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Index of Applications in Examples and Activities
Act: Activity; Ex: Example
Agriculture Price of fish: Ex 14.13 (online)

Prices of industrial properties: Ex 14.17, Ex 14.19 (online)
Grape production: Ex 3.6
Resumé typos: Ex 3.3
Tomato yield and planting density: Ex 15.12,
Starting salaries of business school graduates: Ex 16.11,
Ex 15.13 (online)
Ex 16.12 (online)
Biology College Life

Age of a lobster: Ex 5.22
Academic success of college sophomores: Ex 14.1
Barking treefrog behavior: Ex 13.8
Advantages of multiple SAT scores in college admissions:
Bee mating behavior: Ex 3.12, Ex 3.13
Act 8.3
Black bear habitat selection: Ex 5.9
Asking questions in seminar class: Ex 6.5
Calling behavior of Amazonian frogs: Ex 5.25 (online)
Back-to-college spending: Ex 3.7
Cannibalism in wolf spiders: Ex 5.23, Ex 5.24 (online)
College attendance: Ex 3.15, Ex 10.12
Charitable behavior of chimpanzees: Ex 9.10, Ex 9.16,
College choice do-over: Ex 1.4
Ex 11.7, Ex 11.14
Comparing job offers: Ex 4.18
Chirp rate for crickets: Ex 10.15
Cost of textbooks: Ex 9.11
Compression strength of wood: Ex 14.10
Detecting plagiarism: Ex 10.9
Distance deer mice will travel for food: Ex 5.7, Ex 5.10,
Graduation rates: Ex 1.9, Ex 5.13, Ex 13.5
Ex 5.11
Graduation rates at small colleges: Ex 14.6, Ex 14.7,
Distinguishing pâté from dog food: Ex 12.3
Ex 14.8, Ex 14.9
Dominant and nondominant hands: Act 3.2
How safe are college campuses?: Ex 1.5
Effect of human activity on bears: Ex 5.15, Ex 5.16
Impact of internet and television use on college student
Egg weights: Ex 7.31
reading habits: Ex 9.2
Head circumference at birth: Ex 4.19
Importance of college education: Ex 9.4, Ex 9.14
Hitchhiker’s thumb: Ex 6.17
Internet use by college students: Ex 9.1
Loon chick survival factors: Ex 5.19, Ex 5.20
Math SAT score distribution: Ex 3.14
Predator inspection in guppies: Ex 6.18
Money spent on textbooks: Ex 8.1
Recognizing your roommate’s scent: Ex 7.18
Predicting graduation rates: Ex 5.13
Reflexes with dominant and nondominant hands: Act 11.2
STEM college students: Ex 8.7
Salamander behavior: Ex 5.21
Student college housing choices: Ex 6.11
Scorpionfly courtship: Ex 8.4
Student debt on the rise: Ex 3.17
Shark length and jaw width: Ex 13.10, Ex 13.11 (online)
Students with jumper cables: Ex 7.22
Study habits of college seniors: Ex 3.5
Business and Economics Time required to complete registration: Ex 7.29
Application processing times: Ex 7.8 Tuition at public universities: Ex 3.9
Book sales: Ex 7.1 Visits to class web site: Ex 4.3, Ex 4.4
Business of baseball: Ex 13.9
Cable services: Ex 6.22
Christmas Price Index: Ex 3.23
Demography and
Comparing gasoline additives: Ex 2.10 Population Characteristics
Cost of Big Macs: Ex 4.7, Ex 4.8, Ex 4.12 County population sizes: Ex 4.2
Cost of energy bars: Ex 14.11 Head circumferences: Act 1.1
Cost of residential air-conditioning: Ex 15.8, Heights of college athletes: Ex 1.1
Ex 15.9 (online) Heights of mothers: Ex 4.17
Daily wasted time at work: Ex 10.14, Ex 10.26 Household phone service: Ex 3.8
Education level and income: Ex 3.24 Median ages in 2030: Ex 3.10
Express mail volume: Ex 7.34 Newborn birth weights: Ex 7.27
Licensing exam attempts: Ex 7.9 Two-child families: Ex 6.14
Mortgage choices: Ex 6.16 Voting registration: Ex 10.20
Predicting house prices: Ex 14.5 Women’s heights and number of siblings: Act 13.1
Education and Child Development Durable press rating of cotton fabric: Ex 14.18 (online)
Engineering stress test: Ex 7.3
Childcare for preschoolers: Ex 4.15
Ergonomic characteristics of stool designs: Ex 15.10,
College plans of high school seniors: Ex 7.4
Ex 15.11 (online)
Combining exam scores: Ex 7.16
Garbage truck processing times: Ex 7.30
Hand gestures in learning: Ex 2.7, Ex 2.9
GFI switches: Ex 6.12
IQ scores: Ex 4.16, Ex 7.28
Lifetime of compact florescent lightbulbs: Ex 10.2
Is education worth the cost?: Ex 3.1
On-time package delivery: Ex 10.18
Note-taking methods: Ex 2.4
Paint flaws: Ex 7.6
Predictors of writing competence: Ex 14.4
Smart phone warranties: Ex 6.24
School enrollment in Northern and Central Africa: Ex 3.11
Strength of bark board: Ex 16.4 (online)
Standardized test scores: Ex 4.14, Ex 10.16
Testing for flaws: Ex 7.11, Ex 7.12
Students’ knowledge of geography: Act 3.1
Environmental Science Marketing and Consumer Behavior

Budgets and tracking spending: Ex 7.21
Bison of Yellowstone Park: Ex 13.4 Car choices: Ex 6.10
Cosmic radiation: Ex 9.7 Energy efficient refrigerators: Ex 7.5
Lead in tap water: Ex 10.7 High-pressure sales tactics: Ex 16.13 (online)
Rainfall frequency distributions for Albuquerque: Ex 3.19 Impact of food labels: Ex 10.8
River water velocity and distance from shore: Ex 5.17 Satisfaction with cell phone service: Ex 4.6
Soil and sediment characteristics: Ex 14.12, Ex 14.14,
Ex 14.16 (online)
Water conservation: Ex 10.10 Medical Science
Water quality: Ex 1.2 Affect of long work hours on sleep: Ex 11.10
Anti-clotting medications after hip or knee surgery: Ex 11.15
Apgar scores: Ex 7.10, Ex 7.13
Food Science Blood platelet volume: Ex 8.2
Calorie consumption at fast food restaurants: Ex 2.2 Blood pressure and kidney disease: Ex 16.5 (online)
Effect of exercise on food intake: Ex 4.1 Blue light exposure and blood glucose level: Ex 11.12
Fat content of hot dogs: Ex 8.6 Body mass index (BMI): Ex 7.14
Chronic airflow obstruction: Ex 16.9 (online)
Leisure and Popular Culture Contracting hepatitis from blood transfusion: Ex 8.8, Ex 8.9
Babies on social media: Ex 9.5 Cooling treatment after oxygen deprivation in newborns:
Car preferences: Ex 6.1 Ex 2.6
Do U Txt?: Ex 1.6 Diagnosing tuberculosis: Ex 6.15
Facebook and academic performance: Ex 11.1 Drive-through medicine: Ex 9.8
iPod shuffles: Ex 7.7 Early detection of lung cancer: Ex 10.6
Jeopardy! nerds: Ex 12.1, Ex 12.2 Effects of ethanol on sleep time: Ex 15.6
Life insurance for cartoon characters: Ex 3.2 Effect of school start time on sleep patterns: Ex 3.16
Number of trials required to complete game: Ex 7.2 Evaluating disease treatments: Ex 10.3
Probability a Hershey’s Kiss will land on its base: Act 6.1 Exercise and sleep quality: Ex 12.8
Selecting cards: Ex 6.20 Facial expression and self-reported pain level: Ex 12.7
Selection of contest winners: Ex 6.7 Growth hormone levels and diabetes: Ex 16.10 (online)
Tossing a coin: Ex 6.8 Heart attacks in high-rise buildings: Ex 12.4, Ex 12.5
Video game performance: Ex 4.9, Ex 4.10, Ex 6.2, Ex 6.4 Hip-to-waist ratio and risk of heart attack: Ex 14.2
Word cloud representation of a document: Ex 11.5, Hormones and body fat: Ex 15.4, Ex 15.5
Ex 11.6, Ex 11.8 Lead exposure and brain volume: Ex 5.12
Liver injuries in newborns: Ex 9.15
Lyme disease: Ex 6.27
Manufacturing and Industry Markers for kidney disease: Ex 7.33
Bottled soda volumes: Ex 8.5 Maternal age and baby’s birth weight: Ex 13.2
Computer configurations: Ex 6.19 Medical errors: Ex 6.9
Computer sales: Ex 7.19 Oxytocin nasal spray and social interaction: Ex 11.16
Corrosion of underground pipe coatings: Ex 15.14 (online) Parental smoking and infant health: Ex 16.2,
Customer hold time: Ex 10.17 Ex 16.3 (online)
Pediatric tracheal tube: Ex 13.7 Crime scene investigators: Ex 5.14
Platelet volume and heart attack risk: Ex 15.1, Ex 15.2, Effect of cell phone distraction: Ex 2.8
Ex 15.3 Effects of McDonald’s hamburger sales:
Pomegranate juice and tumor growth: Ex 5.4, Ex 5.5 Act 2.3
Premature births: Ex 7.35 Emotional health and work environment:
Sleep duration and blood leptin level: Ex 13.12 (online) Ex 3.21
Slowing the growth rate of tumors: Ex 10.5 Exercise on the rise: Ex 3.22
Sniffing out cancer: Ex 9.6 Fitness trackers and weight loss: Ex 11.3
Surviving a heart attack: Ex 6.13 Safety of bicycle helmets: Ex 5.2
Time perception and nicotine withdrawal: Ex 10.13 Salmonella in restaurant eggs: Act 7.2
Treating dyskinesia: Ex 16.8 (online) Teenage driver citations and traffic school: Ex 6.23
Treatment for acute mountain sickness: Act 2.5
Video games and pain management: Act 2.4
Vitamin B12 levels in human blood: Ex 16.7 (online)
Sports
Waiting time for hip surgery: Ex 9.9 Age and marathon times: Ex 5.3
Calling a toss at a football game: Ex 6.6
Fairness of Euro coin-flipping in European sports:
Physical Sciences Act 6.2
Electromagnetic radiation: Ex 5.18 Helium-filled footballs: Act 11.1
Rainfall data: Ex 7.32 “Hot hand” in basketball: Act 6.3
Wind chill factor: Ex 14.3 NBA player salaries: Ex 4.5, Ex 4.13
Olympic figure skating: Ex 3.20
Racing starts in competitive swimming: Ex 16.6 (online)
Politics and Public Policy Soccer goal keepers, action bias among: Ex 6.26
Fair hiring practices: Ex 6.29 Tennis ball diameters: Ex 10.1
Predicting election outcomes from facial appearance: Time to first goal in hockey: Ex 8.3
Ex 13.3, Ex 13.6 Wrestlers’ weight loss by headstand: Ex 13.1
Recall petition signatures: Act 9.3
Requests for building permits: Ex 6.31
Scientists and nonscientists: Ex 3.4 Surveys and Opinion Polls
Are cell phone users different?: Ex 2.1
Psychology, Sociology, and Social Cell phone usage: Ex 11.11
Designing a sampling plan: Facebook friending: Act 2.1
Issues Jump distance of frogs: Ex 11.2
Color and perceived taste: Act 12.2, Ex 15.7 Love for cell phones: Ex 10.11, Ex 10.21, Ex 10.24
Estimating sizes: Act 1.2 Vaccination coverage: Ex 10.22, Ex 10.25
Extrasensory perception: Ex 6.33 Wedding vows: Ex 7.20
Face-to-height ratio: Ex 5.6
Facial cues and trustworthiness: Ex 5.1, Ex 5.6
The “Freshman 15”: Ex 11.4, Ex 11.13
Transportation
Golden rectangles: Ex 4.11 Accidents by bus drivers: Ex 3.18
Hand-holding couples: Ex 6.30 Airborne times for San Francisco to Washington, D.C. flight:
Internet addiction: Ex 6.28 Ex 9.3
Morality in the morning: Ex 2.5 Airline luggage weights: Ex 7.17
One-boy family planning: Ex 6.32 Airline passenger weights: Act 4.2
Stroop effect: Act 2.2 Electric cars: Ex 11.9
Weight regained proportions for three follow-up methods: Freeway traffic: Ex 7.15
Ex 12.6 Fuel efficiency of automobiles: Ex 16.1 (online)
Lost airline luggage: Ex 6.25
Motorcycle helmets: Ex 1.7, Ex 1.8
Public Health and Safety On-time airline flights: Ex 10.4
Age and flexibility: Act 5.1 Predicting transit times: Ex 14.15 (online)
Chew more, eat less?: Ex 1.3 Turning directions on freeway off-ramp: Ex 6.3
Edition
Introduction
6 to Statistics
and Data Analysis
Roxy Peck
California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo
Tom Short
West Chester University of Pennsylvania
Chris Olsen
Grinnell College
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis, © 2020, 2016, 2012 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Sixth Edition
Roxy Peck, Tom Short, Chris Olsen Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 02 Print Year: 2019
To Lygia and Kyle
Roxy Peck
To my children: Bob, Kathy, Peter, and Kellen

Tom Short
To my wife, Sally, and my daughter, Anna

Chris Olsen
Author Bios
Roxy Peck is Emerita Associate Dean member of the AP® Statistics Development Committee.
of the College of Science and Mathematics He has also served on the Board of Directors of the
and Professor of Statistics Emerita at American Statistical Association. Tom treasures the
California Polytechnic State University, time he shares with his children and the many
San Luis Obispo. A faculty member at adventures experienced with his wife, Darlene.
Cal Poly from 1979 until 2009, Roxy
served for 6 years as Chair of the Statistics Department Chris Olsen taught statistics in
before becoming Associate Dean, a position she held for Cedar Rapids, Iowa, for over 25 years,
13 years. She received an M.S. in Mathematics and a and at Cornell College and Grinnell Col-
Ph.D. in Applied Statistics from the University of lege. Chris is a past member (twice!) of
California, Riverside. Roxy is nationally known in the the Advanced Placement® Statistics Test
area of statistics education, and she was presented with Development Committee and has been a
the Lifetime Achievement Award in Statistics Education table leader and question leader at the AP® Statistics
at the U.S. Conference on Teaching Statistics in 2009. reading for 11 years. He is a long-time consultant to the
In 2003 she received the American Statistical Associa- College Board, and Chris has led workshops and insti-
tion’s Founder’s Award, recognizing her contributions to tutes for AP® Statistics teachers in the United States and
K–12 and undergraduate statistics education. She is a internationally. Chris was the Iowa recipient of the
Fellow of the American Statistical Association and an Presidential Award for Excellence in Science and Math-
elected member of the International Statistics Institute. ematics Teaching in 1986, a regional awardee of the
Roxy served for 5 years as the Chief Reader for the IBM Computer Teacher of the Year in 1988, and re-
Advanced Placement (AP®) Statistics Exam and has ceived the Siemens Award for Advanced Placement in
chaired the American Statistical Association’s Joint mathematics in 1999. Chris is a frequent contributor to
Committee with the National Council of Teachers of and is moderator of the AP® Statistics Teacher Commu-
Mathematics on Curriculum in Statistics and Probability nity online. He is currently a member of the editorial
for Grades K–12 and the Section on Statistics Educa- board of Teaching Statistics. Chris graduated from Iowa
tion. In addition to her texts in introductory statistics, State University with a major in mathematics. While ac-
Roxy is also co-editor of Statistical Case Studies: A quiring graduate degrees at the University of Iowa, he
Collaboration Between Academe and Industry and a concentrated on statistics, computer programming and
member of the editorial board for Statistics: A Guide to psychometrics. In his spare time he enjoys reading and
the Unknown, 4th edition. Outside the classroom, Roxy hiking. He and his wife have a daughter, Anna, a
likes to travel and spends her spare time reading mystery Caltech graduate in Civil Engineering. She is a risk
novels. She also collects Navajo rugs and heads to modeler at RMS, the world’s leading catastrophe risk
Arizona and New Mexico whenever she can find the time. modeling company.
TOM SHORT is an Associate Professor

in the Statistics Program within the
Department of Mathematics at West
Chester University of Pennsylvania. He
previously held faculty positions at
Villanova University, Indiana University
of Pennsylvania, and John Carroll University. He is a
Fellow of the American Statistical Association and
received the 2005 Mu Sigma Rho Statistics Education
Award. Tom is part of the leadership team for readings
of the Advanced Placement® Statistics Exam, and was a
iv
Brief Contents
1 The Role of Statistics and the Data Analysis Process 1
2 Collecting Data Sensibly 28
3 Graphical Methods for Describing Data 77
4 Numerical Methods for Describing Data 148
5 Summarizing Bivariate Data 197

