dispossessed of the priesthood, had taken upon himself a trust to
which he was not entitled. He might therefore very naturally exclaim, ‘I wist not, brethren,
that he was the high priest!’ Admitting him on the other hand to have been acquainted with
the fact, the expression must be considered as an indirect reproof, and a tacit refusal to
recognize usurped authority.” (Michaelis, Vol. I. pp. 51, 56.)
“The prediction of St. Paul, verse 3, ‘God shall smite thee, thou whited wall,’ was,
according to Josephus, fulfilled in a short time. For when, in the government of Florus, his
son Eleazar set himself at the head of a party of mutineers, who, having made themselves
masters of the temple, would permit no sacrifices to be offered for the emperor; and being
joined by a company of assassins, compelled persons of the best quality to fly for their
safety and hide themselves in sinks and vaults;――Ananias and his brother Hezekias, were
both drawn out of one of these places, and murdered, (Josephus Jewish War lib. ii. c. 17,
18,) though Dr. Lightfoot will have it that he perished at the siege of Jerusalem!” (Whitby’s
Annotations.) [Williams on Pearson.]
During that night, the soul of Paul was comforted by a heavenly

vision, in which the Lord exhorted him to maintain the same high
spirit,――assuring him that as he had testified of him in Jerusalem,
even so he should bear witness in Rome. His dangers in Jerusalem,
however, were not yet over. The furious Jews, now cut off from all
possibility of doing any violence to Paul, under the sanction of legal
forms, determined to set all moderation aside, and forty of the most
desperate bound themselves by a solemn oath, neither to eat nor
drink, till they had slain Paul. In the arrangement of the mode in
which their abominable vow should be performed, it was settled
between them and the high-priest, that a request should be sent to
the tribune to bring down Paul before the council once more, as if for
the sake of putting some additional inquiries to him for their final and
perfect satisfaction; and then, that these desperadoes should station
themselves, where they could make a rush upon Paul, just as he
was entering the council-hall, and kill him before the guard could
bestir themselves in his defense, or seize the murderers; and even if
some of them should be caught and punished, it never need be
known, that the high priest was accessory to the assassination. But
while they were arranging this hopeful piece of wickedness, they did
not manage it so snugly as was necessary for the success of the
plot; for it somehow or other got to the ears of Paul’s nephew,――a
young man no where else mentioned in the New Testament, and of
whose character and situation, nothing whatever is known. He,
hearing of the plot, came instantly to his uncle, who sent him to
communicate the tidings to the tribune. Lysias, on receiving this
account of the utterly desperate character of the opposition to Paul,
determined not to risk his prisoner’s life any longer in Jerusalem,
even when guarded by the powerful defenses of castle Antonia. He
dismissed the young man with the strongest injunctions, to observe
the most profound secrecy, as to the fact of his having made this
communication to him; and immediately made preparations to send
off Paul, that very night, to Caesarea, designing to have him left
there with the governor of the province, as a prisoner of state, and
thus to rid himself of all responsibility about this very difficult and
perilous business. He ordered two centurions to draw out a
detachment, of such very remarkable strength, as shows the excess
of his fears for Paul. Two hundred heavy-armed soldiers, seventy
horsemen, and two hundred lancers, were detached as a guard for
Paul, and were all mounted for speed, to take him beyond the reach
of the Jerusalem desperadoes, that very night. He gave to that
portion of the detachment that was designed to go all the way to
Caesarea, a letter to be delivered to Felix the governor, giving a fair
and faithful account of all the circumstances connected with Paul’s
imprisonment and perils in Jerusalem.
return to caesarea.
The strong mounted detachment, numbering four hundred and

