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Fourth Edition

Modern
Compressible Flow
Wi t h H i s t o r i c a l Pe r s p e c t i ve

John D. Anderson
Modern Compressible Flow
With Historical Perspective
Modern Compressible Flow
With Historical Perspective

Fourth Edition

John D. Anderson, Jr.

Curator for Aerodynamics
National Air and Space Museum
Smithsonian Institution, and
Professor Emeritus of Aerospace Engineering
University of Maryland, College Park
MODERN COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
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 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

John D. Anderson, Jr., was born in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, on October 1, 1937.

He attended the University of Florida, graduating in 1959 with High Honors and
a Bachelor of Aeronautical Engineering Degree. From 1959 to 1962, he was a
Lieutenant and Task Scientist at the Aerospace Research Laboratory at Wright-
Patterson Air Force Base. From 1962 to 1966, he attended The Ohio State Uni-
versity under National Science Foundation and NASA Fellowships, graduating
with a Ph.D. in Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering. In 1966, he joined
the U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory as Chief of the Hypersonic Group. In 1973,
he became Chairman of the Department of Aerospace Engineering at the University
of Maryland, and since 1980 has been a professor of Aerospace Engineering at
Maryland. In 1982, he was designated a Distinguished Scholar/Teacher by the
University. During 1986–1987, while on sabbatical from the university, Dr. Ander-
son occupied the Charles Lindbergh chair at the National Air and Space Museum
of the Smithsonian Institution. He continued with the Air and Space Museum one
day each week as its Special Assistant for Aerodynamics, doing research and writ-
ing on the history of aerodynamics. In addition to his position as professor of
aerospace engineering, in 1993 he was made a full faculty member of the Com-
mittee for the History and Philosophy of Science and in 1996 an affiliate member
of the History Department at the University of Maryland. In 1996 he became the
Glenn L. Martin Distinguished Professor for Education in Aerospace Engineering.
In 1999 he retired from the University of Maryland and was appointed Professor
Emeritus. He is currently the Curator for Aerodynamics at the National Air and
Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution, and Glenn L. Martin Institute Professor
of Engineering at the University of Maryland.
Dr. Anderson has published twelve books: Gasdynamic Lasers: An Introduc-
tion, Academic Press (1976), and under McGraw-Hill, Introduction to Flight
(1978, 1985, 1989, 2000, 2005, 2008, 2012, 2016), Modern Compressible Flow
(1982, 1990, 2003, 2021); Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (1984, 1991, 2001,
2007, 2011, 2017); Hypersonic and High Temperature Gas Dynamics (1989); and
under the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (2006, 2019), Com-
putational Fluid Dynamics: The Basics with Applications (1995); A History of
Aerodynamics and Its Impact on Flying Machines, Cambridge University Press
(1997); Aircraft Performance and Design, McGraw-Hill (1999); The Airplane: A
History of Its Technology, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (2002);
Inventing Flight: The Wright Brothers and Their Predecessors, Johns Hopkins
University Press (2004); X-15: The World’s Fastest Rocket Plane and the Pilots
Who Ushered in the Space Age (with Richard Passman), Zenith Press (2014); and
The Grand Designers, Cambridge University Press (2018). He is the author of

v
vi About the Author

over 130 papers in radiative gasdynamics, re-entry aerothermodynamics, gasdy-

namic and chemical lasers, computational fluid dynamics, applied aerodynamics,
hypersonic flow, and the history of aeronautics. Dr. Anderson is in Who’s Who
in America. He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering, an Honor-
ary Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), and
a Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society, London. He is also a Fellow of the
Washington Academy of Sciences, and a member of Tau Beta Pi, Sigma Tau, Phi
Kappa Phi, Phi Eta Sigma, the American Society for Engineering Education, the
History of Science Society, and the Society for the History of Technology. In 1988,
he was elected as Vice President of the AIAA for Education. In 1989, he was
awarded the John Leland Atwood Award jointly by the American Society for
Engineering Education and the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
“for the lasting influence of his recent contributions to aerospace engineering edu-
cation.” In 1995, he was awarded the AIAA Pendray Aerospace Literature Award
“for writing undergraduate and graduate textbooks in aerospace engineering which
have received worldwide acclaim for their readability and clarity of presentation,
including historical content.” In 1996, he was elected Vice President of the AIAA
for Publications. More recently, he was honored by the AIAA with its 2000 von
Karman Lectureship in Astronautics and with its History Book Award for 2002
for A History of Aerodynamics. In 2002, he was awarded the position of Honorary
Fellow of the AIAA, the Institute’s highest award. In 2012, he received the inau-
gural Hypersonic Systems and Technology Award from the AIAA. In 2017, the
National Aeronautic Association awarded him the Frank G. Brewer Trophy,
awarded annually “to an individual, a group of individuals, or an organization for
significant contributions of enduring value to aerospace education in the United
States.” In 2018, he was awarded the Benjamin G. Lamme Meritorious Achieve-
ment Medal by the College of Engineering of The Ohio State University.
Dr. Anderson is active and known for his professional and educational activ-
ities both nationally and internationally. He has given more than 40 short courses
to the major aerospace companies, the Air Force Academy, the government, and
in Europe at Rolls-Royce in England and the von Karman Institute in Belgium.
This includes a pioneering hypersonic aerodynamic course jointly sponsored by the
AIAA and the University of Maryland and televised live nationally by satellite. In
terms of the publishing world, in 1987 McGraw-Hill chose Dr. Anderson to be the
senior consulting editor on the McGraw-Hill Series in Aeronautical and Astronau-
tical Engineering. Recently, McGraw-Hill officially named the Anderson Series,
with the statement: “John D. Anderson’s textbooks in aeronautical and aerospace
engineering have been a cornerstone of McGraw-Hill’s success for over two
decades. McGraw-Hill proudly celebrates the impact that the Anderson Series has
had on aerospace engineers and on students past and present.”
CONTENTS

Preface to the Fourth Edition   xiii Chapter 3

One-Dimensional Flow 65
Chapter 1 3.1 Introduction 67
Compressible Flow—Some History and 3.2 One-Dimensional Flow Equations 71
Introductory Thoughts 1
3.3 Speed of Sound and Mach Number 74
1.1 Historical High-Water Marks 9 3.4 Some Conveniently Defined Flow
1.2 Definition of Compressible Parameters 78
Flow 12 3.5 Alternative Forms of the Energy Equation 78
1.3 Flow Regimes 15 3.6 Normal Shock Relations 86
1.4 A Brief Review of Thermodynamics 19 3.7 Hugoniot Equation 98
1.5 Aerodynamic Forces on 3.8 One-Dimensional Flow with
a Body 33 Heat Addition 102
1.6 Modern Compressible Flow 36 3.9 One-Dimensional Flow with Friction 111
1.7 Summary 38 3.10 Historical Note: Sound Waves and
 Problems 38 Shock Waves 118
3.11 Summary 121
 Problems 124
Chapter 2
Integral Forms of the Chapter 4
Conservation Equations for Oblique Shock and Expansion
Inviscid Flows 41 Waves 127
2.1 Philosophy 43 4.1 Introduction 129
2.2 Approach 43 4.2 Source of Oblique Waves 131
2.3 Continuity Equation 45 4.3 Oblique Shock Relations 133
2.4 Momentum Equation 46 4.4 Supersonic Flow Over Wedges
2.5 A Comment 49 and Cones 144
2.6 Energy Equation 50 4.5 Shock Polar 149
2.7 Final Comment 53 4.6 Regular Reflection from a
2.8 An Application of the Momentum Equation: Solid Boundary 151
Jet Propulsion Engine Thrust 54 4.7 Comment on Flow Through Multiple
2.9 Summary 63 Shock Systems 157
 Problems 64 4.8 Pressure-Deflection Diagrams 158