6 Probability 277
7 Random Variables and Probability Distributions 343
8 Sampling Variability and Sampling Distributions 427
9 Estimation Using a Single Sample 453
10 Hypothesis Testing Using a Single Sample 507
11 Comparing Two Populations or Treatments 576
12 The Analysis of Categorical Data and Goodness-of-Fit Tests 654
13 Simple Linear Regression and Correlation: Inferential Methods 689
14 Multiple Regression Analysis 730
15 Analysis of Variance 759
16 Nonparametric (Distribution-Free) Statistical Methods 16-1
Appendix: Statistical Tables 785
Answers to Selected Odd-Numbered Exercises 805
Index 845
Sections and/or chapter numbers shaded in color can be found at

www.cengage.com
v
Contents
Chapt e r 1 The Role of Statistics and the Data Analysis Process 1

1.1 Why Study Statistics? 2
1.2 The Nature and Role of Variability 3
1.3 Statistics and the Data Analysis Process 5
1.4 Types of Data and Some Simple Graphical Displays 9
Activity 1.1 Head Sizes: Understanding Variability 22
Activity 1.2 Estimating Shape Sizes 23
Activity 1.3 A Meaningful Paragraph 24
Summary: Key Concepts and Formulas 24
Chapter Review 24
Technology Notes 26
Chapt e r 2 Collecting Data Sensibly 28

2.1 Statistical Studies: Observation and Experimentation 29
2.2 Sampling 34
2.3 Simple Comparative Experiments 45
2.4 More on Experimental Design 60
2.5 I nterpreting and Communicating the Results of Statistical Analyses 65
Activity 2.1 Facebook Friending 68
Activity 2.2 An Experiment to Test for the Stroop Effect 68
Activity 2.3 McDonald’s and the Next 100 Billion Burgers 69
Activity 2.4 Video Games and Pain Management 69
Activity 2.5 Be Careful with Random Assignment! 70
Chapter Review 71
Technology Notes 73
See Chapter 2 online materials for More on Observational Studies: Designing
Surveys.
Chapt e r 3 Graphical Methods for Describing Data 77

3.1 isplaying Categorical Data: Comparative Bar Charts and Pie Charts 78
D
3.2 Displaying Numerical Data: Stem-and-Leaf Displays 88
3.3 Displaying Numerical Data: Frequency Distributions and Histograms 97
3.4 Displaying Bivariate Numerical Data 116
3.5 Interpreting and Communicating the Results of Statistical Analyses 125
Activity 3.1 Locating States 134
Activity 3.2 Bean Counters! 134
Chapter Review 135
vii
viii Contents
Technology Notes 139

Cumulative Review Exercises 144
Chapt e r 4 Numerical Methods for Describing Data 148

4.1 Describing the Center of a Data Set 149
4.2 Describing Variability in a Data Set 159
4.3 Summarizing a Data Set: Boxplots 168
4.4 Interpreting Center and Variability: Chebyshev’s Rule, the Empirical Rule,
and z Scores 175
Activity 4.1 Collecting and Summarizing Numerical Data 188
Activity 4.2 Airline Passenger Weights 188
Activity 4.3 Boxplot Shapes 188
Chapter Review 189
Chapt e r 5 Summarizing Bivariate Data 197

5.1 Correlation 198
5.2 Linear Regression: Fitting a Line to Bivariate Data 209
5.3 Assessing the Fit of a Line 221
5.4 Nonlinear Relationships and Transformations 241
Activity 5.1 Age and Flexibility 265
Chapter Review 266
See Chapter 5 online materials for coverage of Logistic Regression.
Chapt e r 6 Probability 277

6.1 Chance Experiments and Events 278
6.2 Definition of Probability 285
6.3 Basic Properties of Probability 290
6.4 Conditional Probability 297
6.5 Independence 307
6.6 Some General Probability Rules 315
6.7 Estimating Probabilities Empirically and Using Simulation 327
Activity 6.1 Kisses 337
Activity 6.2 A Crisis for European Sports Fans? 338
Activity 6.3 The “Hot Hand” in Basketball 338
Chapter Review 339
Chapt e r 7 Random Variables and Probability Distributions 343

7.1 Random Variables 344
7.2 Probability Distributions for Discrete Random Variables 347
7.3 Probability Distributions for Continuous Random Variables 353
7.4 Mean and Standard Deviation of a Random Variable 358
Contents ix
7.5 Binomial and Geometric Distributions 371

7.6 Normal Distributions 383
7.7 Checking for Normality and Normalizing Transformations 400
7.8 Using the Normal Distribution to Approximate a Discrete Distribution
(Optional) 410
Activity 7.1 Is It Real? 415
Activity 7.2 Rotten Eggs? 416
Chapter Review 417
C ha p te r 8 Sampling Variability and Sampling Distributions 427

8.1 Statistics and Sampling Variability 428
8.2 The Sampling Distribution of a Sample Mean 432
8.3 The Sampling Distribution of a Sample Proportion 441
Activity 8.1 Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean 447
Activity 8.2 Sampling Distribution of the Sample Proportion 449
Activity 8.3 Do Students Who Take the SATs Multiple Times Have an
Advantage in College Admissions? 450
Chapter Review 452
C ha p te r 9 Estimation Using a Single Sample 453

9.1 Point Estimation 454
9.2 Large-Sample Confidence Interval for a Population Proportion 459
9.3 Confidence Interval for a Population Mean 472
9.5 Bootstrap Confidence Intervals for a Population Proportion (Optional) 489
9.6 Bootstrap Confidence Intervals for a Population Mean (Optional) 496
Activity 9.1 Getting a Feel for Confidence Level 500
Activity 9.2 An Alternative Confidence Interval for a Population
Proportion 501
Activity 9.3 Verifying Signatures on a Recall Petition 502
Chapter Review 503
C ha p te r 10 Hypothesis Testing Using a Single Sample 507

10.1 Hypotheses and Test Procedures 508
10.2 Errors in Hypothesis Testing 512
10.3 Large-Sample Hypothesis Tests for a Population Proportion 517
10.4 Hypothesis Tests for a Population Mean 530
10.5 Power and Probability of Type II Error 541
10.7 Randomization Test and Exact Binomial Test for a Population Proportion
(Optional) 552
x Contents
10.8 Randomization Test for a Population Mean (Optional) 562

Activity 10.1 Comparing the t and z Distributions 567
Chapter Review 569
Chapt e r 11 Comparing Two Populations or Treatments 576

11.1 Inferences Concerning the Difference Between Two Population or Treatment
Means Using Independent Samples 577
11.2 Inferences Concerning the Difference Between Two Population or Treatment
Means Using Paired Samples 595
11.3 Large-Sample Inferences Concerning the Difference Between Two Population
or Treatment Proportions 608
11.5 Simulation-Based Inference for Two Means (Optional) 623
11.6 Simulation-Based Inference for Two Proportions (Optional) 633
Activity 11.1 Helium-Filled Footballs? 641
Activity 11.2 Thinking About Data Collection 642
Chapter Review 643
Chapt e r 12 The Analysis of Categorical Data and Goodness-of-Fit

Tests 654
12.1 Chi-Square Tests for Univariate Data 655
12.2 Tests for Homogeneity and Independence in a Two-way Table 665
Activity 12.1 Pick a Number, Any Number Á 683
Activity 12.2 Color and Perceived Taste 683
Chapter Review 684
Chapt e r 13 Simple Linear Regression and Correlation:

Inferential Methods 689
13.1 Simple Linear Regression Model 690
13.2 Inferences About the Slope of the Population Regression Line 702
13.3 Checking Model Adequacy 713
Activity 13.1 Are Tall Women from “Big” Families? 724
13.4 Inferences Based on the Estimated Regression Line 13-1
13.5 Inferences About the Population Correlation Coefficient 13-8
13.6 Interpreting and Communicating the Results of Statistical Analyses 13-11
Contents xi
Chapt e r 14 Multiple Regression Analysis 730

14.1 Multiple Regression Models 731
14.2 Fitting a Model and Assessing Its Utility 742
Activity 14.1 Exploring the Relationship Between Number of Predictors and
Sample Size 758
14.3 Inferences Based on an Estimated Model 14-1
14.4 Other Issues in Multiple Regression 14-12
Chapter Review 14-23
Chapt e r 15 Analysis of Variance 759

15.1 Single-Factor ANOVA and the F Test 760
15.2 Multiple Comparisons 772
Activity 15.1 Exploring Single-Factor ANOVA 780
15.3 The F Test for a Randomized Block Experiment 15-1
15.4 Two-Factor ANOVA 15-7
Chapter Review 15-21
Chapt e r 16 Nonparametric (Distribution-Free) Statistical Methods 16-1

16.1 Distribution-Free Procedures for Inferences About a Difference Between Two
Population or Treatment Means Using Independent Samples 16-2
16.2 Distribution-Free Procedures for Inferences About a Difference Between Two
Population or Treatment Means Using Paired Samples 16-9
16.3 Distribution-Free ANOVA 16-19
Summary: Key Concepts and Formulas 16-26
Appendix: Tables 16-27
Appendix: Statistical Tables 785

Answers to Selected Odd-Numbered Exercises 805
Index 845
Sections and/or chapter numbers shaded in color can be found at

www.cengage.com
Preface
I n a nutshell, statistics is about understanding the role that variability plays in drawing
conclusions based on data. Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis, Sixth Edition,
develops this crucial understanding of variability through its focus on the data analysis
process.
An Organization That Reflects the

Data Analysis Process
Students are introduced early to the idea that data analysis is a process that begins with
careful planning, followed by data collection, data description using graphical and numeri-
cal summaries, data analysis, and finally interpretation of results. This process is described
in detail in Chapter 1, and the ordering of topics in the first ten chapters of the book mirrors
the process: data collection, then data description, then statistical inference.
The logical order in the data analysis process can be pictured as shown in the follow-
ing figure.
Step 1: Step 2: Step 3:

Acknowledging Describing Drawing
Variability— Variability Conclusions
Collecting in the Data— in a Way That
Data in Sensible Descriptive Recognizes
Ways Statistics Variability in
the Data
Unlike many introductory texts, Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis,

Sixth Edition, is organized in a way that is consistent with the natural order of the data
analysis process:
xiii
xiv Preface
Step 1: Step 2: Step 3:

Acknowledging Describing Probability Supports Drawing
Variability— Variability the Connection Conclusions
Collecting Data in the Data— in a Way That
in Sensible Ways Descriptive Recognizes
Statistics Variability in
the Data
Chapters 1–2 Chapters 3–5 Chapters 6–7 Chapters 8–15
The Importance of Context and Real Data

Statistics is not about numbers; it is about data—numbers in context. It is the context
that makes a problem meaningful and something worth considering. For example, ex-
ercises that ask students to calculate the mean of 10 numbers or to construct a dotplot
or boxplot of 20 numbers without context are arithmetic and graphing exercises. They
become statistics problems only when a context gives them meaning and allows for
interpretation. While this makes for a text that may appear “wordy” when compared to
traditional mathematics texts, it is a critical and necessary component of a modern
statistics text.
Examples and exercises with overly simple settings do not allow students to practice
interpreting results in authentic situations or give students the experience necessary to be
able to use statistical methods in real settings. We believe that the exercises and examples
are a particular strength of this text, and we invite you to compare the examples and exer-
cises with those in other introductory statistics texts.
Many students are skeptical of the relevance and importance of statistics. Contrived
problem situations and artificial data often reinforce this skepticism. A strategy that we
have employed successfully to motivate students is to present examples and exercises that
involve data extracted from journal articles, newspapers, and other published sources.
Most examples and exercises in the book are of this nature; they cover a very wide range
of disciplines and subject areas. These include, but are not limited to, health and fitness,
consumer research, psychology and aging, sports, environmental research, law and crimi-
nal justice, and entertainment.
A Focus on Interpretation and Communication

Most chapters include a section titled “Interpreting and Communicating the Results of
Statistical Analyses.” These sections include advice on how to best communicate the re-
sults of a statistical analysis and also consider how to interpret statistical summaries found
in journals and other published sources. Subsections titled “A Word to the Wise” reminds
readers of things that must be considered in order to ensure that statistical methods are
employed in reasonable and appropriate ways.
Preface xv
Consistent with Recommendations for the

Introductory Statistics Course Endorsed by the
American Statistical Association
In 2016, the American Statistical Association updated the report “Guidelines in Assess-
ment and Instruction for Statistics Education (GAISE) College Report 2016,” which in-
cluded the following six recommendations for the introductory statistics course:
1. Teach statistical thinking.
2. Focus on conceptual understanding.
3. Integrate real data with a context and purpose.
4. Foster active learning.
5. Use technology to explore concepts and analyze data.
6. Use assessments to improve and evaluate student learning.
Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis, Sixth Edition, is consistent with these recom-
mendations and supports the GAISE guidelines in the following ways:
1. Teach statistical thinking.
Statistical thinking and statistical literacy literacy are promoted throughout the text in
the many examples and exercises that are drawn from the popular press. In addition,
a focus on the role of variability, consistent use of context, and an emphasis on inter-
preting and communicating results in context work together to help students develop
skills in statistical thinking.
2. Focus on conceptual understanding.
Nearly all exercises in Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis, Sixth Edition, are
multipart and ask students to go beyond just computation. They focus on interpreta-
tion and communication, not just in the chapter sections specifically devoted to this
topic, but throughout the text. The examples and explanations are designed to promote
conceptual understanding. Hands-on activities in each chapter are also constructed to
strengthen conceptual understanding. Which brings us to . . .
3. Integrate real data with a context and a purpose.
The examples and exercises from Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis,
Sixth Edition, are context driven, and the reference sources include the popular press
as well as journal articles.
4. Foster active learning.
While this recommendation speaks more to pedagogy and classroom practice, Introduc-
tion to Statistics and Data Analysis, Sixth Edition, provides more than 30 hands-on ac-
tivities in the text and additional activities in the accompanying instructor resources that
can be used in class or assigned to be completed outside of class.
5. Use technology to explore concepts and analyze data.
The computer brings incredible statistical power to the desktop of every investigator.
The wide availability of statistical computer packages such as Minitab, JMP, and
SPSS, and the graphical capabilities of the modern microcomputer have transformed
both the teaching and learning of statistics. To highlight the role of the computer in
contemporary statistics, we have included sample output throughout the book. In ad-
dition, numerous exercises contain data that can easily be analyzed using statistical
software. However, access to a particular statistical package is not assumed. Technol-
ogy manuals for specific software packages and for the graphing calculator are avail-
able in the online materials that accompany this text. The sixth edition of Introduction
to Statistics and Data Analysis also includes a number of Shiny web apps that can be
used to illustrate statistical concepts and to implement the simulation-based inference
methods covered in new optional sections.
The appearance of handheld calculators with significant statistical and graphing
capability has also changed statistics instruction in classrooms where access to com-
puters is still limited. There is not universal or even wide agreement about the proper
role for the graphing calculator in college statistics classes, where access to a com-
puter is more common. At the same time, for tens of thousands of students in
xvi Preface
Advanced Placement Statistics in our high schools, the graphing calculator is the only
dependable access to statistical technology.
This text allows the instructor to balance the use of computers and calculators in a
manner consistent with his or her philosophy. As with computer packages, our exposi-
tion avoids assuming the use of a particular calculator and presents the calculator ca-
pabilities in a generic format. For those using a TI graphing calculator, there is a
technology manual available in the online materials that accompany this text.
6. Use assessments to improve and evaluate student learning.
Assessment materials in the form of a test bank, quizzes, and chapter exams are avail-
able in the instructor resources that accompany this text. The items in the test bank
reflect the data-in-context philosophy of the text’s exercises and examples.
Advanced Placement® Statistics