seventy full-armed Roman warriors, accordingly set out that night at
nine o’clock, and moving silently off from the castle, which stood
near one of the western gates of the city, passed out of Jerusalem
unnoticed in the darkness, and galloped away to the north-west.
After forty miles of hard riding, they reached Antipatris before day,
and as all danger of pursuit from the Jerusalem assassins was out of
the question there, the mounted infantry and the lancers returned to
Jerusalem, leaving Paul however, the very respectable military
attendance of the seventy horse-guards. With these, he journeyed to
Caesarea, only about twenty-five miles off, where he was presented
by the commander of the detachment to Felix, the Roman governor,
who always resided in Caesarea, the capital of his province. The
governor, on reading the letter and learning that Paul was of Cilicia,
deferred giving his case a full hearing, until his accusers had also
come; and committed him for safe keeping in the interval, to an
apartment in the great palace, built by Herod the Great, the royal
founder of Caesarea.
After a delay of five days, the high priest and the elders came
down to Caesarea, to prosecute their charges against Paul before
the governor. They brought with them, as their advocate, a speech-
maker named Tertullus, whose name shows him to have been of
Roman connections or education, and who, on account of his
acquaintance with the Latin forms of oratory and law, was no doubt
selected by Ananias and his coadjutors, as a person better qualified
than themselves to maintain their cause with effect, before the
governor. Tertullus accordingly opened the case, and when Paul had
been confronted with his accusers, began with a very tedious string
of formal compliments to Felix, and then set forth a complaint against
Paul in very bitter and abusive terms, stating his offense to be, the
attempt to profane the temple, for which the Jews would have
convicted and punished him, if Lysias had not violently hindered, and
put them to the trouble of bringing the whole business before the
governor, though a matter exclusively concerning their religious law.
To all his assertions the Jews testified.
This presentation of the accusation being made, Paul was then

called on for his defense, which he thereupon delivered in a tone
highly respectful to the governor, and maintained that he had been
guilty of none of the troublesome and riotous conduct of which he
was accused: but quietly, without any effort to make a commotion
among the people anywhere, had come into the city on a visit, after
many years absence, to bring alms and offerings; and that when he
was seized by the Asian Jews in the temple, he was going
blamelessly through the established ceremonies of purification. He
complained also, that his original accusers, the Asian Jews, were not
confronted with him, and challenged his present prosecutors to bring
any evidence against him. Felix, after this hearing of the case, on the
pretence of needing Lysias as a witness on the facts, deferred his
decision, and left both accusers and accused to the enjoyment of the
delays and “glorious uncertainties of the law.” Meanwhile he
committed Paul to the charge of a centurion, with directions that he
should be allowed all reasonable liberty, and should not be in any
particular restricted from the freest intercourse with his friends. The
imprisonment of Paul at Caesarea was merely nominal; and he must
have passed his time both pleasantly and profitably, with the
members of the church at Caesarea, with whom he had formerly
been acquainted, especially with Philip and his family. Besides
these, he was also favored with the company of several of his
assistants, who had been the companions of his toils in Europe and
Asia; and through them he could hold the freest correspondence with
any of the numerous churches of his apostolic charge throughout the
world. He resided here for two whole years at least, of Felix’s
administration; and during that time, was more than once sent for by
the governor, to hold conversations with him on the great objects of
his life, in some of which he expressed himself so forcibly on
righteousness, temperance and judgment to come, that the wicked
governor,――at that moment sitting in the presence of the apostle
with an adulterous paramour,――trembled at the view presented by
Paul of the consequences of those sins for which Felix was so
infamous. But his repentant tremors soon passed off, and he merely
dismissed the apostle with the vague promise, that at some more
convenient season he would send for him. He did indeed, often send
for him after this; but the motive of these renewals of intercourse
seems to have been of the basest order, for it is stated by the sacred
historian, that his real object was to induce Paul to offer him a bribe,
which he supposed could be easily raised by the contributions of his
devoted friends. But the hope was vain. It was no part of Paul’s plan
of action to hasten the decision of his movements by such means,
and the consequence was, that Felix found so little occasion to
befriend him, that when he went out of the office which he had
uniformly disgraced by tyranny, rapine, and murder, he thought it, on
the whole, worth while to gratify the late subjects of his hateful sway,
by leaving Paul still a prisoner.
“This Drusilla was the youngest daughter of Herod Agrippa. (Josephus lib. xix. c. 9. in.)
Josephus gives the following account of her marriage with Felix:――‘Agrippa, having
received this present from Caesar, (viz. Claudius,) gave his sister Drusilla in marriage to the
Azizus, king of the Emesenes, when he had consented to be circumcised. For Epiphanes,
the son of king Antiochus, had broken the contract with her, by refusing to embrace the
Jewish customs, although he had promised her father he would. But this marriage of
Drusilla with Azizus was dissolved in a short time, after this manner. When Felix was
procurator of Judaea, having had a sight of her, he was mightily taken with her; and indeed
she was the most beautiful of her sex. He therefore sent to her Simon, a Jew of Cyprus,
who was one of his friends, and pretended to magic, by whom he persuaded her to leave
her husband, and marry him; promising to make her perfectly happy, if she did not disdain
him. It was far from being a sufficient reason; but to avoid the envy of her sister Bernice,
who was continually doing her ill offices, because of her beauty, she was induced to
transgress the laws of her country, and marry Felix.’” (Lardner’s Credibility, 4to. Vol. I. p. 16,
17, edition, London, 1815.) [Williams on Pearson, p. 78.]
SYRACUSE. Acts xxviii. 12.
The successor of Felix in the government of Palestine, was