vii
viii Contents

4.9 Intersection of Shocks of Opposite 6.3 The Substantial Derivative 244

Families 159 6.4 Differential Equations in
4.10 Intersection of Shocks of the Nonconservation Form 247
Same Family 161 6.5 The Entropy Equation 253
4.11 Mach Reflection 163 6.6 Crocco’s Theorem: A Relation Between
4.12 Detached Shock Wave in Front of the Thermodynamics and Fluid Kinematics
a Blunt Body 165 of a Compressible Flow 254
4.13 Three-Dimensional Shock Waves 166 6.7 Historical Note: Early Development of the
4.14 Prandtl–Meyer Expansion Waves 167 Conservation Equations 256
4.15 Shock–Expansion Theory 174 6.8 Historical Note: Leonhard
4.16 Historical Note: Prandtl’s Early Research on Euler—The Man 258
Supersonic Flows and the Origin of the 6.9 Summary 260
Prandtl–Meyer Theory 183  Problems 261
4.17 Summary 186
 Problems 187 Chapter 7
Unsteady Wave Motion 263
Chapter 5 7.1 Introduction 265
Quasi-One-Dimensional Flow 191 7.2 Moving Normal Shock Waves 268
5.1 Introduction 195 7.3 Reflected Shock Wave 275
5.2 Governing Equations 196 7.4 Physical Picture of Wave Propagation 279
5.3 Area–Velocity Relation 199 7.5 Elements of Acoustic Theory 281
5.4 Nozzles 202 7.6 Finite (Nonlinear) Waves 287
5.5 Diffusers 218 7.7 Incident and Reflected
5.6 Wave Reflection from a Free Boundary 226 Expansion Waves 293
5.7 Summary 228 7.8 Shock Tube Relations 299
5.8 Historical Note: De Laval—A Biographical 7.9 Finite Compression Waves 300
Sketch 228 7.10 Summary 302
5.9 Historical Note: Stodola and the First Definitive  Problems 302
Supersonic Nozzle Experiments 230
5.10 Summary 232 Chapter 8
 Problems 234 General Conservation Equations Revisited:
Velocity Potential Equation 305
Chapter 6 8.1 Introduction 306
Differential Conservation Equations 8.2 Irrotational Flow 306
for Inviscid Flows 239 8.3 The Velocity Potential Equation 310
6.1 Introduction 241 8.4 Historical Note: Origin of the Concepts of
6.2 Differential Equations in Fluid Rotation and Velocity Potential 314
Conservation Form 242  Problems 316
 ix
Contents

Chapter 9 11.3 Determination of the Characteristic Lines:

Linearized Flow 317 Two-Dimensional Irrotational Flow 388
11.4 Determination of the Compatibility
9.1 Introduction 319
Equations 393
9.2 Linearized Velocity Potential Equation 320
11.5 Unit Processes 394
9.3 Linearized Pressure Coefficient 324
11.6 Regions of Influence and Domains
9.4 Linearized Subsonic Flow 326 of Dependence 398
9.5 Improved Compressibility Corrections 335 11.7 Supersonic Nozzle Design 399
9.6 Linearized Supersonic Flow 337 11.8 Method of Characteristics for Axisymmetric
9.7 Critical Mach Number 344 Irrotational Flow 405
9.8 Summary 350 11.9 Method of Characteristics for Rotational
9.9 Historical Note: The 1935 Volta Conference— (Nonisentropic and Nonadiabatic)
Threshold to Modern Compressible Flow with Flow 409
Associated Events Before and After 351 11.10 Three-Dimensional Method of
9.10 Historical Note: Prandtl—A Biographical Characteristics 411
Sketch 356 11.11 Introduction to Finite Differences 413
9.11 Historical Note: Glauert—A Biographical 11.12 Maccormack’s Technique 419
Sketch 359 11.13 Boundary Conditions 420
9.12 Summary 360 11.14 Stability Criterion: The CFL
 Problems 362 Criterion 422
11.15 Shock Capturing versus Shock Fitting;
Conservation versus Nonconservation Forms
Chapter 10 of the Equations 424
Conical Flow 365 11.16 Comparison of Characteristics and
10.1 Introduction 366 Finite-Difference Solutions with
Application to the Space Shuttle 425
10.2 Physical Aspects of Conical Flow 368
11.17 Historical Note: The First Practical
10.3 Quantitative Formulation (After Taylor
Application of the Method of Characteristics
and Maccoll) 368
to Supersonic Flow 428
10.4 Numerical Procedure 373
11.18 Summary 430
10.5 Physical Aspects of Supersonic Flow
 Problems 431
Over Cones 374
 Problems 378
Chapter 12
The Time-Marching Technique: With
Chapter 11 Application to Supersonic Blunt Bodies
Numerical Techniques for Steady and Nozzles 433
Supersonic Flow 379 12.1 Introduction to the Philosophy of Time-
11.1 An Introduction to Computational Marching Solutions for Steady Flows 436
Fluid Dynamics 382 12.2 Stability Criterion 442
11.2 Philosophy of the Method 12.3 The Blunt Body Problem—Qualitative
of Characteristics 385 Aspects and Limiting Characteristics 443
x Contents
12.4 Newtonian Theory 445
12.5 Time-Marching Solution of the Blunt
Body Problem 447
12.6 Results for the Blunt Body Flowfield 452
12.7 Time-Marching Solution of Two-
Dimensional Nozzle Flows 455
12.8 Other Aspects of the Time-Marching
Technique; Artificial Viscosity 457
12.9 Historical Note: Newton’s Sine‑Squared
Law—Some Further Comments 460
12.10 Summary 462
 Problems 463
Chapter 13
Three-Dimensional Flow 465
13.1 Introduction 466
13.2 Cones at Angle of Attack: Qualitative
Aspects 468
13.3 Cones at Angle of Attack: Quantitative
Aspects 476
13.4 Blunt-Nosed Bodies at Angle
of Attack 486
13.5 Stagnation and Maximum Entropy
Streamlines 496
13.6 Comments and Summary 497
 Problems 498
Chapter 14
Transonic Flow 501
14.1 Introduction 504
14.2 Some Physical Aspects of Transonic
Flows 505
14.3 Some Theoretical Aspects of Transonic
Flows; Transonic Similarity 509
14.4 Solutions of the Small-Perturbation Velocity
Potential Equation: The Murman and
Cole Method 514
14.5 Solutions of the Full Velocity Potential
Equation 520
14.6 Solutions of the Euler Equations 529
14.7 Historical Note: Transonic Flight—Its
Evolution, Challenges, Failures, and
Successes 536
14.8 Summary and Comments 548
 Problem 549
Chapter 15
Hypersonic Flow 551
15.1 Introduction 553
15.2 Hypersonic Flow—What Is It? 554
15.3 Hypersonic Shock Wave Relations 559
15.4 A Local Surface Inclination Method:
Newtonian Theory 563
15.5 Mach Number Independence 569
15.6 The Hypersonic Small-Disturbance
Equations 574
15.7 Hypersonic Similarity 578
15.8 Computational Fluid Dynamics Applied
to Hypersonic Flow: Some Comments 585
15.9 Hypersonic Vehicle Considerations 587
15.10 Historical Note 591
15.11 Summary and Final Comments 599
 Problems 599
Chapter 16
Properties of High-Temperature Gases 601
16.1 Introduction 603
16.2 Microscopic Description of Gases 606
16.3 Counting the Number of Microstates
for a Given Macrostate 614
16.4 The Most Probable Macrostate 616
16.5 The Limiting Case: Boltzmann
Distribution 618
16.6 Evaluation of Thermodynamic Properties in
Terms of the Partition Function 620
16.7 Evaluation of the Partition Function in Terms
of T and V 622
 xi
Contents