We have designed this book with a particular eye toward the syllabus of the Advanced
Placement® Statistics course and the needs of high school teachers and students. Concerns
expressed and questions asked in teacher workshops and on the AP® Statistics teacher
community have strongly influenced our explanation of certain topics, especially in the
area of experimental design and probability. We have taken great care to provide precise
definitions and clear examples of concepts that Advanced Placement® Statistics instructors
have acknowledged as difficult for their students. We have also expanded the variety of
examples and exercises, recognizing the diverse potential futures envisioned by very
capable students who have not yet focused on a college major. The AP® edition of this text
also contains a collection of multiple choice and free response questions that can be used
to help students review for the AP® Statistics exam.
Topic Coverage
Our book can be used in courses as short as one quarter or as long as one year in duration.
Particularly in shorter courses, an instructor will need to be selective in deciding which
topics to include and which to set aside. The book divides naturally into four major sec-
tions: collecting data and descriptive methods (Chapters 1–5), probability (Chapters 6–8),
the basic one- and two-sample inferential techniques (Chapters 9–12), and more advanced
inferential methodology (Chapters 13–16).
We include an early chapter (Chapter 5) on descriptive methods for bivariate numerical
data. This early exposure introduces questions and issues that should stimulate student inter-
est in the subject. It is also advantageous for those teaching courses in which time con-
straints preclude covering advanced inferential material. However, this chapter can easily be
postponed until the basics of inference have been covered, and then combined with Chapter
13 for a unified treatment of regression and correlation.
With the possible exception of Chapter 5, Chapters 1 through 10 should be covered in
order. We anticipate that most instructors will then continue with two-sample inference
(Chapter 11) and methods for categorical data analysis (Chapter 12), although regression
could be covered before either of these topics. Optional portions of Chapter 14 (multiple
regression) and Chapter 15 (analysis of variance) and Chapter 16 (nonparametric methods)
are included in the online materials that accompany this text.
A Note on Probability
The content of the probability chapters is consistent with the Advanced Placement®
Statistics course description. It includes both a traditional treatment of probability and
probability distributions at an introductory level, as well as a section on the use of simula-
tion as a tool for estimating probabilities. For those who prefer a more informal treatment
of probability, see the text Statistics: Learning from Data, Second Edition, by Roxy Peck
and Tom Short.
Preface xvii
In This Edition
Look for the following in the Sixth Edition:
●● NEW Updated Examples and Exercises. In our continuing effort to keep things
interesting and relevant, the sixth edition contains many updated examples and exer-
cises that use data from recent journal articles, newspapers, and web posts, on topics
of interest to students.
●● NEW Sections on Randomization-Based Inference Methods. Research indi-
cates that randomization-based instruction in statistical inference may help learn-
ers to better understand the concepts of confidence and significance. The sixth
edition includes new optional sections on randomization-based inference methods.
These methods are also particularly useful in that they provide an alternative
method of analysis that can be used when the conditions required for normal
distribution-based inference are not met. The inference chapters (Chapters 9–11)
now contain new optional sections on randomization-based inference that include
bootstrap methods for simulation-based confidence intervals and randomization-
based tests of hypotheses. These new sections are accompanied by online Shiny
apps, which can be used to construct bootstrap confidence intervals and to carry
out randomization tests.
●● Helpful hints in exercises. To help students who might be having trouble getting
started, hints have been added to many of the exercises directing students to relevant
examples in the text.
●● Margin notes to highlight the importance of context and the process of data
analysis. Margin notations appear in appropriate places in the examples. These in-
clude Understanding the context, Consider the data, Formulate a plan, Do the work,
and Interpret the results. These notes are designed to increase student awareness of
the steps in the data analysis process.
●● Activities at the end of each chapter. These activities can be used as a chapter
capstone or can be integrated at appropriate places as the chapter material is covered
in class.
●● Advanced topics that are often omitted in a one-quarter or one-semester course,
such as survey design (Section 2.6), logistic regression (Section 5.6), inference
based on the estimated regression line (Sections 13.4 and 13.5), inference and vari-
able selection methods in multiple regression (Sections 14.3 and 14.4), analysis of
variance for randomized block and two-factor designs (Sections 15.3 and 15.4), and
distribution-free procedures (Chapter 16) are available in the online materials
that accompany this text.
●● Updated materials for instructors are included on the Instructor Companion Site.
In addition to the usual instructor supplements such as a complete solutions manual
and a test bank, the website contains examples that can be incorporated into classroom
presentations and cross-references to resources such as Fathom, Workshop Statistics,
and Against All Odds. Of particular interest to those teaching Advanced Placement
Statistics, the website also includes additional data analysis questions of the type
encountered on the free response portion of the Advanced Placement exam, as well as
a collection of model responses.
Instructor and Student Resources

MindTap™
Available via WebAssign is MindTapTM Reader, Cengage Learning’s next-generation eB-
ook. MindTap Reader provides robust opportunities for students to annotate, take notes,
navigate, and interact with the text (e.g., ReadSpeaker). Annotations captured in MindTap
Reader are automatically tied to the Notepad app, where they can be viewed chronologi-
cally and in a cogent, linear fashion. Instructors also can edit the text and assets in the
Reader, as well as add videos or URLs.
xviii Preface
WebAssign
WebAssign for Peck/Short/Olsen’s Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis, 6th Edi-
tion, is a flexible and fully customizable online instructional solution that puts powerful
tools in the hands of instructors, empowering you to deploy assignments, instantly assess
individual student and class performance, and help your students master the course con-
cepts. With WebAssign’s powerful digital platform and Introduction to Probability and
Statistics specific content, you can tailor your course with a wide range of assignment
settings, add your own questions and content, and access student and course analytics and
communication tools. Learn more at www.webassign.com.
JMP Statistical Software

JMP is a statistics software for Windows and Macintosh computers from SAS, the market
leader in analytics software and services for industry. JMP Student Edition is a streamlined,
easy-to-use version that provides all the statistical analysis and graphics covered in this text-
book. Once data is imported, students will find that most procedures require just two or three
Access to JMP is free with mouse clicks. JMP can import data from a variety of formats, including Excel and other
the purchase of a new book. statistical packages, and you can easily copy and paste graphs and output into documents.
JMP also provides an interface to explore data visually and interactively, which
will help your students develop a healthy relationship with their data, work more effi-
ciently with data, and tackle difficult statistical problems more easily. Because its
output provides both statistics and graphs together, the student will better see and un-
derstand the application of concepts covered in this book as well. JMP Student Edition
also contains some unique platforms for student projects, such as mapping and script-
ing. JMP functions in the same way on both Windows and Mac platforms and instruc-
tions contained with this book apply to both platforms.
Access to this software is available for free with new copies of the book and available
for purchase standalone at Cengage.com or www.jmp.com/getse. Find out more at www
.jmp.com.
Web Apps
A collection of easy to use web apps is available at statistics.cengage.com/PSO6e/Apps
.html. This collection includes apps that support new sections on bootstrap confidence
intervals and randomization tests, as well as apps that help students visualize the meaning
of confidence level and to understand the concept of sampling variability.
Student Resources
Digital
To access additional course materials and companion resources, please visit
www.cengage.com. At the Cengage.com home page, search for the ISBN of your title
(from the back cover of your book) using the search box at the top of the page. This will
take you to the product page where free companion resources can be found.
●● Complete step-by-step instructions for JMP, TI-84 Graphing Calculators, Excel,
Minitab, and SPSS.
●● Data sets in Excel, ASCII-comma, ASCII-tab, JMP, Minitab, R, SAS, and SPSS file
formats indicated by the ● icon throughout the text.
●● Applets used in the Activities found in the text.
Print
Student Solutions Manual (ISBN: 978-1-337-79417-6): The Student Solutions Manual,
prepared by Stephen Miller, contains fully worked-out solutions to all of the odd-numbered
exercises in the text, giving students a way to check their answers and ensure that they took
the correct steps to arrive at an answer.
Preface xix
Instructor Resources
Print
Annotated Instructor’s Edition (ISBN: 978-1-337-79415-2): The Annotated Instructor’s
Edition contains answers for all exercises, including those not found in the answer section of
the student edition. There also are suggested assignments and teaching tips for each section
in the book, along with an annotated table of contents with comments written by Roxy Peck.
AP® Teacher’s Resource Binder: The Teacher’s Resource Binder, prepared by Chris Olsen,
is full of wonderful resources for both college professors and AP® Statistics teachers.
These include
●● Additional examples from published sources (with references), classified by chapter
in the text. These examples can be used to enrich your classroom discussions.
●● Model responses—examples of responses that can serve as a model for work that
would be likely to receive a high mark on the AP® exam.
●● A collection of data explorations written by Chris Olsen that can be used throughout
the year to help students prepare for the types of questions that they may encounter
on the investigative task on the AP® Statistics Exam.
●● Advice to AP® Statistics teachers on preparing students for the AP® Exam, written
by Brian Kotz.
●● Activity worksheets, prepared by Carol Marchetti, that can be duplicated and used
in class.
●● A list of additional resources for activities, videos, and computer demonstrations,
cross-referenced by chapter.
●● A test bank that includes assessment items, quizzes, and chapter exams written by
Chris Olsen, Josh Tabor, and Peter Flanagan-Hyde.
Online
●● Instructor Companion Site: Everything you need for your course in one place! This
collection of book-specific lecture and class tools is available online via www.cengage
.com/login. Access and download PowerPoint presentations, images, instructor’s
manual, and more.
●● Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero (ISBN: 978-1-337-79423-7) is a
flexible, online system that allows you to author, edit, and manage test bank content,
create multiple test versions in an instant, and deliver tests from your LMS, your
classroom or wherever you want. This is available online via www.cengage.com
/login.
●● Complete Solutions Manual This manual contains solutions to all exercises from
the text, including Chapter Review Exercises and Cumulative Review Exercises.
This manual can be found on the Instructor Companion Site.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful for the thoughtful feedback from the following reviewers that has helped
to shape this text over the last three editions:
Reviewers for the Sixth Edition

Weizhong Tian, Eastern New Mexico University
Greg Perkins, Hartnell College
Bambi Jones, Lake Land College
Paul Holmes, University of Georgia
Christina Cornejo, Erie Community College
AP® is a trademark registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this product.
xx Preface
Carl Brezovec, Franklin Pierce University

David Manley, Rowan University
John Racquet, University at Albany, Excelsior College
Charles Conrad, Volunteer State Community College
Zhongming Huang, Midland University
Chad Bemis, Pierce College Fort Steilacoom
Reviewers for the Fifth, Fourth, Third, and

Second Editions
Arun K. Agarwal, Jacob Amidon, Holly Ashton, Barb Barnet, Eddie Bevilacqua, Piotr
Bialas, Kelly Black, Jim Bohan, Pat Buchanan, Gabriel Chandler, Andy Chang, Jerry
Chen, Richard Chilcoat, Mary Christman, Marvin Creech, Kathleen Dale, Ron Degged,
Hemangini Deshmukh, Ann Evans, Guangxiong Fang, Sharon B. Finger, Donna Flint,
Steven Garren, Mark Glickman, Rick Gumina, Debra Hall, Tyler Haynes, Sonja Hensler,
Trish Hutchinson, John Imbrie, Bessie Kirkwood, Jeff Kollath, Christopher Lacke, Austin
Lampros, Michael Leitner, Zia Mahmood, Art Mark, Pam Martin, David Mathiason, Bob
Mattson, Kendra Mhoon, C. Mark Miller, Megan Mocko, Paul Myers, Kane Nashimoto,
Helen Noble, Douglas Noe, Broderick Oluyede, Elaine Paris, Shelly Ray Parsons, Deanna
Payton, Judy Pennington-Price, Michael Phelan, Alan Polansky, Mamunur Rashid, Leah
Rathbun, Michael Ratliff, David Rauth, Kevin J. Reeves, Lawrence D. Ries, Hazel Shedd,
Robb Sinn, Greg Sliwa, Angela Stabley, Jeffery D. Sykes, Yolanda Tra, Joe Ward, Nathan
Wetzel, Mark Wilson, Yong Yu, and Toshiyuki Yuasa, Cathleen Zucco-Teveloff.
We would also like to express our thanks and gratitude to those whose support made this
sixth edition possible:
●● Cassie Van Der Laan, Product Manager
●● Brendan Killion and Abby DeVeuve, Content Managers
●● Elinor Gregory, Learning Designer
●● Lori Hazzard, our senior project manager at MPS Limited
●● Stephen Miller for his work in creating new student and instructor solutions manu-
als to accompany the text
●● A. Palanisamy, for checking the accuracy of examples and solutions
●● Carolyn Crockett and Molly Taylor, our former editors at Cengage, for their support
on the previous editions of this book
And, as always, we thank our families, friends, and colleagues for their continued
support.
Roxy Peck
Tom Short
Chris Olsen
Introduction
to Statistics
and Data Analysis
1 The Role of Statistics
and the Data Analysis
Process
S tatistics is the scientific discipline that provides methods
that help us make sense of data. Statistical methods offer a
set of powerful tools for gaining insight into the world around
us. The use of statistical analyses in fields such as business,
medicine, agriculture, social science, natural science, and
engineering has led to increased recognition that statistical
literacy should be part of a well-rounded education.
The field of statistics helps us to make intelligent
judgments and informed decisions in the presence of
uncertainty and variability. In this chapter, we consider the
role of variability in statistical settings, introduce some basic
terminology, and look at some simple graphical displays for
summarizing data.
ESB Professional/Shutterstock.com
Learning Objectives
Students will understand:
●●The steps in the data analysis process.
Students will be able to:
●● Distinguish between a population and a sample.
●● Distinguish between categorical, discrete numerical, and continuous numerical data.
●● Construct a frequency distribution and a bar chart, and describe the distribution of a
categorical variable.
●● Construct a dotplot and describe the distribution of a numerical variable.
1
2 CHAPTER 1 The Role of Statistics and the Data Analysis Process
section 1.1 Why Study Statistics?