Porcius Festus, a man whose administration is by no means
characterized in the history of those times by a reputation for justice
or prudence; yet in the case of Paul, his conduct seems to have
been much more accordant with right and reason, than was that of
the truly infamous Felix. Visiting the religious capital of the Jews
soon after his first entrance into the province, he was there earnestly
petitioned by the ever-spiteful foes of Paul, to cause this prisoner to
be brought up to Jerusalem for trial, intending when Paul should
enter the city, to execute their old plan of assassination, which had
been formerly frustrated by the benevolent prudence and energy of
Claudius Lysias. But Festus, perhaps having received some
notification of this plot, from the friends of Paul, utterly refused to
bring the prisoner to Jerusalem, but required the presence of the
accusers in the proper seat of the supreme provincial administration
of justice at Caesarea. After a ten days’ stay in Jerusalem, he
returned to the civil capital, and with a commendable activity in his
judicial proceedings, on the very next day after his arrival in
Caesarea, summoned Paul and his accusers before him. The Jews
of course, told their old story, and brought out against Paul many
grievous complaints, which they could not prove. His only reply to all
this accusation without testimony was――“Neither against the law of
the Jews, nor against the temple, nor yet against Caesar, have I
offended in any particular.” But Festus having been in some way
influenced to favor the designs of the Jews, urged Paul to go up to
Jerusalem, there to be tried by the supreme religious court of his
own nation. Paul replied by a bold and distinct assertion of his rights,
as a Roman citizen, before the tribunal of his liege lord and sovran: “I
stand before Caesar’s judgment-seat, where I ought to be judged. To
the Jews I have done no wrong, as thou very well knowest. If I am
guilty of anything that deserves death, I refuse not to die; but if I
have done none of these things of which they accuse me, no man
can deliver me into their hands. I appeal to Caesar.” This solemn
concluding formula put him at once far beyond the reach of all
inferior tyranny; henceforth no governor in the world could direct the
fate of the appellant Roman citizen, throwing before himself the
adamantine aegis of Roman law. Festus himself, though evidently
displeased at this turn of events, could not resist the course of law;
but after a conference with this council, replied to Paul――“Dost
thou appeal to Caesar? To Caesar shalt thou go.”
While Paul was still detained at Caesarea, after this final reference
of his case to the highest judicial authority in the world, Festus was
visited at Caesarea, by Herod Agrippa II. king of Iturea, Trachonitis,
Abilene, and other northern regions of Palestine, the son of that
Herod Agrippa whose character and actions were connected with the
incidents of Peter’s life. He, passing through Judea with his sister
Bernice, stopped at Caesarea, to pay their compliments to the new
Roman governor. During their stay there, Festus, with a view to find
rational entertainment for his royal guests, bethought himself of
Paul’s case, as one that would be likely to interest them, connected
as the prisoner’s fate seemed to be, with the religious and legal
matters of that peculiar people to whom Agrippa himself belonged,
and in the minutiae of whose law and theology he had been so well
instructed, that his opinion on the case would be well worth having,
to one as little acquainted with these matters as the heathen
governor himself was. Festus therefore gave a very full account of
the whole case to Agrippa, in terms that sufficiently well exhibited the
perplexities in which he was involved, and in expressions which are
strikingly and almost amusingly characteristic,――complaining as he
does of the very abstruse and perplexing nature of the accusations
brought by the Jews, as being “certain questions of their own
religion, and of one Jesus, whom Paul affirmed to be alive.” Agrippa
was so much interested in the case that he expressed a wish to hear
the man in person; and Festus accordingly arranged that he should
the next day be gratified with the hearing.
“‘King Agrippa and Bernice.’ Acts. xxv. 13. This Agrippa was the son of Herod Agrippa;
St. Luke calls him king, which Josephus also does very often. (Antiquities lib. xx. c. viii. § 6,
et passim.) But St. Luke does not suppose him to be king of Judaea, for all the judicial
proceedings of that country relating to St. Paul, are transacted before Felix, and Festus his
successor; besides, he says, that ‘Agrippa came to Caesarea to salute Festus,’ to
compliment him on his arrival, &c. verse 1. When his father died, Claudius would have
immediately put him in possession of his father’s dominions, but he was advised not to do
so, on account of the son’s youth, then only seventeen; the emperor, therefore, ‘appointed
Cuspius Fadus praefect of Judea and the whole kingdom, (Josephus Antiquities lib. xix. c.
9, ad fin.) who was succeeded by Tiberius, Alexander, Cumanus, Felix, and Festus, though
these did not possess the province in the same extent that Fadus did.’ (Antiquities xx.
Jewish War lib. ii.)
“Agrippa had, notwithstanding, at this time, considerable territories. ‘Herod, brother of