16.8 Practical Evaluation of Thermodynamic 17.10 Nonequilibrium Normal Shock Wave

Properties for a Single Species 626 Flows 690
16.9 The Equilibrium Constant 630 17.11 Nonequilibrium Quasi-One-Dimensional
16.10 Chemical Equilibrium—Qualitative Nozzle Flows 696
Discussion 634 17.12 Summary 705
16.11 Practical Calculation of the Equilibrium  Problems 705
Composition 635
16.12 Equilibrium Gas Mixture Thermodynamic
Properties 637 Appendix A
16.13 Introduction to Nonequilibrium Table A.1 Isentropic Flow Properties 707
Systems 644 Table A.2 Normal Shock Properties 712
16.14 Vibrational Rate Equation 645 Table A.3 One-Dimensional Flow with
16.15 Chemical Rate Equations 651 Heat Addition 716
16.16 Chemical Nonequilibrium in Table A.4 One-Dimensional Flow
High-Temperature Air 655 with Friction 721
16.17 Summary of Chemical Nonequilibrium 657 Table A.5 Prandtl–Meyer Function
and Mach Angle 726
16.18 Chapter Summary 657
 Problems 658
Appendix B
Chapter 17 An Illustration and Exercise of
High-Temperature Flows: Computational Fluid Dynamics 728
Basic Examples 661  he Equations 728
T
17.1 Introduction to Local Thermodynamic and Intermediate Numerical Results:
Chemical Equilibrium 663 The First Few Steps 741
17.2 Equilibrium Normal Shock Final Numerical Results:
Wave Flows 664 The Steady-State Solution 746
17.3 Equilibrium Quasi-One-Dimensional  ummary 757
S
Nozzle Flows 669 Isentropic Nozzle Flow—Subsonic∕Supersonic
17.4 Frozen and Equilibrium Flows: ­(Nonconservation Form) 757
Specific Heats 675
17.5 Equilibrium Speed of Sound 680
17.6 On the Use of γ = cp∕cv 684 Appendix C
17.7 Nonequilibrium Flows: Species Continuity Oblique Shock Properties: γ = 1.4 761
Equation 685
17.8 Rate Equation for Vibrationally References 763
Nonequilibrium Flow 688 Index 769
17.9 Summary of Governing Equations
for Nonequilibrium Flows 688
 PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION

T
he purpose of this book is to provide an understandable and enjoyable teach-
ing instrument in the classroom or independently for the study of compress-
ible fluid flow. It is intentionally written in a rather informal style to talk
to the reader, to gain his or her interest, and to keep the reader absorbed from
cover to cover. It is aimed primarily at the senior undergraduate and first-year
graduate student in aerospace, mechanical, and chemical engineering. However, it
is also written for use by the practicing engineer and scientist who is striving to
obtain a cohesive picture of the subject of compressible flow from a modern per-
spective. This book is meant to be read, not just used as a handbook to search for
the equation that will solve a given problem. Compressible flow is a beautiful
intellectual technical subject, and I believe that, like a masterwork painting made
up of an inestimable number of brushstrokes, every word in this book is like a
brushstroke in the whole canvas of compressible flow. Every word should be read
and thought about in order for the reader to truly appreciate the “masterpiece”
intellectual nature of this subject.
The response to the first three editions of this book from students, faculty, and
practicing professionals has been overwhelmingly favorable. Therefore, the fourth
edition carries over much of the fundamental content of the previous edition, plus
adding the following important components:
1. End-of-chapter problems have been added to those few chapters that
originally had no problems listed. Those particular chapters are heavily
theoretically based, and the original purpose was to allow the reader to
concentrate on absorbing the theoretical concepts without the additional
activity of problem solving. In this new edition, however, problems have
been added to these particular chapters in order to obtain a type of “full
closure” on understanding the material.
2. At the end of every chapter, and just before the list of problems, a “Sugges-
tions” section has been added. The purpose of these suggestions is to help
the reader better understand each end-of-chapter problem and to get started
on a right path for the solution of each problem (please note that for many
of the problems, there may be several “right paths”). Moreover, each of the
suggestions for problem solving helps to more strongly connect the reader
with the particular relevant physical and theoretical content in the text reading
material.
3. Chapter 15 on Hypersonic Flow has been expanded to recognize the greatly
increased interest and current activity in the hypersonic flight regime.
Hypersonic flow has many important physical and theoretical features that
distinguish it from basic supersonic flow, and these differences are highlighted

xiii
xiv Preface to the Fourth Edition

in Chap. 15. The author feels that the current new activity and interest in
the hypersonic flight regime will be long lasting, and Chap. 15 has been
expanded with new content and figures with such matters in mind. This
expansion is solidly in keeping with the title of this text, namely the
“modern” aspects of Modern Compressible Flow.
4. Continuing with the theme of “modern” that has permeated the previous
editions, this new edition maintains the content devoted to computational
fluid dynamics and high-temperature gas dynamics, two fields of intellectual
endeavor that are intrinsically woven into most modern applications of
compressible flow.
Taken in total, the book provides the twenty-first-century student with a balanced
treatment of both the classical and modern aspects of compressible flow.
Special thanks are given to various people who have been responsible for the
materialization of this fourth edition:
1. My students, as well as students and readers from all over the world, who
have responded so enthusiastically to the first three editions, and who have
provided the ultimate joy to the author of being an engineering educator.
2. My family, who provide the other ultimate joy of being a husband, father,
and grandfather.
3. My colleagues at the University of Maryland and the National Air and
Space Museum, and at many other academic and research institutions, as
well as industry, around the world who have helped to expand my horizons.
4. My editors at McGraw-Hill who have looked after me in the most profes-
sional, knowledgeable, understanding, and gentle manner possible.
Finally, compressible flow is an exciting subject—exciting to learn, exciting
to use, exciting to teach, and exciting to write about. The purpose of this book is
to excite the reader and to make the study of compressible flow an enjoyable
experience. So this author says—read on and enjoy.
John D. Anderson, Jr.
 C H A P T E R 1
Compressible Flow—Some
History and Introductory
Thoughts

It required an unhesitating boldness to undertake a venture so few thought could

succeed, an almost exuberant enthusiasm to carry across the many obstacles and
unknowns, but most of all a completely unprejudiced imagination in departing
so drastically from the known way.
J. van Lonkhuyzen, 1951, in discussing the problems faced in designing
the Bell XS-1, the first supersonic airplane