There is an old saying that “without data, you are just another person with an
opinion.” While anecdotes and coincidences may make for interesting stories, you
wouldn’t want to make important decisions on the basis of anecdotes alone. For example,
just because a friend of a friend ate 16 apricots and then experienced relief from joint pain
doesn’t mean that this is all you need to know to help one of your parents choose a treat-
ment for arthritis! Before recommending apricots, you would definitely want to consider
relevant data—that is, data that would allow you to investigate the effectiveness of apricots
as a treatment for arthritis.
It is challenging to function in today’s world without a basic understanding of statistics.
For example, here are just a few headlines from articles that draw conclusions based on
data that appeared in a single newspaper on one day.
How many people does it take to build an airplane? The article “Boeing Delivers
Records” (The Wall Street Journal, January 10, 2018) looked at the ways in which Boeing has
been able to increase airplane production and introduce new airplane models. The article
states that “Boeing has boosted output by two-thirds over the past seven years but cut the
average number of employees needed to build each plane.” This statement was supported
by a graph that showed the number of employees per jet airplane produced over time. In
2017, this number was at its lowest, with 94 employees per jet produced.
“New Venture Fund Targets Autos” (The Wall Street Journal, January 10, 2018) is the title
of an article that looked at funding for innovation in the auto industry. Venture capital is
money invested in start-up companies exploring new technologies. The article included a
graph of data that shows how the amount of venture capital funding for the automotive
industry has been increasing over time, noting that this funding nearly tripled in 2017
compared with 2016. The hope is that this will increase the pace of introduction of new
technologies in new cars.
The article “Companies Take to the Sky in Race to Deliver on Time” (The Wall Street
Journal, January 10, 2018) notes that growth in online shopping and a healthy economy is
creating an increased demand for shipping by air. Two graphs of data are included with the
article. One shows the yearly change in air cargo volume for the years 2013 to 2017, not-
ing increases in each of these years and a particularly large increase in 2017. The second
graph shows how the cost of air cargo shipping has increased since 2015. Based on these
trends, Amazon has started its own airline to handle the shipping of Amazon orders and is
converting older passenger jets for cargo use.
The article “Saudis Target Religious Extremism” (The Wall Street Journal, January 10,
2018) reported on public reaction to Saudi Arabia’s decision to lift a ban that prohibits
women from driving. The article includes graphs summarizing data collected in a survey
of 500 Saudis. The people surveyed were asked if they were pleased with the decision to
lift the ban on women driving. The graphs showed that 74% of the women surveyed and
55% of the men surveyed said that they were pleased with the decision. The graphs also
showed that the percentage of men who were not sure if they were pleased or if they were
not pleased was greater than this percentage for women (17% of the men and 11% of the
women). These data enable the Saudi government to assess support for social change.
As people approach retirement age, many are finding that they are not prepared finan-
cially. The article “37% of Gen X Can’t Afford to Retire, Poll Finds” (The Wall Street Journal,
January 10, 2018) summarized the results of a survey of 828 people born between 1965 and
the late 1970s (known as “Generation X”) and 990 people born between 1945 and 1964
(the “Baby Boomers”). They found that while 47% of Baby Boomers expect that they will
be very secure in retirement, only 33% of Gen Xers expect that they will be very secure.
They also found that 37% of Gen Xers would like to stop working someday, but fear that
they will not be able to afford to, and that 49% are worried about running out of money
once they leave the workforce. These findings have implications for those who provide
social services to older Americans.
1.2 The Nature and Role of Variability 3
To be an informed consumer of reports such as those described above, you must

be able to do the following:
1. Extract information from tables, charts, and graphs.
2. Follow numerical arguments.
3. Understand the basics of how data should be gathered, summarized, and
analyzed in order to draw statistical conclusions.
Your statistics course will help prepare you to perform these tasks.
Studying statistics will also enable you to collect data in a sensible way and then use
the data to answer questions of interest. In addition, studying statistics will allow you to
critically evaluate the work of others by providing you with the tools you need to make
informed judgments.
Throughout your personal and professional life, you will need to understand and
use data to make decisions. To do this, you must be able to
1. Decide whether existing data are adequate or whether additional information
is required.
2. If necessary, collect more information in a reasonable and thoughtful way.
3. Summarize the available data in a useful and informative manner.
4. Analyze the available data.
5. Draw conclusions, make decisions, and assess the risk of an incorrect decision.
These are the steps in the data analysis process. These steps are considered in
more detail in Section 1.3.
We hope that this textbook will help you to understand the logic behind statistical rea-
soning, prepare you to apply statistical methods appropriately, and enable you to recognize
when statistical arguments are faulty.
section 1.2 The Nature and Role of Variability

Statistical methods allow us to collect, describe, analyze, and draw conclusions from
data. If we lived in a world where all measurements were identical for every individual,
these tasks would be simple. Imagine a population consisting of all students at a par-
ticular university. Suppose that every student is enrolled in the same number of courses,
spent exactly the same amount of money on textbooks this semester, and favors increas-
ing student fees to support expanding library services. For this population, there is no
variability in number of courses, amount spent on books, or student opinion on the fee
increase. A researcher studying students from this population in order to draw conclu-
sions about these three variables would have a particularly easy task. It would not matter
how many students the researcher studied or how the students were selected. In fact,
the researcher could collect information on number of courses, amount spent on books,
and opinion on the fee increase by just stopping the next student who happened to walk
by. Because there is no variability in the population, this one individual would provide
complete and accurate information about the population. The researcher could draw
conclusions with no risk of error.
The situation just described is obviously unrealistic. Populations with no variability are
rare. We need to understand variability to be able to collect, describe, analyze, and draw
conclusions from data in a sensible way.
Examples 1.1 and 1.2 illustrate how describing and understanding variability are
important.
Example 1.1 If the Shoe Fits

Understand the context ➤ The graphs in Figure 1.1 are examples of a type of graph called a histogram. (The
construction and interpretation of histograms is discussed in Chapter 3.) Figure 1.1(a)
shows the distribution of the heights of female basketball players who played at a
particular university between 2005 and 2013. Each bar in the histogram represents a
particular range of player heights. The height of each bar in the graph indicates how
Consider the data ➤ many players’ heights were in the corresponding range. For example, 40 basketball
players had heights between 72 inches and 74 inches, while only 2 players had heights
between 66 inches and 68 inches. Figure 1.1(b) shows the distribution of heights for
members of the women’s gymnastics team. Both histograms are based on the heights
Figure 1.1 of 100 women.
Histograms of heights (in inches) of
female athletes: (a) 100 basketball
players; (b) 100 gymnasts.
Frequency Frequency
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78
Height Height
(a) (b)
The first histogram shows that the heights of female basketball players varied, with most
heights falling between 68 inches and 76 inches. In the second histogram we see that the
heights of female gymnasts also varied, with most heights in the range of 60 inches to
72 inches. It is also clear that there is more variation in the heights of the gymnasts than
in the heights of the basketball players, because the gymnast histogram spreads out more
about its center than does the basketball histogram.
Interpret the results ➤ Now suppose that a tall woman (5 feet 11 inches) tells us she is looking for her sister
who is practicing with her team at the gym. Should we direct her to where the basketball
team is practicing or to where the gymnastics team is practicing? What reasoning could
we use to decide? If we found a pair of size 6 shoes left in the locker room, should we
first try to return them by checking with members of the basketball team or the gymnas-
tics team?
We would probably send the woman looking for her sister to the basketball practice and
we would probably try to return the shoes to a gymnastics team member. Reaching these
conclusions requires statistical reasoning that combines knowledge of the relationship be-
tween heights of siblings and between shoe size and height with the information about the
distributions of heights presented in Figure 1.1. We might have reasoned that heights of
siblings tend to be similar and that a height as great as 5 feet 11 inches, although not impos-
sible, would be unusual for a gymnast. On the other hand, a height as tall as 5 feet 11 inches
would be common for a basketball player.
Similarly, we might have reasoned that tall people tend to have bigger feet and that short
people tend to have smaller feet. The shoes found were a small size, so it is more likely that
they belong to a gymnast than to a basketball player, because small heights are common for
gymnasts and unusual for basketball players.
Example 1.2 Monitoring Water Quality

Understand the context ➤ As part of its regular water quality monitoring efforts, an envi-
ronmental control board selects five containers of water from a
particular well each day. The concentration of contaminants in
parts per million (ppm) is measured for each of the five contain-
ers, and then the average of the five measurements is calculated.
David Chasey/Photodisc/Getty Images

The histogram in Figure 1.2 summarizes the average contamina-
tion values for 200 days.
Now suppose that a chemical spill has occurred at a manufac-
turing plant 1 mile from the well. It is not known whether a spill
of this nature would contaminate groundwater in the area of the
spill and, if so, whether a spill this distance from the well would
affect the quality of well water.
Consider the data ➤ One month after the spill, five containers of water are collect-
ed from the well, and the average contamination is 15.5 ppm. Considering the variability
before the spill, should we interpret this as evidence that the well water was affected by
Figure 1.2 the spill? What if the calculated average was 17.4 ppm? 22.0 ppm? How is the reasoning
Average contamination concentration related to the histogram in Figure 1.2?
(in ppm) measured each day for
200 days. Frequency
40
30
20
10
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Average contamination
Interpret the results ➤ Before the spill, the average contaminant concentration varied from day to day. An aver-
age of 15.5 ppm would not have been an unusual value, so seeing an average of 15.5 ppm
after the spill isn’t necessarily an indication that contamination has increased. On the other
hand, an average as large as 17.4 ppm is less common, and an average as large as 22.0 ppm
is not at all typical of the pre-spill values. In this case, we would probably conclude that the
well contamination level has increased.
In these two examples, reaching a conclusion required an understanding of variability.

Understanding variability allows us to distinguish between common and unusual values. The
ability to recognize unusual values in the presence of variability is an important aspect of
most statistical procedures. It also enables us to quantify the chance of being incorrect when
a conclusion is based on data. These concepts will be developed further in later chapters.
section 1.3 Statistics and the Data Analysis Process

Statistical studies are undertaken to answer questions about our world. Is a new flu vac-
cine effective in preventing illness? Is the use of bicycle helmets on the rise? Are injuries
that result from bicycle accidents less severe for riders who wear helmets than for those
who do not? Data collection and analysis allow researchers to answer questions like these.
The data analysis process can be viewed as a sequence of steps that lead from planning
to data collection to making informed conclusions based on the resulting data. The process
can be organized into the six steps described below.
The Data Analysis Process

1. Understanding the nature of the problem. Effective data analysis requires an
understanding of the research problem. We must know the goal of the research
and what questions we hope to answer. It is important to have a clear direction
before gathering data to ensure that we will be able to answer the questions of
interest using the data collected.
2. Deciding what to measure and how to measure it. The next step in the process
is deciding what information is needed to answer the questions of interest. In some
cases, the choice is obvious. For example, in a study of the relationship between the
weight of a Division I football player and position played, we would need to collect
data on player weight and position. In other cases the choice of information is not as
straightforward. For example, in a study of the relationship between preferred learn-
ing style and intelligence, how should we define learning style and measure it? What
measure of intelligence should we use? It is important to carefully define the vari-
ables to be studied and to develop appropriate methods for determining their values.
3. Data collection. The data collection step is very important. The researcher must
first decide whether an existing data source is adequate or whether new data must
be collected. If a decision is made to use existing data, it is important to understand
how the data were collected and for what purpose, so that any resulting limitations
are also fully understood. If new data are to be collected, a careful plan must be
developed, because the type of analysis that is appropriate and the conclusions that
can be drawn depend on how the data are collected.
4. Data summarization and preliminary analysis. After the data are collected,
the next step is usually a preliminary analysis that includes summarizing the data
graphically and numerically. This initial analysis provides insight into important
characteristics of the data and provides guidance in selecting appropriate methods
for further analysis.
5. Formal data analysis. The data analysis step requires the researcher to select
appropriate statistical methods. Much of this textbook is devoted to methods that
can be used to carry out this step.
6. Interpretation of results. Several questions should be addressed in this final step.
Some examples are: What can we learn from the data? What conclusions can be drawn
from the analysis? How can our results guide future research? The interpretation step
often leads to the formulation of new research questions. These new questions lead
back to the first step. In this way, good data analysis is often an iterative process.
To illustrate these steps, consider the following example. The admissions director at a
large university might be interested in learning why some applicants who were accepted
for the fall 2019 term failed to enroll at the university. The population of interest to the
director consists of all accepted applicants who did not enroll in the fall 2019 term. Because
this population is large and it may be difficult to contact all the individuals, the director
might decide to collect data from only 300 selected students. These 300 students constitute
a sample.
Definitions
Population: The entire collection of individuals or objects about which
information is desired is called the population of interest.
Sample: A sample is a subset of the population, selected for study.
Deciding how to select the 300 students and what data should be collected from each
student are steps 2 and 3 in the data analysis process. Step 4 in the process involves
organizing and summarizing data. Methods for organizing and summarizing data, such as
the use of tables, graphs, and numerical summaries, make up the branch of statistics called
descriptive statistics. A second major branch of statistics, inferential statistics, involves
generalizing from a sample to the population from which it was selected. When we general-
ize in this way, we run the risk of an incorrect conclusion, because a conclusion about the
population is based on incomplete information. An important aspect in the development of
inferential techniques involves quantifying the chance of an incorrect conclusion.
Definitions
Descriptive statistics: The branch of statistics that includes methods for
organizing and summarizing data.
Inferential statistics: The branch of statistics that involves generalizing from a
sample to the population from which the sample was selected and assessing the
reliability of such generalizations.
Example 1.3 illustrates the steps in the data analysis process.
Example 1.3 Chew More, Eat Less?