king Agrippa the Great, died in the eighth year of the reign of Claudius. Claudius then gave
his government to the young Agrippa.’ (Josephus Antiquities xx. p. 887.) This is the Agrippa
mentioned in this twenty-fifth chapter. ‘The twelfth year of his reign being completed,
Claudius gave to Agrippa the tetrarchy of Philip and Batanea, adding also Trachonitis with
Abila. This had been the tetrarchy of Lysanias. But he took away from him Chalcis, after he
had governed it four years.’ (Josephus Antiquities xx. p. 890, v. 25, &c.) ‘After this, he sent
Felix, the brother of Pallas, to be procurator of Judea, Galilee, Samaria, and Peraea; and
promoted Agrippa from Chalcis to a greater kingdom, giving him the tetrarchy which had
been Philip’s. (This is Batanea, and Trachonitis, and Gaulonitis;) and he added, moreover,
the kingdom of Lysanias, and the province that had been Varus’s.’ (Josephus War of the
Jews lib. ii. c. 12. fin.) ‘Nero, in the first year of his reign, gave Agrippa a certain part of
Galilee, ordering Tiberias and Tarichaea to be subject to him. He gave him also Julias, a city
of Peraea, and fourteen towns in the neighborhood of it.’ (Antiquities xx. c. 7. § 4.) St. Luke
is therefore fully justified in styling this Agrippa king at this time.” (Lardner’s Credibility, 4to.
Vol. I. pp. 17, 18.) [Williams’s Pearson, p. 81, 82.]
On the next day, preparations were made for this audience, with a
solemnity of display most honorable to the subject of it. The great
hall of the palace was arrayed in grand order for the occasion, and,
in due time, king Agrippa, with his royal sister, and the Roman
governor, entered it with great pomp, followed by a train composed
of all the great military and civil dignitaries of the vice-imperial court
of Palestine. Before all this stately array, the apostolic prisoner was
now set, and a solemn annunciation was made by Festus, of the
circumstances of the prisoner’s previous accusation, trial, and
appeal; all which were now summarily recapitulated in public, for the
sake of form, although they had before been communicated in
private, to Agrippa. The king, as the highest authority present, having
graciously invited Paul to speak for himself, the apostle stretched
forth his hand and began, in that respectful style of elaborately
elegant compliment, which characterizes the exordiums of so many
of his addresses to the great. After having, with most admirable skill,
conciliated the attention and kind regard of the king, by expressing
his happiness in being called to speak in his own defense before one
so learned in Hebrew law, he went on; and in a speech which is well
known for its noble eloquence, so resplendent, even through the
disguise of a quaint translation, presented not merely his own case,

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1.1 Sand and Water 29

General Problem-Solving Strategy 59

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3.12 Energy and Heat Capacity Calculations 112

4 Atoms and Elements 130

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3 Matter and Energy 90

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8.1 Climate Change: Too Much Carbon Dioxide 283

7.4 How to Write Balanced Chemical Equations 247

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9.9 Periodic Trends: Atomic Size, Ionization

10 Chemical Bonding 358

10.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs 359

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Hydrogen Bonding 459

13.1 Tragedy in Cameroon 479

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14.1 Sour Patch Kids and International

15 Chemical Equilibrium 558

Fetus Gets Oxygen 578

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Reduction 602 Generate Electricity 656

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F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 17 17/04/23 4:47 PM

Interactive Worked Examples

F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 18 17/04/23 4:47 PM

13.4 Using Molarity in Calculations 491 15.7 The Effect of a Temperature

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F01_Tro_07_GE_25802.indd 21 18/04/23 2:43 PM

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