1
2 CHAPTER 1 Compressible Flow—Some History and Introductory Thoughts
PREVIEW BOX
Modern life is fast paced. We put a premium on moving
fast from one place to another. For long-distance travel,
flying is by far the fastest way to go. We fly in airplanes,
which today are the result of an exponential growth in
technology over the last 100 years. In 1930, airline pas-
sengers were lumbering along in the likes of the Fokker
trimoter (Fig. 1.1), which cruised at about 100 mi/h. In
this airplane, it took a total elapsed time of 36 hours to
fly from New York to Los Angeles, including 11 stops
along the way. By 1936, the new, streamlined Douglas
DC-3 (Fig. 1.2) was flying passengers at 180 mi/h, tak-
ing 17 hours and 40 minutes from New York to Los
­Angeles, making three stops along the way. By 1955,
the Douglas DC-7, the most advanced of the generation
of reciprocating engine/propeller-driven transports
­(Fig. 1.3), made the same trip in 8 hours with no stops.
However, this generation of airplane was quickly sup-
planted by the jet transport in 1958. Today, the modern
Boeing 777 (Fig. 1.4) whisks us from New York to Los
Angeles nonstop in about 5 hours, cruising at 0.83 the
speed of sound. This airplane is powered by advanced,
third-generation turbofan engines, such as the Pratt and
Whitney 4000 turbofan shown in Fig. 1.5, each capable
of producing up to 84,000 pounds of thrust.
Modern high-speed airplanes and the jet engines
that power them are wonderful examples of the applica-
tion of a branch of fluid dynamics called compressible
flow. Indeed, look again at the Boeing 777 shown in
Fig. 1.4 and the turbofan engine shown in Fig. 1.5—they
are compressible flow personified. The principles of
compressible flow dictate the external aerodynamic
flow over the airplane. The internal flow through the
­turbofan—the inlet, compressor, combustion chamber,
turbine, nozzle, and the fan—is all compressible flow.
Indeed, jet engines are one of the best examples in mod-
ern technology of compressible flow machines.
Today we can transport ourselves at speeds faster
than sound—supersonic speeds. The Anglo-French
Concorde supersonic transport (Fig. 1.6) was such a ve-
hicle. (Several years ago I had the opportunity to cross
the A
­ tlantic Ocean in the Concorde, taking off from
New York’s Kennedy Airport and arriving at London’s
Heathrow Airport just 3 hours and 15 minutes later—
what a way to travel!) Supersonic flight is accompanied
by shock waves generated in the air around the vehicle.
Shock waves are an important aspect of compressible
flow—they occur in almost all practical situations where
supersonic flow exists. In this book, you will learn a lot
about shock waves. When the Concorde flew overhead
at supersonic speeds, a “sonic boom” was heard by those
of us on the earth’s surface. The sonic boom is a result
of the shock waves emanating from the supersonic ve-
hicle. The environmental impact of the sonic boom lim-
ited the Concorde to supersonic speeds only over water.
However, modern research is striving to find a way to
design a “quiet” supersonic airplane. Perhaps some of
the readers of this book will help to unlock such secrets
in the future—maybe even pioneering the advent of
practical hypersonic airplanes (more than five times the
speed of sound). In my opinion, the future applications
of compressible flow are boundless.
Compressible flow is the subject of this book.
Within these pages you will discover the intellectual
beauty and the powerful applications of compressible
flow. You will learn to appreciate why modern airplanes
are shaped the way they are, and to marvel at the won-
derfully complex and interesting flow processes through
a jet engine. You will learn about supersonic shock
waves, and why in most cases we would like to do with-
out them if we could. You will learn much more. You
will learn the fundamental physical and mathematical
aspects of compressible flow, which you can apply to
any flow situation where the flow speeds exceed that of
about 0.3 the speed of sound. In the modern world of
aerospace and mechanical engineering, an understand-
ing of the principles of compressible flow is essential.
The purpose of this book is to help you learn, under-
stand, and appreciate these fundamental principles,
while at the same time giving you some insight as to
how compressible flow is practiced in the modern engi-
neering world (hence the word “modern” in the title of
this book).
Compressible flow is a fun subject. This book is
designed to convey this feeling. The format of the book
and its conversational style are intended to provide a
smooth and intelligible learning process. To help this,
each chapter begins with a preview box and road map to
help you see the bigger picture, and to navigate around
 Preview Box 3

63′3″

49′2″

Figure 1.1 | Fokker Trimoter airliner, from the late 1920s.

(continued on next page)
4 CHAPTER 1 Compressible Flow—Some History and Introductory Thoughts

(continued from page 3) 26′8″

95′

18′6″

64′5 12″

Figure 1.2 | Douglas DC-3 Airliner, from the middle 1930s.

 Preview Box 5

Figure 1.3 | Douglas DC-7 airliner, from the middle 1950s.

Figure 1.4 | Boeing 777 jet airliner, from the 1990s.

(continued on next page)

6 CHAPTER 1 Compressible Flow—Some History and Introductory Thoughts

(continued from page 5)

Figure 1.5 | Pratt and Whitney 4000 turbofan engine. Third-generation turbofan
for widebody transports. Produces up to 84,000 lb (329.2 kN) of thrust. Powers
some versions of the Boeing 777 (see Fig. 1.4).

Figure 1.6 | The Anglo-French Aerospatiale/BAC Concorde supersonic airliner.

 Preview Box 7

some of the mathematical and physical details that are
buried in the chapter. The road map for the entire book
is given in Fig. 1.7. To help keep our equilibrium, we
will periodically refer to Fig. 1.7 as we progress through
the book. For now, let us just survey Fig. 1.7 for some
general guidance. After an introduction to the subject
and a brief review of thermodynamics (box 1 in Fig. 1.7),
we derive the governing fundamental conservation
equations (box 2). We first obtain these equations in in-
tegral form (box 3), which some people will argue is
philosophically a more fundamental form of the equations
than the differential form obtained later in box 7. Using
just the integral form of the conservation equations, we
will study one-dimensional flow (box 4), including nor-
mal shock waves, oblique shock, and expansion waves
(box 5), and the quasi-one-dimensional flow through
nozzles and diffusers, with applications to wind tunnels
and rocket engines (box 6). All of these subjects can
be studied by application of the integral form of the
­conservation equations, which usually reduce to alge-
braic equations for the application listed in boxes 4–6.
Boxes 1–6 frequently constitute a basic “first course” in

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
17. High-temperature flows
1. What it is, and how it blends
with thermodynamics

2. The governing conservation

equations

3. In integral form 7. In differential form

4. One-dimensional flow
Normal shock waves
Flow with heat addition
Flow with friction
5. Oblique waves
8. Velocity potential equation
10. Unsteady moving shock
and expansion waves
9. Linearized flow
11. Conical flow
Subsonic flow
Supersonic flow
12. Numerical techniques for
steady supersonic flow

Oblique shock waves Method of characteristics

Expansion waves Finite difference methods
Wave interactions 13. Time-marching numerical
technique
6. Quasi-one-dimensional flow
Flow around blunt bodies
Two-dimensional nozzle flows
Nozzles
Diffusers 14. Three-dimensional flows
Wind tunnels
and rocket engines
15. Transonic flow

16. Hypersonic flow

Figure 1.7 | Road map for the book.