Understand the context ➤ The article “Increasing the Number of Chews before Swallowing Reduces Meal Size in
Normal-Weight, Overweight, and Obese Adults” ( Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and
Dietetics [2014]: 926–931) describes a study that investigated whether chewing each bite of
food more before swallowing would result in people eating less. Participants in the study
were adults between the ages of 18 and 45 years. At the beginning of the study, each partici-
pant was observed as they each ate five pizza rolls, and the number of chews made before
swallowing was observed in order to determine a baseline for that participant.
Participants were then invited back for a second session on a different day. They were
asked to eat their usual breakfast on that day and to not eat anything after breakfast. At the
second session, all participants were provided with a platter of pizza rolls and were told
to eat until they were comfortably full. They were also told they could request more pizza
rolls if they wanted more. Each participant was also told how many times to chew each
pizza roll before swallowing. Then, each participant was assigned to one of three groups.
The participants in group 1 were given a number of chews equal to their baseline. The par-
ticipants in group 2 were given a number of chews that was 150% of (one and a half times
as large as) their baseline. The participants in group 3 were assigned a number of chews
that was 200% of (twice as large as) their baseline.
Interpret the results ➤ After analyzing data from this study, the researcher concluded that people ate about 10%
less when they increased the number of chews by 50% (group 2) and about 15% less when
they doubled the number of chews.
This study illustrates the nature of the data analysis process. A clearly defined research
question and an appropriate choice of how to measure the variables of interest (the number
of chews and how much people ate) preceded the data collection. Assuming that a reasonable
method was used to collect the data (we will see how this can be evaluated in Chapter 2) and
that appropriate methods of analysis were employed, the investigators reached the conclusion
that increasing the number of chews before swallowing results in people tending to eating less.
EXERCISES 1.1 - 1.11 ● Data set available online
1.1 Give brief definitions of the terms descriptive statis- 1.3 The following conclusion from a study appeared
tics and inferential statistics. in the article “Smartphone Nation” (AARP Bulletin,
September 2009): “If you love your smart phone,
1.2 Give brief definitions of the terms population and
you are not alone. Half of all boomers sleep with
sample.
their cell phone within arm’s length. Two of three
people age 50 to 64 use a cell phone to take pho- interested in determining the proportion of bricks in
tos, according to a 2010 Pew Research Center the lot that are cracked and therefore unusable for
report.” Are the given proportions (half and two of her current project, but she does not have enough
three) population values, or were they calculated time to inspect all 5000 bricks. Instead, she checks
from a sample? 100 bricks to determine which ones are cracked.
Describe the population and the sample for this
1.4 Based on a study of 2121 children between the ages
problem.
of 1 and 4, researchers at the Medical College of
Wisconsin concluded that there was an association 1.10 The article “Brain Shunt Tested to Treat
between iron deficiency and the length of time that Alzheimer’s” (San Francisco Chronicle, October 23,
a child is bottle-fed (Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, 2002) summarizes the findings of a study that
November 26, 2005). Describe the sample and the appeared in the journal Neurology. Doctors at
population of interest for this study. Stanford Medical Center were interested in deter-
mining whether a new surgical approach to treating
1.5 The student senate at a university with 15,000 Alzheimer’s disease results in improved memory
students is interested in the proportion of students functioning. The surgical procedure involves
who favor a change in the grading system to allow implanting a thin tube, called a shunt, which is
for plus and minus grades (for example, B1, B, designed to drain toxins from the fluid-filled space
B2, rather than just B). Two hundred students are that cushions the brain. Eleven patients had shunts
interviewed to determine their attitude toward this implanted and were followed for a year, receiving
proposed change. quarterly tests of memory function. Another sam-
a. What is the population of interest? ple of Alzheimer’s patients was used as a compari-
b. What group of students constitutes the sample in son group. Those in the comparison group received
this problem? the standard care for Alzheimer’s disease. After
1.6 The National Retail Federation used data from a sur- analyzing the data from this study, the investigators
vey of 7439 adult Americans to estimate the percent concluded that the “results suggested the treated
who planned to spend more on holiday shopping in patients essentially held their own in the cognitive
2017 than they spent in 2016. They estimated that tests while the patients in the control group steadi-
while 24% of adult Americans planned to spend ly declined. However, the study was too small to
more, for those age 16 to 24, the percentage was produce conclusive statistical evidence.”
46% (“Almost Half of Younger Consumers Plan a. What were the researchers trying to learn? What
to Spend More During the Holidays,” nrf.com/media questions motivated their research?
/press-releases/almost-half-of-younger-consumers b. Do you think that the study was conducted in
-plan-spend-more-during-the-holidays, retrieved a reasonable way? What additional informa-
February 5, 2018). Are the estimates given calcu- tion would you want in order to evaluate this
lated using data from a sample or for the entire study?
population? 1.11 In a study of whether taking a garlic supplement
1.7 The supervisors of a rural county are interested in reduces the risk of getting a cold, participants were
the proportion of property owners who support the assigned to either a garlic supplement group or
construction of a sewer system. Because it is too to a group that did not take a garlic supplement
costly to contact all 7000 property owners, a survey (“Garlic for the Common Cold,” Cochrane Database
of 500 owners is undertaken. Describe the popula- of Systematic Reviews, 2009). Based on the study, it
tion and sample for this problem. was concluded that the proportion of people taking
a garlic supplement who get a cold is lower than the
1.8 A consumer group conducts crash tests of new model proportion of those not taking a garlic supplement
cars. To determine the severity of damage to 2019 who get a cold.
Toyota Camrys resulting from a 10-mph crash into a a. What were the researchers trying to learn? What
concrete wall, the research group tests six cars of this questions motivated their research?
type and assesses the amount of damage. Describe b. Do you think that the study was conducted in
the population and the sample for this problem. a reasonable way? What additional information
1.9 A building contractor has a chance to buy an would you want in order to evaluate this study?
odd lot of 5000 used bricks at an auction. She is
section 1.4 Types of Data and Some Simple Graphical Displays

Every discipline has its own particular way of using common words, and statistics is no
exception. You will recognize some of the terminology from previous math and science
courses, but much of the language of statistics will be new to you. In this section, you will
learn some of the terminology used to describe data.
Types of Data
The individuals or objects in any particular population might possess many characteristics
that could be studied. Consider a group of students currently enrolled in a statistics class.
One characteristic of the students in the population is the brand of calculator they use
(Casio, Hewlett-Packard, Sharp, Texas Instruments, and so on). Another characteristic is
the number of textbooks purchased that semester, and yet another is the distance from the
college to each student’s home. A variable is any characteristic whose value may change
from one individual or object to another. For example, calculator brand is a variable, and
so are number of textbooks purchased and distance to the college. Data result from mak-
ing observations either on a single variable or on two or more variables at the same time.
Definitions
Variable: A characteristic whose value may change from one observation to another.
Data: A collection of observations on one or more variables.
A univariate data set consists of observations on a single variable made on individu-

als in a sample or population. There are two types of univariate data sets: categorical
(sometimes also called qualitative) and numerical (sometimes also called quantitative). In
the previous example, calculator brand is a categorical variable, because each student’s
response to the query, “What brand of calculator do you use?” is a category. The collection
of responses from all these students forms a categorical data set. The other two variables,
number of textbooks purchased and distance to the college, are both numerical in nature.
Determining the values of a numerical variable (by counting or measuring) results in a
numerical data set.
Definitions
Univariate data set: A data set consisting of observations on a single characteristic.
Categorical data set: A univariate data set is categorical (or qualitative) if the
individual observations are categorical responses.
Numerical data set: A univariate data set is numerical (or quantitative) if each
observation is a number.
Example 1.4 College Choice Do-Over?

Understand the context ➤ The Higher Education Research Institute at UCLA surveys over 20,000 college seniors
each year. One question on the survey asks seniors the following question: If you could
make your college choice over, would you still choose to enroll at your current college?
Possible responses are definitely yes (DY), probably yes (PY), probably no (PN), and defi-
nitely no (DN). Responses for 20 students were:
DY PN DN DY PY PY PN PY PY DY
DY PY DY DY PY PY DY DY PN DY
Consider the data ➤ (These data are just a small subset of the data from the survey.) Because the response to the
question about college choice is categorical, this is a univariate categorical data set.
In Example 1.4, the data set consists of observations on a single variable (college choice
response), so this is a univariate data set. In some studies, we are interested in two differ-
ent characteristics. For example, both height (in inches) and weight (in pounds) might be
recorded for each person on a basketball team. The resulting data set consists of pairs of
numbers, such as (74, 185). This is called a bivariate data set. Multivariate data result
from recording a value for each of two or more attributes (so bivariate data are a special
case of multivariate data). For example, multivariate data would result from determin-
ing height, weight, pulse rate, and blood pressure for each person on a basketball team.
Example 1.5 illustrates a bivariate data set.
Example 1.5 How Safe Are College Campuses?

Understand the context ➤ ● Consider the accompanying data on violent crime on public college campuses in Florida
during 2016 (fbi.gov, retrieved February 6, 2018).
Consider the data ➤

Student Number of Violent Crimes
University/College Enrollment Reported in 2016
Florida A&M University 9,928 6
Florida Atlantic University 30,380 6
Florida Gulf Coast University 14,833 3
Florida International University 49,782 15
Florida South Western State College 15,709 0
Florida State University, Tallahassee 40,830 20
New College of Florida 861 1
Pensacola State College 9,840 0
Santa Fe College 14,767 0
Tallahassee Community College 12,445 2
University of Central Florida 62,953 14
University of Florida 50,645 10
University of North Florida 15,675 3
University of South Florida, St. Petersburg 4,739 0
University of South Florida, Tampa 42,067 8
University of West Florida 12,763 10
Here two variables—student enrollment and number of violent crimes reported—were

recorded for each of the 16 schools. Because this data set consists of values of two vari-
ables for each school, it is a bivariate data set. Each of the two variables considered here is
numerical (rather than categorical).
Two Types of Numerical Data

There are two different types of numerical data: discrete and continuous. Consider a
number line (Figure 1.3) for locating values of a numerical variable. Each possible number
(2, 3.125, 8.12976, etc.) corresponds to exactly one point on the number line.
Suppose that the variable of interest is the number of courses in which a student is enrolled.
If no student is enrolled in more than eight courses, the possible values are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
and 8. These values are identified in Figure 1.4(a) by the dots at the points marked 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, and 8. These possible values are isolated from one another on the number line. We
can place an interval around any possible value that is small enough that no other possible
value is included in the interval. On the other hand, the line segment in Figure 1.4(b) identi
fies a plausible set of possible values for the time (in seconds) it takes for the first kernel in
a bag of microwave popcorn to pop. Here the possible values make up an entire interval on
the number line, and no possible value is isolated from other possible values.
Figure 1.3
A number line.
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
● Data set available online
Figure 1.4
Possible values of a variable:
0 2 4 6 8 0 10 20 30 40
(a) number of courses;
(b) popping time (in seconds). (a) (b)
Definitions
Discrete numerical variable: A numerical variable results in discrete data if the
possible values of the variable correspond to isolated points on the number line.
Continuous numerical variable: A numerical variable results in continuous data
if the set of possible values forms an entire interval on the number line.
Discrete data usually arise when observations are determined by counting (for example,
the number of roommates a student has or the number of petals on a flower).
Example 1.6 Do U Txt?

● The number of text messages sent on a particular day is recorded for each of 12 students.
The resulting data set is
23 0 14 13 15 0 60 82 0 40 41 22
Possible values for the variable number of text messages sent are 0, 1, 2, 3,… . These are
isolated points on the number line, so this data set consists of discrete numerical data.
Suppose that instead of the number of text messages sent, the time spent texting
had been recorded. Even though time spent may have been reported rounded to the nearest
minute, the actual time spent could have been 6 minutes, 6.2 minutes, 6.28 minutes, or any
other value in an entire interval. So, recording values of time spent texting would result in
continuous data.
In general, data are continuous when observations involve making measurements, as

opposed to counting. In practice, measuring instruments do not have infinite accuracy, so
possible measured values, strictly speaking, do not form an entire interval on the number
line. However, any number in the interval could be a value of the variable. The distinction
between discrete and continuous data will be important in our discussion of probability
models in Chapter 6.
Frequency Distributions and Bar Charts for Categorical Data

An appropriate graphical or tabular display of data can be an effective way to summarize
and communicate information. When a data set is categorical, a common way to present
the data is in the form of a table, called a frequency distribution.
Definitions
Frequency distribution for categorical data: A table that displays the possible
categories along with the associated frequencies and/or relative frequencies.
Frequency: The frequency for a particular category is the number of times the
category appears in the data set.
Relative frequency: The relative frequency for a particular category is calculated as
frequency
relative frequency 5
number of observations in the data set
The relative frequency for a particular category is the proportion of the observa-
tions that belong to that category.
Relative frequency distribution: A frequency distribution that includes relative
frequencies.
Example 1.7 Motorcycle Helmets—Can You See Those Ears?

Understand the context ➤ The U.S. Department of Transportation establishes standards for motorcycle helmets. To
ensure a certain degree of safety, helmets should reach the bottom of the motorcyclist’s
ears. The report “Motorcycle Helmet Use in 2014—Overall Results” (National Highway
Traffic Safety Administration, January 2015) summarized data collected in 2014 by observ-
ing 806 motorcyclists nationwide at selected roadway locations. Each time a motorcyclist
passed by, the observer noted whether the rider was wearing no helmet, a noncompliant
helmet, or a compliant helmet. The following coding was used:
N 5 no helmet
NH 5 noncompliant helmet
CH 5 compliant helmet
Consider the data ➤ A few of the observations were
CH N CH NH N CH CH CH N N
There were also 796 additional observations, which we didn’t reproduce here. In total,
there were 250 riders who wore no helmet, 40 who wore a noncompliant helmet, and 516
who wore a compliant helmet.
The corresponding frequency distribution is given in Table 1.1.
Do the work ➤ TABLE 1.1 Frequency Distribution for Helmet Use
Helmet Use Category Frequency Relative Frequency
No helmet 250 0.310 250/806

Noncompliant helmet 40 0.050 40/806
Compliant helmet 516 0.640
806 1.000 Should total 1, but
Total number in some cases may
of observations be slightly off due to
rounding
Interpret the results ➤ From the frequency distribution, we can see that a large percentage of riders (31%) were
not wearing a helmet, but most of those who wore a helmet were wearing one that met the
Department of Transportation safety standard.
A frequency distribution summarizes a data set in a table. It is also common to display

categorical data graphically. A bar chart is one of the most widely used types of graphical
displays for categorical data.
Bar Charts
A bar chart is a graph of a frequency distribution for categorical data. Each category
in the frequency distribution is represented by a bar or rectangle, and the picture is
constructed in such a way that the area of each bar is proportional to the corresponding
frequency or relative frequency.
Bar Charts
When to Use Categorical data.
How to Construct
1. Draw a horizontal axis, and write the category names or labels below the line
at equally spaced intervals.
2. Draw a vertical axis, and label the scale using either frequency or relative
frequency.
(continued)
3. Place a rectangular bar above each category label. The height is determined
by the category’s frequency or relative frequency, and all bars should have the
same width. With the same width, both the height and the area of the bar are
proportional to frequency and relative frequency.
What to Look For
●● Frequently and infrequently occurring categories.
Example 1.8 Revisiting Motorcycle Helmets

Understand the context ➤ Example 1.7 used data on helmet use from a sample of 806 motorcyclists to construct a
frequency distribution (Table 1.1). Figure 1.5 shows the bar chart corresponding to this
frequency distribution.
Figure 1.5 Frequency

Bar chart of helmet use.
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
No helmet Noncompliant Compliant
helmet helmet
Helmet use
Interpret the results ➤ The bar chart provides a visual representation of the information in the frequency distribu-
tion. From the bar chart, it is easy to see that the compliant helmet use category occurred
most often in the data set. The bar for compliant helmets is about twice as tall (and there-
fore has twice the area) as the bar for no helmet because approximately twice as many
motorcyclists wore compliant helmets than wore no helmet.
Dotplots for Numerical Data

A dotplot is a simple way to display numerical data when the data set is reasonably small.
Each observation is represented by a dot above the location corresponding to its value on
a horizontal measurement scale. When a value occurs more than once, there is a dot for
each occurrence and these dots are stacked vertically.
Dotplots
When to Use Small numerical data sets.
How to Construct
1. Draw a horizontal line and mark it with an appropriate measurement scale.
2. Locate each value in the data set along the measurement scale, and represent
it by a dot. If there are two or more observations with the same value, stack
the dots vertically.
(continued)
What to Look for

Dotplots convey information about:
●● A representative or typical value in the data set.
●● The extent to which the data values vary.
●● The shape of the distribution of values along the number line.
●● The presence of unusual values in the data set.
Example 1.9 Making It to Graduation . . .

Understand the context ➤ ● The article “Keeping Score When It Counts: Graduation Success and Academic Progress
Rates for the 2016 NCAA Men’s Division I Basketball Tournament Teams” (The Institute for
Diversity and Ethics in Sport, University of Central Florida, March 2016) compared gradu-
ation rates of basketball players to those of all student athletes for the universities and
colleges that sent teams to the 2016 Division I playoffs. The graduation rates in the accom-
panying table are the percentage of athletes who started college in 2005, 2006, 2007, and
2008 who graduated within 6 years.
Consider the data ➤ Minitab, a computer software package for statistical analysis, was used to construct a
dotplot of the graduation rates for basketball players (see Figure 1.6). From this dotplot,
we see that basketball graduation rates varied a great deal from school to school, ranging
from a low of 20% to a high of 100%.
We can also see that the graduation rates seem to cluster in several groups, denoted by the
colored ovals that have been added to the dotplot. There are 11 schools with graduation rates
of 100% (excellent!). The majority of schools are in the large cluster with graduation rates
from about 62% to about 96%. And then there is a group of 12 schools with low graduation
rates for basketball players and one school with an unusually low graduation rate of 20%.
Figure 1.6
Minitab dotplot of graduation rates for
basketball players.
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Graduation rate for basketball players (%)
School ALL BB Difference School ALL BB Difference

1 79 93 214 17 82 78 4
2 88 91 23 18 91 70 21
3 88 100 212 19 84 85 21
4 71 73 22 20 92 88 4
5 74 57 17 21 90 70 20
6 98 100 22 22 83 80 3
7 98 100 22 23 60 42 18
8 71 77 26 24 60 39 21
9 69 53 16 25 81 91 210
10 97 88 9 26 90 55 35
11 67 58 9 27 85 82 3
12 87 67 20 28 78 54 24
13 90 92 22 29 79 92 213
14 80 75 5 30 78 80 22
15 87 63 24 31 83 92 29
16 87 100 213 32 78 80 22
(Continued)
School ALL BB Difference School ALL BB Difference

33 79 55 24 51 80 50 30
34 79 36 43 52 82 62 20
35 86 83 3 53 81 82 21
36 85 20 65 54 70 50 20
37 95 100 25 55 85 100 215
38 78 62 16 56 87 83 4
39 89 100 211 57 83 90 27
40 84 100 216 58 86 64 22
41 81 90 29 59 92 91 1
42 85 91 26 60 85 67 18
43 89 93 24 61 93 83 10
44 89 89 0 62 94 100 26
45 85 90 25 63 76 83 27
46 85 80 5 64 69 100 231
47 81 46 35 65 82 83 21
48 80 75 5 66 80 63 17
49 98 100 22 67 94 91 3
50 84 71 13 68 98 95 3
Figure 1.7 shows two dotplots of graduation rates—one for basketball players and one
for all student athletes. There are some striking differences that are easy to see when the
data is displayed in this way. The graduation rates for all student athletes tend to be higher
and to vary less from school to school than the graduation rates for only basketball players.
Figure 1.7
Minitab dotplot of graduation rates
for basketball players and for all
athletes.
BB
ALL
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Graduation rate (%)
The dotplots in Figure 1.7 are informative, but we can do even better. The data given here
are an example of paired data. Each basketball graduation rate is paired with a graduation
rate for all student athletes from the same school. When data are paired in this way, it is
more informative to look at differences—in this case, the difference between the gradua-
tion rate for all student athletes and for basketball players for each school. These differ-
ences (All – Basketball) are also shown in the data table.
Interpret the results ➤ Figure 1.8 gives a dotplot of the differences. Notice that one difference is equal to 0.
This corresponds to a school for which the basketball graduation rate is equal to the gradu-
ation rate of all student athletes. There are 30 schools for which the difference is negative.
Negative differences correspond to schools that have a higher graduation rate for basketball
players than for all student athletes.
The most interesting feature of the difference dotplot is the variability in the positive dif-
ferences. Positive differences correspond to schools that have a lower graduation rate for
basketball players. The positive differences range from 1% all the way up to 65%. There
were five schools that had a graduation rate for all athletes that was 30 percentage points or
more greater than the graduation rate for basketball players. (In case you were wondering,
these schools were University of Oregon with a difference of 30%, Syracuse University and
University of North Carolina Wilmington with differences of 35%, University of Cincinnati
with a difference of 43%, and University of Connecticut with a difference of 65%.)
Figure 1.8
Dotplot of graduation rate
differences (all athletes – basketball
players).
–40 –20 0 20 40 60
Difference in graduation rate (%, All – BB)
EXERCISES 1.12 - 1.32 ● Data set available online
1.12 Classify each of the following variables as either c. The number of kernels in a bag of microwave
categorical or numerical. For those that are popcorn that have not popped after 3 minutes of
numerical, determine whether they are discrete or cooking
continuous. d. The number of students in a class of 35 who have
a. Number of students in a class of 35 who turn in purchased a used copy of the textbook
a term paper before the due date
1.15 For the following numerical variables, state whether
b. Gender of the next baby born at a particular hospital
each is discrete or continuous.
c. Amount of fluid (in ounces) dispensed by a
a. The length of a 1-year-old rattlesnake
machine used to fill bottles with soda pop
b. The altitude of a location in California selected
d. Thickness of the gelatin coating of a vitamin E
randomly by throwing a dart at a map of the
capsule
state
e. Birth order classification (only child, firstborn,
c. The distance from the left edge at which a
middle child, lastborn) of a math major
12-inch plastic ruler snaps when bent suffi
1.13 Classify each of the following variables as either ciently to break
categorical or numerical. For those that are d. The price per gallon paid by the next customer to
numerical, determine whether they are discrete or buy gas at a particular station
continuous.
1.16 For each of the following situations, give a set of
a. Brand of computer purchased by a customer
possible data values that might arise from making
b. State of birth for someone born in the United
the observations described.
States
a. The manufacturer for each of the next 10 auto-
c. Price of a textbook
mobiles to pass through a given intersection is
d. Concentration of a contaminant (micrograms per
noted.
cubic centimeter) in a water sample
b. The grade point average for each of the
e. Zip code (Think carefully about this one.)
15 seniors in a statistics class is determined.
f. Actual weight of coffee in a 1-pound can,
c. The number of gas pumps in use at each of
labeled as containing 1 pound
20 gas stations at a particular time is determined.
1.14 For the following numerical variables, state whether d. The actual net weight of each of 12 bags of fer-
each is discrete or continuous. tilizer having a labeled weight of 50 pounds is
a. The number of insufficient-funds checks received determined.
by a grocery store during a given month e. Fifteen different radio stations are monitored
b. The amount by which a 1-pound package of during a 1-hour period, and the amount of
ground beef decreases in weight (because of time devoted to commercials is determined
moisture loss) before purchase for each.
1.17 In a survey of 100 people who had recently

Concussion Rate
purchased motorcycles, data on the following (Concussions per
variables were recorded: Sport 10,000 athletes)
Sex of purchaser
Soccer (Boys) 4.2
Brand of motorcycle purchased
Field Hockey 4.2
Number of previous motorcycles owned by
Volleyball 2.4
purchaser
Softball 1.6
Telephone area code of purchaser
Baseball 1.2
Weight of motorcycle as equipped at purchase
a. Which of these variables are categorical? a. Construct a dotplot of the concussion rate data.
b. Which of these variables are discrete numerical? b. In addition to the three girls’ sports indicated in
c. Which type of graphical display would be an the table (lacrosse, basketball, and soccer), the
appropriate choice for summarizing the sex data, reported concussion rates for field hockey, vol-
a bar chart or a dotplot? leyball, and softball are also for girls. Locate the
d. Which type of graphical display would be an points on the dotplot that correspond to concus-
appropriate choice for summarizing the weight sion rates for girls’ sports and highlight them in
data, a bar chart or a dotplot? a different color. Based on the dotplot, would
you say that the concussion rates for girls’ sports
1.18 The Gallup report “More Americans Say Real Estate
tend to be lower than or higher than for boys’
Is Best Long-Term Investment” (gallup.com, April 20,
sports? Explain.
2016, retrieved April 15, 2017) included data from a
poll of 1015 adults. The responses to the question 1.20 ● Box Office Mojo (boxofficemojo.com) tracks
“What do you think is the best long-term invest- movie ticket sales. Ticket sales (in millions of dol-
ment?” are summarized in the given relative fre- lars) for each of the top 20 movies in 2014 and
quency distribution. 2015 are shown in the accompanying table.
Response Relative Frequency 2014

Real Estate 0.35 2014 Sales
Stocks & Mutual Funds 0.22 Movie (millions of dollars)
Gold 0.17 American Sniper 350.1
Savings 0.15 The Hunger Games: 337.1
Bonds 0.07 Mockingjay—Part 1
Other 0.04 Guardians of the Galaxy 333.1
Captain America: The Winter 259.8
a. Use this information to construct a bar chart for Soldier
the response data.
The LEGO Movie 257.8
b. Write a few sentences commenting on the distri-
The Hobbit: The Battle of the 255.1
bution of responses to the questions posed.
Five Armies
1.19 An article in the New Times San Luis Obispo Transformers: Age of Extinction 245.4
(February 4, 2016) reported the accompanying con- Maleficent 241.4
cussion rates for different high school sports. The
X-Men: Days of Future Past 233.9
given data are concussion rates per 10,000 athletes
participating in high school sports in 2012. Big Hero 6 222.5
Dawn of the Planet of the Apes 208.5
Concussion Rate The Amazing Spider-Man 2 202.9

(Concussions per Godzilla 200.7
Sport 10,000 athletes) 22 Jump Street 191.7
Football 11.2 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles 191.2
Lacrosse (Boys) 6.9 Interstellar 188.0
Lacrosse (Girls) 5.2
How to Train Your Dragon 2 177.0
Wrestling 6.2
Gone Girl 167.8
Basketball (Girls) 5.6
Basketball (Boys) 2.8 Divergent 150.9
Soccer (Girls) 6.7 Neighbors 150.2
(continued) (continued)
1.22 The following display is a graph similar to one that

2015
appeared in USA TODAY (June 29, 2009). This graph
2015 Sales is meant to be a bar graph of responses to the ques-
Movie (millions of dollars) tion shown in the graph.
Star Wars: The Force Awakens 936.7 a. Is response to the question a categorical or
Jurassic World 652.3 numerical variable?
Avengers: Age of Ultron 459.0 b. Explain why a bar chart rather than a dotplot was
Inside Out 356.5 used to display the response data.
Furious 7 353.0 c. There must have been an error made in construct-
Minions 336.0 ing this graph. How can you tell that the graph is
The Hunger Games: 281.7 not a correct representation of the response data?
Mockingjay—Part 2
The Martian 228.4
Source: Bank of America Consumer Purchasing and Savings Habits survey

48%
Cinderella 201.2
If you were given
of 1,000 adults 18 and older. Margin of error 64 percentage points.