(continued on next page)
8 CHAPTER 1 Compressible Flow—Some History and Introductory Thoughts
(continued from page 7)
c­ ompressible flow, and the mathematics usually does
not go beyond that of algebra. However, to deal with
unsteady and/or multidimensional flows, we have to
step to box 7 and obtain the governing conservation
equations in differential form. They take the form of a
system of coupled, highly nonlinear, partial differential
equations. In some special cases for subsonic and super-
sonic flows, they can be linearized (boxes 8 and 9), lead-
ing to so-called “linearized flow.” However, in most
cases, we must cope with the nonlinear equations. The
way we do this, and the fascinating physical phenomena
we discover along the way, is told in boxes 10–16 deal-
ing with unsteady flow, flow over cones, flows over
­supersonic blunt-nosed bodies, three-dimensional flows
over bodies at an angle of attack to a uniform free
stream, and the very special characteristics of transonic
and hypersonic flows.
Our treatment of the material covered in boxes 4–6
and 8–16 in Fig. 1.7 assumes the gas to be calorically
perfect, i.e., to have constant values of specific heats.
This is valid as long as the temperature in the flow does
not exceed about 1000 K. The vast bulk of compressible
flow applications satisfy this criterion, including the
flow around the Concorde when it was cruising at Mach
2. However, the flow over higher speed vehicles, as well
as the flow through parts of a jet engine, will encounter
temperatures high enough that the assumption of a calo-
rically perfect gas is not valid. Witness the flow over
parts of the Space Shuttle as it entered the atmosphere
at Mach 25, where flow temperatures were as high as
8000 K, and the flow through rocket engines where tem-
peratures on the order of 4000 K or higher occur in the
combustion chamber. At these temperatures, the flow is
chemically reacting, and the analysis of compressible
flow applications at these conditions must include the
appropriate physical-chemical effects. Hence, to round
out our study of compressible flow, toward the end of
this book we identify, discuss, and analyze these high-
temperature flow effects. This subject is somewhat
­self-contained and is relatively independent of the ear-
lier chapters; for this reason in Fig. 1.7 we show high-­
temperature flows in box 17 in an adjunct position
somewhat separate from the main structure. However,
this is not to minimize its importance. In many high-
speed flow applications today, high-temperature effects
are very important. Any study of modern compressible
flow must include box 17.
We note that all of the material in this book, boxes
1–17 in Fig. 1.7, assumes inviscid flow, i.e., flow with
no friction, thermal conduction, or mass diffusion, ex-
cept for the special case of one-dimensional flow with
friction (box 4 in Fig. 1.7). Flows where the dissipative
transport processes of friction, thermal conduction, and
mass diffusion are important are called viscous flows.
Viscous flow is a subject all by itself and is beyond the
scope of this book. The assumption of inviscid flow may
at first sound ideal and restrictive—flows in the real
world are not so ideal. However, the important physics
that dictates compressible flow, such as the propagation
of pressure waves through the flow, is essentially an
­inviscid phenomenon. Moreover, for the vast majority
of compressible flow applications, the influence of the
dissipative transport phenomena is limited to small
regions, such as the boundary layer along a solid surface.
Hence, the inviscid flows treated in this book are indeed
very practical and apply to a vast majority of everyday
applications of compressible flow.
All of this constitutes a preview for the material that
is covered in this book—a broad, general view to give
you a better, almost philosophical feeling for what com-
pressible flow is about. As we continue, each ­chapter has
its own preview box in order to enhance a broader under-
standing of the material in the chapter and to relate it to
the general view. In this fashion, the detailed material in
each chapter will more readily come to life for you.
In regard to the present chapter, we start out with
some historical high-water marks in the application of
compressible flow, and then discuss some introductory
thoughts that are essential for our understanding of com-
pressible flow in the subsequent chapters. For example, in
this chapter we give a brief review of thermodynamics—
but only those aspects of thermodynamics that relate di-
rectly to our subsequent discussions. Compressible flows
are usually high-energy flows. Imagine that you are driv­
ing down the highway at 65 mph, and you stick your hand
out of the window; your hand will literally feel the en-
ergy of the 65-mph airstream, and it feels impressive. But
65 mph is really a low velocity in the scheme of com-
pressible flow applications. Rather, imagine the energy
you would feel if you were traveling at 650 mph, near the
speed of sound, and you stick your hand out of the window
(definitely not recommended). You would feel a lot of
­en­ergy in the flow. High-speed flows are high-­energy flows.
Thermodynamics is the study of energy changes and their
 1.1 Historical High-Water Marks 9

effects on the properties of a system. Hence, compressible
flow embraces thermodynamics. I know of no compress-
ible flow problem that can be understood and solved
without involving some aspect of thermodynamics. So
that is why we start out with a review of thermodynamics.
The remainder of this chapter simply deals with
other introductory thoughts necessary to provide you
with smooth sailing through the rest of the book. I wish
you a pleasant voyage.

1.1 | HISTORICAL HIGH-WATER MARKS

The year is 1893. In Chicago, the World Columbian Exposition has been opened
by President Grover Cleveland. During the year, more than 27 million people visit
the 666-acre expanse of gleaming white buildings, specially constructed from a
composite of plaster of paris and jute fiber to simulate white marble. Located
adjacent to the newly endowed University of Chicago, the Exposition commemo-
rates the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus 400 years earlier. Exhibi-
tions related to engineering, architecture, and domestic and liberal arts, as well as
collections of all modes of transportation, are scattered over 150 buildings. In the
largest, the Manufacturer’s and Liberal Arts Building, engineering exhibits from
all over the world herald the rapid advance of technology that will soon reach
explosive proportions in the twentieth century. Almost lost in this massive 31-acre
building, under a roof of iron and glass, is a small machine of great importance.
A single-stage steam turbine is being displayed by the Swedish engineer Carl G. P.
de Laval. The machine is less than 6 ft long; designed for marine use, it has two
independent turbine wheels, one for forward motion and the other for the reverse
direction. But what is novel about this device is that the turbine blades are driven
by a stream of hot, high-pressure steam from a series of unique convergent–diver-
gent nozzles. As sketched in Fig. 1.8, these nozzles, with their convergent–diver-
gent shape representing a complete departure from previous engineering applications,
feed a high-speed flow of steam to the blades of the turbine wheel. The deflection
and consequent change in momentum of the steam as it flows past the turbine
blades exerts an impulse that rotates the wheel to speeds previously unattainable—
over 30,000 r/min. Little does de Laval ­realize that his convergent–divergent steam
nozzle will open the door to the supersonic wind tunnels and rocket engines of the
mid-twentieth century.
The year is now 1947. The morning of October 14 dawns bright and beautiful
over the Muroc Dry Lake, a large expanse of flat, hard lake bed in the Mojave
Desert in California. Beginning at 6:00 a.m., teams of engineers and technicians
at the Muroc Army Air Field ready a small rocket-powered airplane for flight.
Painted ­orange and resembling a 50-caliber machine gun bullet mated to a pair of
straight, stubby wings, the Bell XS-1 research vehicle is carefully installed in the
bomb bay of a four-engine B-29 bomber of World War II vintage. At 10:00 a.m.
the B-29 with its soon-to-be-historic cargo takes off and climbs to an altitude of
20,000 ft. In the cockpit of the XS-1 is Captain Charles (Chuck) Yeager, a veteran
P-51 pilot from the European theater during the war. This morning Yeager is in
pain from two broken ribs incurred during a horseback riding accident the previous
weekend. However, not wishing to disrupt the events of the day, Yeager informs
10 CHAPTER 1 Compressible Flow—Some History and Introductory Thoughts

Figure 1.8 | Schematic of de Laval’s

turbine incorporating a convergent–
divergent nozzle.

no one at Muroc about his condition. At 10:26 a.m., at a speed of 250 mi/h
(112 m/s), the brightly painted XS-1 drops free from the bomb bay of the B-29.
Yeager fires his Reaction Motors XLR-11 rocket engine and, powered by 6000 lb
of thrust, the sleek airplane accelerates and climbs rapidly. Trailing an exhaust jet
of shock diamonds from the four convergent–divergent rocket nozzles of the
engine, the XS-1 is soon flying faster than Mach 0.85, that speed beyond which
there are no wind tunnel data on the problems of transonic flight in 1947. Entering
this unknown regime, Yeager momentarily shuts down two of the four rocket
chambers, and carefully tests the controls of the XS-1 as the Mach meter in the
cockpit registers 0.95 and still increasing. Small shock waves are now dancing
back and forth over the top surface of the wings. At an altitude of 40,000 ft, the
XS-1 finally starts to level off, and Yeager fires one of the two shutdown rocket
chambers. The Mach meter moves smoothly through 0.98, 0.99, to 1.02. Here, the
meter hesitates, then jumps to 1.06. A stronger bow shock wave is now formed in
the air ahead of the needlelike nose of the XS-1 as Yeager reaches a velocity of
700 mi/h, Mach 1.06, at 43,000 ft. The flight is smooth; there is no violent buffeting
of the airplane and no loss of control, as was feared by some engineers. At this
moment, Chuck Yeager becomes the first pilot to successfully fly faster than the
speed of sound, and the small but beautiful Bell XS-1, shown in Fig. 1.9, becomes
the first successful supersonic airplane in the history of flight. (For more details,
see Refs. 1 and 2 listed at the back of this book.)
Today, both de Laval’s 10-hp turbine from the World Columbian Exhibition
and the orange Bell XS-1 are part of the collection of the Smithsonian Institution
of Washington, D.C., the former on display in the History of Technology Building
 1.1 Historical High-Water Marks 11

Figure 1.9 | The Bell XS-1, first manned supersonic aircraft.