Spectre 200.1
Mission Impossible—Rogue 195.0 $1,000, what
27%
Nation would you do?
Pitch Perfect 2 184.3
The Revenant 183.6
Ant-Man 180.2 12%
10% 10%
Home 177.4
Hotel Transylvania 2 169.7
Fifty Shades of Grey 166.2 Put it in Pay off Put it in Use it for Put it
The SpongeBob Movie: 163.0 general credit children’s health toward
Sponge Out of Water savings card debt education care vacation
fund expenses
Straight Outta Compton 161.2
San Andreas 155.2
1.23 ● The accompanying table gives the total number
a. Construct a dotplot of the 2014 ticket sales data. visits and the number of unique visitors for some
Comment on any interesting features of the popular social networking sites in the United States
dotplot. (Hint: See “What to Look For” in the for the month of July 2017. The number of unique
Dotplots box on page 14.) visitors data are taken from the online article “Top
b. Construct a dotplot of the 2015 ticket sales data. 15 Most Popular Social Networking Sites” (ism
Comment on any interesting features of the dotplot. .org/images/files/Social-media-platforms-from
c. In what ways are the distributions of the 2014 -Engage-to-Succeed-webinar.pdf, retrieved
and 2015 ticket sales observations similar? In February 7, 2018). The total number of visits were
what ways are they different? estimated using data from semrush.com (retrieved
1.21 The report “With Their Whole Lives Ahead February 7, 2018). The data on total visits and unique
of Them” (publicagenda.org/files/theirwhole visitors were used to compute the values in the final
livesaheadofthem.pdf, retrieved February 6, 2018) column of the data table, in which
includes data from a survey of 200 students who total visits
started college but did not complete a degree. Each visits per unique visitor 5
number of unique visitors
of these students was asked, “How much have you
thought about going back to school?” The accom-
panying frequency distribution summarizes the Unique Visits per
responses to this question. Visitors Total Visits Unique
Site (in millions) (in millions) Visitor
Response Frequency Facebook 1,500 20,730 13.8
YouTube 1,499 39,000 26.0
A lot of thought 130
Twitter 400 13,860 34.7
Some thought 48
Instagram 275 4,320 15.7
No thought 18 LinkedIn 250 1,398 5.6
Don’t know 4 reddit 125 2,445 19.6
Pinterest 105 5,970 56.9
a. Summarize the response data using a bar chart. flickr 80 84 1.1
b. Write a few sentences commenting on the distri- meetup 42 45 1.1
bution of the responses.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
“Robespierre has triumphed over the others, and he has
had Hébert, Vincent, etc., arrested and guillotined.
Robespierre had declared himself anxious to stop the flow of
blood ...; he had spoken up for the prisoners in the Temple.
Fresh letters are arriving here. It is certain, I think, that my
wife has not yet been charged with anything, or even
suspected of anything in regard to the prisoners.”
The event was inopportune. Cormier had just decided to leave
London for the coast, where he was to receive certain information
and to take counsel with his agents. Now his plans were all upset.
He would have to postpone the journey and redouble his
precautions.
At the end of five days there was ground for taking a hopeful view
of things. There was every reason to believe that Mme. Cormier’s
arrest would not have any grave results.
“What annoys me most,” writes Cormier to Lady Atkyns on
March 28, “is the fact that the news had got back to Paris,
with commentaries which may do harm both to my wife and to
our affairs.”
As a matter of fact, Peltier and d’Auerweck hastened, on hearing
of what had happened, to convey their sympathy to their friend, and,
like true journalists, spread the tidings in every direction, thus
intensifying Cormier’s uneasiness.
“But I must only try and put aside this anxiety,” he
continues, “as I have so many others. I have not yet started; I
shall not start before Monday or Tuesday, because I must wait
for replies from Dieppe, which cannot arrive before Sunday or
Monday. Have no fears; my courage will not fail me—indeed,
at present it is taking the shape of a feeling of rage, which I
am trying to keep down. You will have learnt from the public
prints that the statement has gone out that the King has been
carried off to the army of the Prince of Saxe-Coburg. This
false report has troubled me a good deal. I don’t want
attention to be directed that way just now, especially as
something has happened which would increase our
confidence—something which I cannot at present confide to
paper. Do not exert yourself too much, madame; do not
measure your efforts by your courage. Your friends beg this of
you.”
In all these letters of the Breton magistrate there is a real ring of
sincerity. The admiration he feels for this interesting woman resolves
itself into a whole-hearted devotion to her cause, and if, later, her
large fortune and her generosity seem to have too large a part in
Cormier’s thoughts and too great an influence upon his actions, at
least he must be credited with absolute frankness throughout.
The death of Sir Edward Atkyns on March 27, 1794, gave Cormier
an opportunity for expressing his sympathy with the widow, and of
enlarging still further upon his feelings. The scant mention made of
Sir Edward, indeed, in the correspondence of this little circle
suggests that the relations between husband and wife must have
become perceptibly colder of late. It is probable that the baronet
looked with disfavour upon his wife’s schemes and the heavy outlay
they entailed.
“A score of times,” writes Cormier, “I have taken pen in
hand this morning to express to you the intense interest with
which I have learnt of the sad event which occurred, and as
often my courage has failed me. Truly you have been the
victim of many misfortunes. Will the Fates never have done
pursuing you? You must only make use of the great qualities
Providence has given you to bear up against what has
befallen. Your courage is exceptional. Make the most of a
quality which is rare with men, but rarer still in women. As for
me, I vow I shall not give in under my misfortune, and shall
not be put off by any perils.... I have not started yet, and shall
not start to-morrow, not having yet received the letters I was
expecting. If they come to-morrow, I shall start on Thursday.
So that this delay may not cause you anxiety, I may mention
that in the last letters which have come to me, he who left last
... asks me not to start until I heard again from him. He has
not been beyond D(ieppe), and the others have returned from
P(aris) to take counsel with him—I don’t know on what.”
These last words show that something was already happening on
the Breton coast, and that it was desired to send news of interest to
Cormier. But the departure postponed so often was still
impracticable, and Cormier began to lose patience.
“I am still kept here,” he writes. “It is becoming incensing. I
feel as though I were being chained up, but prudence and
common sense keep me quiet. I get news regularly from
D(ieppe). I have just received a third letter enjoining me to
make no movement until they give me the word, and insisting
that the success of our project and the safety of him who is so
precious to us depend upon this. I don’t understand, however,
their not telling us why and how.... I have lost patience, and
have sent one of these gentlemen.[72] (That is not the same
as myself.) I am afraid that Hamelin may really have been
killed; I can’t make it out at all.”
Who was Hamelin? It is difficult to guess. It is difficult to identify a
great many of the individuals of whom there is question in these
letters, and who are designated by borrowed names. The most
elementary prudence called for absolute secrecy concerning the
names of the agents who were working for our committee, and
although the messages were carried by the most trustworthy
emissaries, it was always possible that one of them might be
arrested en route. This doubles our difficulty in clearing up the
imbroglio, and enhances a mystery already sufficiently troublesome.
Failing Mme. Cormier, who was still under arrest, and whose
absence had been making itself felt more and more, another
arrangement had been made for securing news from Paris. At what
expense? Heaven knows! But once again money had set tongues
going and procured the needed help. Cormier, coming back to the
question of his departure, writes again (April 14, 1794) to his friend
to tell her of the messages he has sent from England:—
“I shall not start until this evening,” he tells her. “You can
guess why. I have just despatched two messengers. Things
are moving, but very slowly. However, let us not lose heart. If
we go slowly we go all the more surely, and every day
achieve something which helps to advance our schemes and
to keep us in security. Therefore do not be impatient.”
The weeks passed by, and that fateful day “9th Thermidor,” which
was to bring with it such a bouleversement in Paris, was drawing
nigh. At the Temple there had been no change—the Dauphin was
still sequestrated from the outside world.
On May 11, 1794, Robespierre visited the prison, and had a brief
interview with Marie-Therèse, but we have no information as to what
happened.
The 9th Thermidor arrives and throws the dictator down from his
pedestal, thereby proclaiming the end of his reign of terror. General
Barras, invested with the command of the armed forces within the
city, begins to take an important part in the management of affairs.
One of his first acts, it will be remembered, after he had triumphed
over Robespierre’s party, was to go to the prison of the Temple, on
July the 28th, accompanied by his brilliant staff, bedecked with gold.
The miserable aspect of the child after being shut up for months
caused the general to take immediate steps, and by his order of July
29, 1794, a special guardian, chosen by himself, named Laurent, a
native of Martinique, was brought to the prison, there to be entrusted
with the sole care for nearly five months of the young Capet.
A careful study of the documents bearing upon this period of the
captivity of the Dauphin makes it quite clear that in the hands of his
new guardian he was looked after in a fashion which contrasted
strongly with the previous neglect, and that he soon became
attached to Laurent, who proved himself good-natured, kind, and
even affectionate in his attitude towards his charge. If strange things
came about in the Temple at that time, we may be certain that
Laurent knew about them, and we may assume that Barras was the
prime mover in all that happened.
It is impossible, as we have said before, to recapitulate all the
arguments which tend to bring home to the general some complicity
in the fate of Louis XVII., and which implicate a large number of
persons, most of them people of influence in the world of the
Convention. Other writers, notably M. Henri Provins,[73] have done
this so conscientiously and thoroughly that there is no need for us to
attempt it. We may content ourselves with making public a series of
documents and newly ascertained matters, the gist of which bears
out exactly all that we knew already of Laurent’s conduct at the
Temple. Lady Atkyns and her friends could not have done without
him. It is true that his name never appears in their communications,
for reasons already given, but the striking connection between the
events within the prison walls and their effects in London upon the
Royalist Committee proves beyond doubt the relations subsisting
between them. Between the lines of these documents we get to
understand what Cormier meant by “new combinations.” Lady
Atkyns has been at pains to say it herself in one of her notes which
she used to make upon her correspondence, and which often serve
to explain her actions.
In his anxiety about the future, did Cormier entertain fears lest all
remembrance of his heroine’s devotion would vanish with her if by
some mischance her enterprise should fail, or if she herself should
lose her life? Who knows? However that may be, it is the case that
on August 1, 1794, he had two statements drawn up (the text of
which, unluckily, is not forthcoming), in which Lady Atkyns recorded
all that she had achieved down to that date for the safety of those
who were so dear to her.
“These records are to my knowledge the absolute truth,”
attested Cormier at the foot of the deposition, “and I declare
that ever since I first knew Lady Atkyns, she has always
shown the same purity of principles, and that all she has here
stated is true in every particular.”
These documents were to have been handed over for
preservation, with a number of others, to a solicitor or some
trustworthy person in London.
Meanwhile, renewed efforts were being made to bring about a
good service of news to the Continent and Paris. As time passed,
Lady Atkyns’ friends realized more and more that it would have been
madness to proceed with a regular attempt at a sudden rescue in the
actual conditions of things. In truth, the calm which had followed the
9th Thermidor, and which gave Paris time to take breath, was
making itself felt within the Temple. Laurent’s nomination was
evidence of this. Any attempt to act at once would have been sheer
folly. What was to be done was to “get at” those who had any kind of
influence within the Temple or without, whilst taking care not to let
too many people into the secret of the enterprise. Here, again,
unluckily, the wise secretiveness of all their papers prevents us from
ascertaining any names. Those who were tempted by Lady Atkyns’
gold to compromise themselves in any way, took too many
precautions against being found out.
Lady Atkyns, however, was not idle. Two sailing vessels were
continually plying between different points on the French coast. A
third, which she had recently purchased, had orders to keep close to
land between Nantes and La Rochelle, ready at any moment to
receive the Dauphin.[74]
The cost of keeping these three ships was considerable, and Lady
Atkyns had great difficulty in providing the money. She was in the
hands of agents whose services, indispensable to her, could be
depended upon only so long as the sums they demanded were
forthcoming. We can imagine the feelings of anxiety and
despondency with which she must have read the following letter from
Cormier. What answer was she to make to him? (The person to
whom she had applied for financial help appears on several
occasions in their correspondence under the designation of “le diable
noir.”)
“Your diable noir’s reply is very little consolation to me,”
writes Cormier; “he has promised and postponed so often.
For Heaven’s sake, see to it that he does not promise us this
time also to no purpose!... I gather that you were to have two
definite replies to-day—I shall be in Purgatory until five
o’clock. Mon Dieu! Mon Dieu! I wonder what you will send me,
or rather what you will be able to send me? Our own courage
alone does not suffice—we have to keep up the courage of
others, and they are losing heart. Worst of all, there is that
avaricious Jew of a captain! We are absolutely dependent
upon him. If we lost him where should we get another to take
his place? I beg of you, in the name of the one you know, to
do all you possibly can, to exert all your resources, to prevent
his having to leave me empty-handed.”
And to excuse the ultimatum-like tone of his letter, Cormier adds—
“Forgive the urgent persistent style in which I write! But
when one is writing about business matters and matters of
this importance, one has to forget one is writing to a woman—
especially when it is a question of a Lady Atkyns, who is
different from the rest of her sex.”
The occasions for entering into communication with their agents
on the Continent are more propitious now than ever, but many efforts
are frustrated owing to the sharp watch which is kept along the
coast.
“They have tried eleven times to land since Saturday last,”
writes Cormier, “and failed every time. There were always
either people in sight or else there were transports sailing
from Havre to Dieppe or from Dieppe to Saint-Valery, etc., etc.
There has been a lot going on evidently, for signals have
been given on fifteen or twenty different occasions. That
shows how important it is to effect a landing. They returned
simply to make this fact known to me, and went back again
without coming on shore—except the captain, who came for
an hour and who is positive they have something to hand over
to him. I believe this myself, for I learn also this morning that
the Government boat which plies along the coast of Brittany
has made thirty vain attempts during the last three weeks.”
We can imagine the mental condition of poor Lady Atkyns on
receiving letter after letter in this strain. She no longer goes away
from London at this period, feeling too remote in the country from the
centre of news. She stays either at the Royal Hotel or else with
friends at 17, Park Lane. Here it is that she receives Cormier, Frotté,
Peltier. When there is a long interval between their visits her fears
grow apace. What would she not give to take an active part herself in
the enterprise! “No messenger arrived—no news, therefore, from
France,” that is the message that comes to her only too often. And
Cormier writes, full of excuses for his persistent appeals—
“Forgive my tone,” he writes. “I apologize a thousand times
for being such a worry to you, but I can’t help it in regard to so
important a matter, calling for so much energy and hurry. You
have voluntarily abandoned the position ensured you by your
sex and great advantages in order to play the rôle of a great
and high-minded statesman. There are discomforts and
disadvantages attached to this new estate, and it is my
misfortune to have to bring this home to you. I can but
console myself with the thought of your goodness and of the
great cause which we have embraced and which is the
subject of all our anxieties. May God prosper it, and may it
bring you glory and me happiness!”
In the mouth of any one but Cormier these protestations would
arouse one’s distrust; but what we already know of him, and what we
are to learn presently of his later conduct, serve to reassure us in
regard to him.
In spite of all his good will, however, Cormier is constantly being
interrupted in his work. Now it is the health of his son, Achille, which
disquiets him, now he is a prey to terrible attacks of gout which will
give him no rest.
“I have been bent double for two nights and a day,” he
writes to his friend on September 1, 1794, “without being able
to change my position. It takes four persons to move this
great body of mine. I am a little more free from pain at
present, and I take up my pen at the earliest possible moment
to send you this explanation of my silence.”
It is at this moment that Louis de Frotté, who has been a little in
the background, comes again to the front of the stage. Since his
arrival in London, the young officer, without neglecting the society of
the Royalist Committee, has been spending most of his time in the
offices of the English Government, endeavouring to impress upon
Windham “the desirability of carrying out his ideas, and the ease with
which they may be brought to fruit, as he has made up his mind to
devote himself to them.” One project he has specially at heart, that of
receiving some kind of official mission from the Government which
will enable him to land in Normandy with adequate powers and to
give new life there to the Royalist insurrection. Should he succeed,
the help he “would thus obtain would lead to the execution of our
cherished plans,” he writes to Lady Atkyns, and she will reap at last
“all the honour that will be due to the generous sacrifices that she
has made.”
But in his interview with the Minister he does not think it necessary
to speak of their relations with the Temple. This secret is too
important for him to confide it to any one. “Too many people know it
already.” These words, hinting a delicate reproach, are meant,
perhaps, to put his fair friend upon her guard. Perhaps they mean
more than that. Read in the light of subsequent letters from the
young émigré, they serve as a key to his private feelings—to his
dislike at having to share her confidence with so many others, and to
his jealousy later of the man who has so large a place in her heart.
These feelings, still slight, soon become more marked, and presently
we find that they are reciprocated.
For the time being, however, both Frotté and Cormier worked with
the same ardour at their allotted tasks. Frotté, proceeding with his
negotiation with Windham, counted now upon support from Puisaye,
his famous compatriot recently come to England. Cormier writes to
her to report that, despite apparent dilatoriness, their agents have
not been inactive.
“I have received letters through the captain,” he tells her on
October 1, 1794, “which satisfy me, brief as they are. Here is
what they have to tell me: ‘Be at ease in your mind; they
imagine they are working for themselves, and really they are
working for us, and we shall have the profit. Be patient and
don’t lose trust.’ The captain had orders to return at once to-
day, but he will not start until to-night or to-morrow morning,
and we have news by the packet-boats meanwhile that order
reigns in Paris.”
Day after day passed by, bringing new reports, none of them
positive, of the death of the little Dauphin. Lady Atkyns knew not
what to make of the situation. Presently—eight days after the last—
there came another letter from Cormier, to reassure her.
“I have great faith in your judgment,” he declares, “and your
presentiments are almost always right, but I really do not think
that you have ground for disquiet now. Three agents of ours
at the Temple are either at work silently or else they are in
hiding. All we know for certain is that they have not been
guillotined, as they have not been mentioned in any of the
lists.”
His wife was still unfortunately detained, but there was prospect of
her being shortly at liberty, and then she would write to him. If the
agents had taken it upon themselves to modify their project—the one
thing that was to be feared—they could not possibly have succeeded
in sending particulars yet of this. But an explanation of the mystery
was soon to be forthcoming.
“The Dauphin is not to be got out by main force or in a balloon,”
Cormier had once written. Any attempt at carrying him off under the
very nose of his warders and of the delegates of the Commune
would have been madness. All idea of such a rescue had long been
put aside. How, then, was the matter to be dealt with? By such
means as circumstances might dictate—by finding a substitute for
the young prisoner, a mute who should play the rôle until an
occasion should offer for smuggling away the real Dauphin,
concealed meanwhile somewhere in the upper chambers of the
Tower. Mme. Atkyns did not herself approve of this plan.
“I was strongly opposed to it,” she notes at the foot of a
letter from Cormier dated June 3, 1795, “as I pointed out to
my friends that it might have an undesirable result, and that
those who were being entrusted with the carrying off of the
Dauphin, after getting the money, might declare afterwards
that he had not been got out of the Temple.”
She saw reason to fear that at the last moment she would be done
out of the recompense of all her efforts, and that the Royal child
would not be entrusted to her care.
However, it was clear that once the plan was agreed upon it was
necessary in order to carry it out to secure the help of the gaoler
Laurent, who had had the Dauphin under his charge during the last
four months. Laurent’s complicity may be traced through the
documents bearing upon the whole episode.
Let us examine first of all Laurent’s own famous letters, the first of
which, dated November 7, 1794, synchronizes with the events we
have been following.
It is well known that only copies of these letters are in existence—
the originals have never been discovered. They were published first
in a book which appeared in 1835, Le Véritable Duc de Normandie,
the work of an adherent of the pretender, Nauendorff, Bourbon-
Leblanc, whose real name was Gabriel de Bourbon-Russet, dit
Leblanc. From the fact of the originals being missing, the authenticity
of these letters has long been a matter for debate. A close
examination of them, side by side with all the other documents upon
which we have come in the course of our researches, results, we
think, in justifying our belief in their genuineness.
Cormier, then, was not mistaken in supposing that his agents had
modified their plan. The letter in which he confided his suspicion to
Lady Atkyns was dated October 8, 1794. On the last day of the same
month he wrote to her again:—
“I have to thank you cordially for your kind letter of
yesterday. I have had no time to answer it properly, not
because of the gout, for that has left me. In fact, my mind is
so fully occupied that I have no time to trouble about any kind
of malady, and am, in fact, at my wits’ end with excitement.
However, I must just send you this brief note in haste (for it is
just post time) to bid you not merely be at rest but to rejoice! I
am able to assure you positively that the Master and his
belongings are saved! There is no doubt about it. But say
nothing of this, keep it absolutely secret, do not let it be
suspected even by your bearing. Moreover, nothing will
happen to-day, or to-morrow, or the day after, nor for more
than a month, but I am quite sure of what I say, and I was
never more at my ease in my own mind. I can give you no
details now, and can only tell you all when we meet; but you
can share my feeling of security. I am glad to say I have good
news of my wife, but I must continue to keep a sharp look out
all round me.”
This letter evidently alludes to what had happened at the Temple.
The young Dauphin, we may conclude, was halfway on his road to
liberty. Lodged in the garrets of the Temple tower, and with the little
mute as his substitute down below, he was not yet out of peril. But
an important step had been taken towards the ultimate goal.
It seemed clear that Laurent, l’homme de Barras, was having a
share in this, and had at least rendered possible the execution of the
project. The letter which he wrote eight days later to a general,
whose identity has never been established, bore out exactly what
Cormier had said; here it is:—
“General,
“Your letter of the 6th came too late, for your first plan had
been carried out already—there was no time to lose. To-
morrow a new warder is to enter upon his duties—a
Republican named Gommier, a good fellow from what B——
tells me, but I have no confidence in such people. I shall find it
very difficult to convey food to our P——. But I shall take care
of him; you need not be anxious. The assassins have been
duped, and the new municipal people have no idea that the
little mute has been substituted for the Dauphin. The thing to
be done now is to get him out of this cursed tower—but how?
B—— tells me he cannot do anything on account of the way
he is watched. If there were to be a long delay I should be
uneasy about his health, for there is not much air in his
oubliette—the bon Dieu would not find him there if he were
not almighty! He has promised me to die rather than betray
himself, and I have reason to believe that he would. His sister
knows nothing; I thought it prudent to pass the little mute off
on her as her real brother. Meanwhile, this poor little fellow
seems quite happy, and plays his part so well, all
unconsciously, that the new guard is convinced that he is
merely refusing to speak. So there is no danger. Please send
back our faithful messenger to me, as I have need of your
help. Follow the advice he will convey to you orally, for that is
the only way to our success.
“The Temple Tower, November 7, 1794.”
The contents of this letter, taken together with its date, accord in a
remarkable way with Cormier’s communication to Lady Atkyns.
There is another striking argument in favour of the authenticity of
Laurent’s letters. When they were produced by the pretender
Nauendorff, they were for the most part in complete contradiction to
all that was known of the Dauphin’s captivity and the testimonies of
those connected with it. Certain facts to which they made allusion
were known to nobody. Thus Laurent states clearly on November 7
that a new warder—whom he calls Gommier instead of Gomin—is to
come to the Temple next day and to be associated with him. Now, in
1835, when this letter was published, what was known of Gomin?
Next to nothing, and the little that was known did not tally with
Laurent’s statements. Simeon Despreaux, author of a book entitled
“Louis XVIII.,” published in 1817, did not even know of Gomin’s
existence. Gomin himself made a formal declaration before the
magistrates that he entered the Temple about July 27, 1794, before
Laurent was there at all. Many years later it was found, on examining
all the documents referring to the Temple that were kept in the
National Archives, that Laurent’s statements were quite correct.
Some days after this letter to Lady Atkyns, Cormier informed
Frotté of the great news, in the course of a visit paid him by the
latter.
“I know all about it,” he said, according to Frotté’s account
of the interview afterwards in a letter to Lady Atkyns,
“because they could do nothing without me; but everything is
now ready, and I give you my word that the King and France
are saved. All the necessary steps have been taken. I can tell
you no more.... Do not question me, don’t try to go further into
the matter. Already I have told you more than I had any right
to, and from Mr. Pitt down to myself there is now no one who
knows more about it than you do. So I beg of you to keep it
absolutely to yourself.”
From November 8, then, Laurent is no longer sole guardian of the
young Prince. His duties are henceforth shared with Gomin. What
kind of relations subsisted between the two? It is hard to say, for it is
even more difficult to find out the truth about the Temple during the
subsequent months than during those which went before.
We find one innovation introduced during these months which is
worth noting. It is no longer the delegates of the Commune who have
to pay the daily visit to the prison, but the representatives of the
Comités Civils of the forty-eight divisions of Paris. Now, among all
those who visited the Dauphin none left any record, with one
exception, to which we shall come presently. All that we can learn
from Gomin’s own statements, so often contradictory, is that
throughout the period the child placed under his care uttered no
word. The warder takes no further notice of this strange conduct,
Laurent having satisfied him that if the Dauphin will not open his
mouth it is because of the infamous deposition against his mother
that he was made to sign. It is unnecessary to point out how
improbable was this explanation, the Dauphin’s examination having
taken place on October 6, 1793, and Laurent not having come to the
Temple until July 29, 1794. Gomin, however, asked no further
questions, and Laurent experiencing no further anxiety in regard to
him, sought what means he could of bringing about the desired end.
Six weeks pass, however, without further progress, and then on
November 5 Laurent hears, to his great satisfaction, that his master
has become a member of the Committee of Public Safety. This new
office would surely enable the general to carry out his plan and
relieve the anxious guardian from the heavy responsibility lying on
his shoulders.
It was, therefore, not without surprise that on December 19
Laurent and Gomin saw three Commissioners of the Committee of
Public Safety make their way into the prison and up the stairway of
the Tower to the Dauphin’s cell. These three visitors—Harmand la
Meuse, Matthieu, and Reverchon—asked to see the Dauphin, so
that they might question him and satisfy themselves as to the way in
which he was kept under supervision. At a time when there were so
many rumours current about the Temple, and when rescues were
openly talked about, when every day brought forth some new
sensational report, it was only natural that the Convention, in order to
silence these rumours and calm public opinion, should institute an
official inspection of the prison in this way.
In a work which he published twenty years later, Harmand de la
Meuse tells us all that we know of this visit, and of the impression
made upon the delegates by the little mute ushered into their
presence. Suffice it here to record that this narrative (written with an
eye to the good graces of Louis XVIII.) makes it quite clear that it
was a mute whom they saw, and that all efforts to extract replies
were quite in vain.
Harmand repeats the explanation of this persistent silence which
had been furnished by Laurent. He ignores the fact that the Dauphin
had talked with the Simons, had been interviewed by Barras, and
had been heard to speak on several other occasions.
Assuredly, Harmand and his colleagues—his narrative allows it to
be seen on every page—very soon realized that they were not in the
presence of the Dauphin. This is proved by the fact that, despite the
very distinct terms of the resolution of the Committee entrusting them
with this mission, and the object of which was to dispel the rumours
current in Paris, “they decided they would make no public report, but
would confine themselves to a secret record of their experience to
the Committee itself.”
However natural and intelligible all this may have been to those
who knew what was in the mind of the Convention and the
exigencies of the situation at this period, to Laurent it was a matter of
stupefaction. Barras had sent him no warning, and his position was
getting more and more difficult, for his colleague, who had, of
course, to be taken into his confidence, was beginning to be nervous
about participating any further in the intrigue, and might betray him
any day. At last he loses patience, and expresses himself as follows
to his friend the unknown general:—
“I have just received your letter. Alas, your request is
impossible. It was easy enough to get the ‘victim’ upstairs, but
to get him down again is for the moment impossible, for so
sharp a watch is being kept and I am afraid of being betrayed.
The Committee of Public Safety sent those monsters Matthieu
and Reverchon, as you know, to establish the fact that our
mute is really the son of Louis XVI. General, what does it all
mean? I don’t know what to make of B——’s conduct. He
talks now of getting rid of our mute and replacing him by
another boy who is ill. Were you aware of this? Is it not a trap
of some kind. I am getting very much alarmed, for great care
is being taken not to let any one into the prison of our mute,
lest the substitution should become known, for if any one
examined him they would discover that he was deaf from
birth, and in consequence naturally mute. But to substitute
some one else for him! The new substitute will talk, and will
do both for our half-rescued P—— and for myself with him.
Please send back our messenger at once with your written
reply.
“The Temple Tower, February 5, 1795.”
Let us note the date of this letter—February 5. Therefore the visit
referred to must have taken place before February 5. Now, Eckard,
one of the earliest biographers of the Dauphin, having in the first
edition of his book made the date December 2, 1794, altered it
afterwards to February 13, 1795. De Beauchesne makes it February
27. Chantelauze, February 26.
On referring to the original documents at our disposal, however,
we find that Laurent’s letter is borne out. In his book, Le dernier roi
legitime de France, M. Provins shows that the visit must have taken
place between November 5, 1794, and January 4, 1795, as it was
only during this period that the three delegates were all members of
the Committee. A recent discovery of documents in the National
Archives establishes the fact that it took place on December 19,
1794.
FOOTNOTES:
[66] G. Lenôtre, Vielles Maisons, Vieux Papiers, 2nd series.
[67] A curious plan of this house is to be found at the
Bibliothèque Nationale, Print Department, Paris topography, the
Madeleine quarter.
[68] The decree of divorce of Marie-Anne-Suzanne-Rosalie
Butler, forty-nine years old, born at La Rochelle, resident in Paris,
Rue Basse, section des Piques, daughter of Jean-Baptiste Butler
and of Suzanne Bonfils; and Yves-Jean-François-Marie Cormier,
aged fifty-six, born at Rennes, department d’Ile-et-Vilaine, son of
the late Yves-Gilles Cormier and of Marie-Anne-Françoise
Egasse.
[69] V. Delaporte, article already quoted, Études, October,
1893, p. 265.
[70] Unpublished Papers of Lady Atkyns.
[71] Note in Lady Atkyns’ own handwriting at the end of a letter
of Cormier’s, dated March 24, 1794.
[72] M. M. de Corbin (note on the letter in Lady Atkyns’
handwriting).
[73] Henri Provins, Le dernier roi légitime de France, Paris,
1889, 2 vols.
[74] Note in Lady Atkyns’ handwriting at the foot of a letter from
Cormier, dated June 3, 1795.
CHAPTER V
THE MYSTERY OF THE TEMPLE (continued)
Meanwhile the feelings of jealousy and suspicion which had

sprung up between Cormier, still Lady Atkyns’s principal lieutenant
and confidant, and the Chevalier de Frotté were becoming more and
more marked. At the beginning of October, 1794, Cormier learns of a
correspondence in progress between Lady Atkyns and a person
whom he imagines to be his rival (but who turns out to be merely the
“little baron”), and his ill-humour breaks out in the form of
reproaches.
“Chance has willed that I should become acquainted with
the fact that some one has been getting up a correspondence
with you,” he writes to Lady Atkyns, “in such a way as to
prevent me from hearing of it.... You will admit that I am
justified in assuming there are reasons why this
correspondence is being kept secret from me.”
But he proceeds to assure Lady Atkyns that she still retains all his
admiration and respect, and to protest that he only acquaints her
with the discovery that he has made because of his attachment to
her. Filled with mistrust of Frotté, Cormier withholds from him
particulars as to the progress of affairs at the Temple, and only
vouchsafes his information now and again in vague terms. “I refused
to give Frotté the names of the agents,” he wrote to Lady Atkyns
some months later. “Please remember that. I shall always be proud
of that.”
It is not astonishing that Frotté should show some surprise at the
way in which he was being treated, though he was prevented by
other causes of annoyance—his failure to get any satisfaction out of
the British Government and the repeated postponements of his
departure—from taking his position in this respect too much to heart.
Lady Atkyns herself was keeping him at a distance at this time and
avoiding him when she came to London. When he asks for an
interview, she refuses on the pretext of her widowed state and public
opinion.
“I wished to avoid seeing or writing M. de Frotté,” she
herself records at a later period, “as I was not in a position to
talk to him about the means being taken for the rescue of the
King.”
However, on the eve of setting out from England into the unknown,
the Chevalier makes one more effort to see her.
“You do not write to me,” he begins his letter (December 27,
1794), “and I should be angry with you if I could be angry with
any one, now that I have all my wishes fulfilled. In three days
everything has changed, and I have nothing more to ask for in
England. The longed-for moment has come. P[uisaye] wants
me. I go with him, and all my requests are granted. We start
on Thursday at latest. It is important that I should see you. I
beg of you to set out at once and spend twenty-four hours
here, but without any one knowing of your journey, lest its
object should be suspected. Try to be here by Monday
evening, and let me know where I could see you.”
This time the appeal was too strong to be resisted. It was in the
depths of winter, and the letter arrived at Ketteringham in the
evening; but Lady Atkyns hired a post-chaise at once, and set out a
few hours later, and travelled all night in stormy weather to London,
arriving there in the morning. She seems, however, to have resisted
the temptation to let Frotté into the secret of the Temple doings.
Perhaps she had a presentiment that the Chevalier, for all his
protestations of fidelity now, would fall away later and pass into the
camp of some other pretendant to the throne.
We have spoken already of the endless intrigues which were
being hatched round the British Government by the hordes of
émigrés and broken-down exiles from the Continent. For these
gentry, mostly penniless and forced to beg their livelihood, no
resource was too base by which they could get into favour with the
Ministers. Besides scheming in a thousand different fashions against
the common enemy, the Revolution, they stuck at nothing in their
efforts to throw suspicion upon each other. The little court which had
gathered round the Comte D’Artois on the Continent was also a
hotbed of plots and schemes, the influence of which made itself felt
in London. Every one spied on every one else.
In the midst of this world of intruders a sort of industrial association
came into being in the course of the year 1794, for the purpose of
inundating France with false paper-money. It was hoped that in this
way a severe blow would be dealt at the hated Jacobins and their
friends. These nefarious proceedings soon became known, and
called forth the indignation of some of the better class of émigrés,
among them the honest Cormier.
His position among his compatriots was not at this time of the
best. They had no love for this man of firm character, faithful to his
principles and incapable of lending his countenance to such doings.
He himself soon came to realize this.
“One doesn’t know whom to trust,” he wrote to Lady Atkyns.
“I am sure some one has furnished the Government with a
long report upon my projects. I am on the track of the man
who I think is guilty. There is no reason for you to be anxious
on the subject. I shall soon know what has been done, and
both the traitor and the Government shall be outwitted.”
About this time a flood of memorials of all sorts poured in by
mysterious channels upon the British Government, maintaining that
“the general desire of the French was for a change in the ruling
family.” Cormier discovered that they all were traceable to the same
source, and we find him declaring energetically that “the
blasphemous scoundrels” who were responsible for them all
belonged to one clique.
His indignation, in which he found few sympathizers, made him a
number of enemies, and the disfavour with which he was already
regarded in French circles soon changed into downright hatred. The
fact that he denounced the false paper-money to the British
Government—and not in vain—was a cause of special bitterness

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TOM SHORT is an Associate Professor

1 The Role of Statistics and the Data Analysis Process 1

2 Collecting Data Sensibly 28

3 Graphical Methods for Describing Data 77

4 Numerical Methods for Describing Data 148

5 Summarizing Bivariate Data 197

7 Random Variables and Probability Distributions 343

8 Sampling Variability and Sampling Distributions 427

9 Estimation Using a Single Sample 453

10 Hypothesis Testing Using a Single Sample 507

11 Comparing Two Populations or Treatments 576

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14 Multiple Regression Analysis 730

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16 Nonparametric (Distribution-Free) Statistical Methods 16-1

Appendix: Statistical Tables 785

Answers to Selected Odd-Numbered Exercises 805

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Chapt e r 1 The Role of Statistics and the Data Analysis Process 1

Chapt e r 2 Collecting Data Sensibly 28

Chapt e r 3 Graphical Methods for Describing Data 77

Technology Notes 139

Chapt e r 4 Numerical Methods for Describing Data 148

Chapt e r 5 Summarizing Bivariate Data 197

Chapt e r 6 Probability 277

Chapt e r 7 Random Variables and Probability Distributions 343

7.5 Binomial and Geometric Distributions 371

C ha p te r 8 Sampling Variability and Sampling Distributions 427

C ha p te r 9 Estimation Using a Single Sample 453

C ha p te r 10 Hypothesis Testing Using a Single Sample 507

10.8 Randomization Test for a Population Mean (Optional) 562

Chapt e r 11 Comparing Two Populations or Treatments 576

Chapt e r 12 The Analysis of Categorical Data and Goodness-of-Fit

Chapt e r 13 Simple Linear Regression and Correlation:

Chapt e r 14 Multiple Regression Analysis 730

Chapt e r 15 Analysis of Variance 759

Chapt e r 16 Nonparametric (Distribution-Free) Statistical Methods 16-1

Appendix: Statistical Tables 785

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