Source: NASA

and the latter hanging with distinction from the roof of the National Air and Space
­Museum. What these two machines have in common is that, separated by more
than half a century, they represent high-water marks in the engineering application
of the principles of compressible flow—where the density of the flow is not con-
stant. In both cases they represent marked departures from previous fluid dynamic
practice and ­experience.
The engineering fluid dynamic problems of the eighteenth, nineteenth, and early
twentieth centuries almost always involved either the flow of liquids or the low-
speed flow of gases; for both cases the assumption of constant density is quite valid.
Hence, the familiar Bernoulli’s equation
p + 12 ρV 2 = const(1.1)
was invariably employed with success. However, with the advent of high-speed
flows, exemplified by de Laval’s convergent–divergent nozzle design and the super-
sonic flight of the Bell XS-1, the density can no longer be assumed constant
throughout the flowfield. Indeed, for such flows the density can sometimes vary by
orders of magnitude. Consequently, Eq. (1.1) no longer holds. In this light, such
events were indeed a marked departure from previous experience in fluid dynamics.
This book deals exclusively with that “marked departure,” i.e., it deals with
compressible flows, in which the density is not constant. In modern engineering
­applications, such flows are the rule rather than the exception. A few important
­examples are the internal flows through rocket and gas turbine engines, high-speed
subsonic, transonic, supersonic, and hypersonic wind tunnels, the external flow
over modern airplanes designed to cruise faster than 0.3 of the speed of sound,
and the flow inside the common internal combustion reciprocating engine.
12 CHAPTER 1 Compressible Flow—Some History and Introductory Thoughts

The purpose of this book is to develop the fundamental concepts of compressible

flow, and to illustrate their use.

1.2 | DEFINITION OF COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Compressible flow is routinely defined as variable density flow; this is in contrast
to incompressible flow, where the density is assumed to be constant throughout.
Obviously, in real life every flow of every fluid is compressible to some greater
or lesser extent; hence, a truly constant density (incompressible) flow is a myth.
However, as previously mentioned, for almost all liquid flows as well as for the
flows of some gases under certain conditions, the density changes are so small that
the assumption of constant density can be made with reasonable accuracy. In such
cases, Bernoulli’s equation, Eq. (1.1), can be applied with confidence. However,
for the subject of this book—compressible flow—Eq. (1.1) does not hold, and for
our purposes here, the reader should dismiss it from his or her thinking.
The simple definition of compressible flow as one in which the density is vari-
able requires more elaboration. Consider a small element of fluid of volume v. The
pressure exerted on the sides of the element by the neighboring fluid is p. Assume
the pressure is now increased by an infinitesimal amount dp. The volume of the
element will be correspondingly compressed by the amount dv. Since the volume is
reduced, dv is a negative quantity. The compressibility of the fluid, τ, is defined as
1 dv
τ=− (1.2)
v dp
Physically, the compressibility is the fractional change in volume of the fluid ele-
ment per unit change in pressure. However, Eq. (1.2) is not sufficiently precise.
We know from experience that when a gas is compressed (say in a bicycle pump),
its temperature tends to increase, depending on the amount of heat transferred into
or out of the gas through the boundaries of the system. Therefore, if the tempera-
ture of the fluid element is held constant (due to some heat transfer mechanism),
then the isothermal compressibility is defined as

τT = − ( ) (1.3)
1 ∂v
v ∂p T
On the other hand, if no heat is added to or taken away from the fluid element (if
the compression is adiabatic), and if no other dissipative transport mechanisms such
as viscosity and diffusion are important (if the compression is reversible), then the
compression of the fluid element takes place isentropically, and the isentropic com-
pressibility is defined as

τs = − ( ) (1.4)
1 ∂v
v ∂p s
where the subscript s denotes that the partial derivative is taken at constant entropy.
Compressibility is a property of the fluid. Liquids have very low values of
­compressibility (τT for water is 5 × 10–10 m2/N at 1 atm) whereas gases have
 1.2 Definition of Compressible Flow 13

high ­compressibilities (τT for air is 10–5 m2/N at 1 atm, more than four orders of
magnitude larger than water). If the fluid element is assumed to have unit mass, v
is the specific volume (volume per unit mass), and the density is ρ = 1/v. In terms
of density, Eq. (1.2) becomes
1 dρ
τ= (1.5)
ρ dp
Therefore, whenever the fluid experiences a change in pressure, dp, the correspond-
ing change in density will be dρ, where from Eq. (1.5)
dρ = ρτ dp(1.6)
To this point, we have considered just the fluid itself, with compressibility
being a property of the fluid. Now assume that the fluid is in motion. Such flows
are initiated and maintained by forces on the fluid, usually created by, or at least
accompanied by, changes in the pressure. In particular, we shall see that high-
speed flows gene­rally involve large pressure gradients. For a given change in
pressure, dp, due to the flow, Eq. (1.6) demonstrates that the resulting change in
density will be small for liquids (which have low values of τ), and large for gases
(which have high values of τ). Therefore, for the flow of liquids, relatively large
pressure gradients can create high velocities without much change in density.
Hence, such flows are usually assumed to be incompressible, where ρ is constant.
On the other hand, for the flow of gases with their attendant large values of τ,
moderate to strong pressure gradients lead to substantial changes in the density
via Eq. (1.6). At the same time, such pressure gradients create large velocity
changes in the gas. Such flows are defined as compressible flows, where ρ is a
variable.
We shall prove later that for gas velocities less than about 0.3 of the speed of
sound, the associated pressure changes are small, and even though τ is large for
gases, dp in Eq. (1.6) may still be small enough to dictate a small dρ. For this
reason, the low-speed flow of gases can be assumed to be incompressible. For
example, the flight velocities of most airplanes from the time of the Wright broth-
ers in 1903 to the beginning of World War II in 1939 were generally less than
250 mi/h (112 m/s), which is less than 0.3 of the speed of sound. As a result, the
bulk of early aerodynamic literature treats incompressible flow. On the other hand,
flow velocities higher than 0.3 of the speed of sound are associated with relatively
large pressure changes, accompanied by correspondingly large changes in density.
Hence, compressibility effects on airplane aerodynamics have been important since
the advent of high-­performance aircraft in the 1940s. Indeed, for the modern high-
speed subsonic and supersonic aircraft of today, the older incompressible theories
are wholly inadequate, and compressible flow analyses must be used.
In summary, in this book a compressible flow will be considered as one where
the change in pressure, dp, over a characteristic length of the flow, multiplied by
the compressibility via Eq. (1.6), results in a fractional change in density, dρ∕ρ,
which is too large to be ignored. For most practical problems, if the density changes
by 5 percent or more, the flow is considered to be compressible.
14 CHAPTER 1 Compressible Flow—Some History and Introductory Thoughts

EXAMPLE 1.1

Consider the low-speed flow of air over an airplane wing at standard sea level conditions;
the free-stream velocity far ahead of the wing is 100 mi/h. The flow accelerates over the
wing, reaching a maximum velocity of 150 mi/h at some point on the wing. What is the
percentage pressure change between this point and the free stream?
■ Solution
Since the airspeeds are relatively low, let us (for the first and only time in this book) assume
incompressible flow, and use Bernoulli’s equation for this problem. (See Ref. 1 for an
elementary discussion of Bernoulli’s equation, as well as Ref. 104 for a more detailed pre-
sentation of the role of this equation in the solution of incompressible flow. Here, we assume
that the reader is familiar with Bernoulli’s equation—its use and its limitations. If not,
examine carefully the appropriate discussions in Refs. 1 and 104.) Let points 1 and 2 denote
the free stream and wing points, respectively. Then, from Bernoulli’s equation,

p1 + 12 ρ V1 2 = p2 + 12 ρ V2 2
or p1 − p2 = 12 ρ ( V2 2 − V1 2 )

At standard sea level, ρ = 0.002377 slug/ft3. Also, using the handy conversion that 60 mi/h
= 88 ft/s, we have V1 = 100 mi/h = 147 ft/s and V2 = 150 mi/h = 220 ft/s. (Note that, as
­always in this book, we will use consistent units; for example, we will use either the English
Engineering System, as in this problem, or the International System. See the footnote in
Sec. 1.4 of this book, as well as Chap. 2 of Ref. 1. By using consistent units, none of our
basic equations will ever contain conversion factors, such as qc and J, as is found in some
references.) With this information, we have
p1 − p2 = 12 ρ ( V2 2 − V1 2 )
= 12 (0.002377) [ (220) 2 − (147) 2 ] = 31.8 lb/ft2

The fractional change in pressure referenced to the free-stream pressure, which at standard
sea level is p1 = 2116 lb/ft2, is obtained as
p 1 − p2 31.8
= = 0.015
p1 2116
Therefore, the percentage change in pressure is 1.5 percent. In expanding over the wing surface,
the pressure changes by only 1.5 percent. This is a case where, in Eq. (1.6), dp is small, and
hence dρ is small. The purpose of this example is to demonstrate that, in low-speed flow prob-
lems, the percentage change in pressure is always small, and this, through Eq. (1.6), justifies the
assumption of incompressible flow (dρ = 0) for such flows. However, at high-flow velocities,
the change in pressure is not small, and the density must be treated as variable. This is the regime
of compressible flow—the subject of this book. Note: Bernoulli’s equation used in this example
is good only for incompressible flow; therefore, it will not appear again in any of our subsequent
discussions. Experience has shown that, because it is one of the first ­equations usually encoun-
tered by students in the study of fluid dynamics, there is a tendency to use Bernoulli’s equation
for situations where it is not valid. Compressible flow is one such situation. Therefore, for our
subsequent discussions in this book, remember never to invoke Bernoulli’s equation.
Another random document with
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ways of saying that Nineveh was a great city. It is a singular idea
to look for topographical and statistical information in a book
which makes a prophet sail from Joppa for Spain and,
immediately afterwards, without any preparation, speaks of him
as preaching in the streets of Nineveh. Add to this that, according
to the most recent criticism, the Book of Jonah is not older than
the sixth century before our era, so that it must have been written
long after the fall of Nineveh, and when its power was no more
than a memory (see Nœldeke, Histoire littéraire de l’Ancien
Testament, p. 116). [In Sir H. Layard’s latest published remarks on
the extent of Nineveh, he rejects the statements of Diodorus for
much the same reasons as those given by M. Perrot (article on
Nineveh in Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible, 1863 edition).—Ed.]
[78] Botta, Monument de Ninive, vol. v. p. 21. Oppert,
Expédition, vol. i. p. 292. Layard, vol. ii. p. 243. The English
explorers have found traces of some external works and of a ditch
which is now filled with the waters of the Khausser. Rawlinson,
The Five Great Monarchies, vol. i. pp. 259–261.
[79] Layard, Discoveries, pp. 120–122.
[80] It has no scale.
[81] Herodotus, i. 178.
[82] Herodotus, i. 179. Herodotus says that the Chaldæans
constructed buildings of a single chamber along each parapet of
the wall, leaving room between them for a four-horse chariot to
turn. His words are: ὲπάνω δὲ τοῦ τείχεος παρὰ τὰ ἔσχατα,
οἰκήματα μουνόκωλα ἔδειμαν, τετραμμένα ἐς ἄλληλα· τὸ μέσον δὲ
τῶν οἰκημάτων ἔλιπον τεθρίππῳ περιέλασιν.—Ed.
[83] Diodorus, ii. vii. 4.
[84] In many carved pictures of sieges we see soldiers who
appear to be digging mines (Layard, Monuments, series i. plates
19, 20, 66. Rawlinson, The Five Great Monarchies, vol. i. p.
473).
[85] Place, Ninive, vol. i. p. 165; vol. ii. p. 11.
[86] Place, Ninive, vol. i. pp. 197–198.
[87] Art in Ancient Egypt, Vol. I. p. 342.
[88] See Vol. I. Page 242, and Fig. 97.
[89] All these details are taken from Place, Ninive, vol. i. pp.
169–182.
 [90] Genesis xix. 1.
[91] Genesis xxiii. 10.
[92] Ruth iv. 1 and 2.
[93] See also 2 Kings vii. 1.—Ed.
[94] Esther ii. 21.
[95] Esther iii. 2, 3, iv. 2, 6.
[96] At Semil, to the north of Mossoul, Layard saw the Yezidi
chief, “Abde Agha, seated in the gate, a vaulted entrance with
deep recesses on both sides, used as places of assembly for
business during the day, and as places of rest for guests during
the night.”—Discoveries, p. 57.
[97] Place, Ninive, vol. i. p. 186.
[98] It is even believed that the Assyrians used a machine for
launching great stones, like the Roman catapult. The
representations in the bas-reliefs are not, however, very clear.
Rawlinson, The Five Great Monarchies, vol. i. p. 472.
[99] Place, Ninive, vol. i. p. 196. Causeways of this kind may
be noticed stretching away from the tower in our Fig. 29. See also
Layard, Monuments, 2nd series, plates 18 and 21.
[100] A few terra-cotta statuettes have certainly been found,
but these seem to be idols rather than images of the defunct.
[101] The ordinary and principal office of the human-headed
bull, was to guard the doors of temples and palaces, but in his
rôle of protecting genius, other functions were included. Thus, in a
bas-relief representing Sargon’s campaigns in Phœnicia, we find
a bull that seems to be walking on the sea. With Anon, Oannes,
or Dagon, the fish-god, he presides over the journeys of the ships
that bring cargoes of wood from Lebanon (Botta, Monument de
Ninive, plate 32).
[102] M. Lenormant has collected these texts in his Origines
de l’Histoire, vol. i. p. 115.
[103] This must represent one of the favourite rites of the
Chaldæo-Assyrian religion, allusion to it is made in the passage
given as a letter of Jeremiah (Baruch vi. 25): “Now shall ye see
in Babylon gods of silver, and of gold, and of wood, borne upon
shoulders, which cause the nations to fear.”
 [104] Chabouillet (Catalogue général des Camées de la
Bibliothèque nationale, No. 754) proposes to recognize in the
scene here represented the offering of his nightly spouse to Bel in
his temple at Babylon (Herodotus, i. 181). M. Lenormant
agrees with this interpretation (Essai de commentaire des
Fragments de Bérose, p. 374). Ménant, on the other hand, thinks
it as little justified as that which finds the early scenes of Genesis
—the temptation of Eve, and the eating of the forbidden fruit—
reproduced upon the cylinders (Remarques sur un cylindre du
Musée Britannique, in the Comptes rendus de l’Académie des
Inscriptions, 1879, pp. 270–286).
[105] In the great stone torso of which we shall speak
presently (p. 98), these details seem to have been omitted; at
least no trace of them is to be found on the stone; but they may
have been added in paint. In figures of men the Assyrians very
rarely indicated the male organs. One of the personages
sculptured on the Balawat gates affords an exception to this
general practice, but he is a prisoner about to be put to death,
and the detail in question is a kind of indignity meant by the
sculptor to show that the man in question was a savage who
fought in puris naturalibus.
[106] Among the Lydians, says Herodotus, in his account of
the adventure of Gyges (i. 10), “As among nearly all barbarous
nations, it was a great indignity, even for a man, to be seen
naked.” Conf. Plato, Republic, 452, c; Thucydides, i. 6;
Xenophon, Hellenica, iii. iv. 19.
[107] Herodotus, i. 195; “As for their dress they wore a linen
tunic coming down to their feet, and, over that, a woollen tunic.
Finally they wrapped themselves in a short white cloak.”
[108] Art in Ancient Egypt, vol. i. fig. 98.
[109] Heuzev, Les fouilles de Chaldée, p. 13.
[110] See Art in Ancient Egypt, vol. i. fig. 255; vol. ii. figs. 247,
259, &c.
[111] Ibid. vol. ii. plate facing p. 334, and figs. 268, 269.
[112] See Layard, Monuments, 1st series, plates 15 and 16.
[113] In one relief the figures of these swimmers are no more
than fourteen inches long (British Museum, Assyrian Basement
room, No. 56).
 [114] Layard, Monuments, 1st series, plate 57; 2nd series,
plates 25 and 28.
[115] Ibid. (1st series), plate 63; Discoveries, p. 457.
[116] We have refrained from giving a reproduction of this
fragment on account of its bad condition. Its surface is rough; it
lacks the head, the forearms and the foreparts of the feet. The
material is a coarse limestone. The height of the fragment is
thirty-eight inches.
[117] No people that have ever lived have been more
solicitous than the Assyrians to transmit the remembrance of their
exploits to posterity. We thus find that many of their sculptured
slabs had their posterior faces, those that were turned to the wall,
also covered with inscriptions.
[118] Layard, Nineveh, vol. ii. p. 437.
[119] Layard, Nineveh, vol. ii. p. 448.
[120] British Museum. The whole series is illustrated in
Layard, Monuments, 2nd series, plates 20–24.
[121] Sir H. Layard’s translation is different (Discoveries, p.
152). That quoted in the text has been kindly furnished to us by
M. Oppert.
[122] Sir H. Layard, who has seen more Assyrian sculptures
in place than any one else, seems to have been much struck by
these incongruities. “It is rare,” he says, “to find an entire
(Assyrian) bas-relief equally well executed in all its parts”
(Nineveh, vol. ii. p. 78).
[123] This impression is still more strongly felt on glancing
through the plates in which Sir H. Layard has reproduced in their
entirety the series of sculptures which we can only show in
fragmentary fashion. Compare, for example, the Panathenaic
cortége with two processions taken from the palace of
Sennacherib, the grooms leading horses, and servants carrying
fruits and other comestibles (Monuments, 2nd series, plates 7–9),
and the triumphal march of the Assyrian army with its chariots (ib.
plates 47–49).
[124] Layard, Monuments, 2nd series, plates 45 and 46.
[125] Art in Ancient Egypt, vol. ii. pp. 302–314.
[126] At Nimroud, in the palace of Esarhaddon, the lions and
bulls of the gateways are of a grey and rather coarse limestone,
while the bas-reliefs are of alabaster (Layard, Nineveh, vol. ii. pp.
26 and 163). The same mixture occurs in the palace of
Assurnazirpal. Several of the bulls in that building are of a fine
yellow limestone which must have been brought from the hills of
Kurdistan (Layard, Nineveh, vol. ii. p. 315).
[127] Layard, Nineveh, vol. ii. p. 316; Discoveries, pp. 307,
308, 309, &c.
[128] Each side of the original has five reliefs. We have been
compelled to suppress one in order to give our figures sufficient
scale.
[129] The obelisk reliefs should be studied in horizontal bands,
and not by taking the whole of a face at a time. A translation of
the accompanying texts will be found in Oppert’s Expédition, vol.
i; and reproductions of all the four faces in Layard’s Monuments,
1st series, plates 53–56.
[130] Place, Ninive, vol. i, p. 150, and vol. iii. plate 48, fig. 3.
[131] Heuzey, Catalogue des figurines en terre cuite du
musée du Louvre, vol. i. p. 26.
[132] Heuzey, Catalogue, &c., p. 18.
[133] Art in Ancient Egypt, vol. ii. pp. 375.
[134] Both the British Museum and the Louvre possess
examples of this kind of work in which the handling shows the
greatest freedom.
[135] The slab numbered 107 contains, perhaps, the nearest
approach to a reproduction of the group in question.
[136] Art in Ancient Egypt, vol. ii. pp. 197–203, and figs. 179
and 180.
[137] This was the opinion of M. de Longpérier (Musée
Napoléon III., description of plate 1).
[138] See vol. i. page 242.
[139] See also plate xii.
[140] Layard, Discoveries, p. 563.
[141] De Longpérier, Notice des antiquités assyriennes du
Musée du Louvre, 3rd edition, 1854.
[142] We take this transcription from a note sent by Dr. Birch
to the Athenæum (14 July, 1877), when the ivory in question,
together with many more objects, was stolen from the British
Museum. It was offered by the thief, in the first place, to M. de
Longpérier, who thought it a forgery, and afterwards to the keeper
of the Hague Museum, who, put on his guard by the publicity
which by that time had been given to the theft, detained the piece
and restored it to its legitimate owners.
[143] Art in Ancient Egypt, vol. ii. pp. 293–295.
[144] Layard, Discoveries, p. 361. The same characteristics
may be recognized in the alabaster statues found by Place in
one of the harem courts at Khorsabad (Ninive, vol. i. pp. 122–125,
and vol. iii. plate 31, bis.). They are shown on a small scale in our
fig. 197 (vol. i.). We may see that they were set with their backs
against a wall, and that they carried a cushion on their heads, on
which we have placed a vase of flowers. These statues were
drowned in the Tigris!
[145] We may also quote the following monuments as
examples of Assyrian statues: 1. The fragment of a seated statue
found at Kaleh-Shergat, which we figure on page 127 (Layard,
Nineveh, vol. ii. pp. 51–52). 2. The head of a statue of Istar,
discovered at Kouyundjik (Smith, Assyrian Discoveries, pp. 248
and 430). This head is about nine inches high. 3. Fragment of a
colossal statue of shelly limestone, found in the same place by
the same explorer (ibid. p. 430). It consists only of a part of the
left shoulder. There is an inscription on the back tracing the
descent of Assurbanipal from Sargon.
[146] Art in Ancient Egypt, vol. ii. pp. 284–288; vol. i. fig. 173,
and vol. ii. fig. 240.
[147] E. Guillaume, in his Considérations sur les Principes de
l’Histoire du Bas-relief, which was read at the annual public
meeting of the five Academies in Paris on the 14th August, 1866,
(Didot, 4to.).
[148] Vol. I. page 266.
[149] In this particular, the two large bulls from Khorsabad in
the British Museum are better placed than the pair in the Louvre.
Their position at the entrance to the Khorsabad Transept (?),
gives an exact idea of their original arrangement.—Ed.
[150] It must not be thought, however, that its employment
was universal. In the palace of Sennacherib, at Kouyundjik, and in
one of the palaces at Nimroud, the bulls had only four legs.
 [151] See Perrot and Guillaume, Expédition archéologique
de la Galatie, vol. i. pp. 345, 346, and vol. ii. plate 57.
[152] This contrivance may also be seen on the small
limestone stele, covered with writing, which represents
Assurbanipal carrying a basket on his head, and preparing to
make an offering to the gods (British Museum, Assyrian Side
Room).
[153] Look for instance at the last figure but one, on the right,
in Place, vol. iii. plate 60, fig. 4. It is that of a man turning to
speak to one who follows him. The feet are turned in one
direction, and the head in one diametrically opposite to it. Nothing
more ungraceful could be conceived.
[154] Art in Ancient Egypt, vol. i. fig. 98; vol. ii. figs. 250, 254,
255, &c.
[155] Ibid. p. 294.
[156] Art in Ancient Egypt, vol. ii. pp. 185–196, plates ix. x. xi.
and figs. 172, 173, 174, 178, 183, 198, 199, 205, 208, 213, 214,
215, 216, 223, &c.
[157] Ibid. figs. 273–275.
[158] Ibid. p. 192.
[159] An almost unique exception to this rule occurs in those
bas-reliefs in the British Museum which represent the great hunts
of Assurbanipal. We there see a company of beardless individuals
marching, bare-headed, dressed in a short tunic and armed with
lance and buckler. But this is an apparent rather than a real
exception. The chase is not war. These men are not soldiers, but
attendants on the hunt, an inferior kind of shikarrie. In the battle
pieces we sometimes see the eunuchs attached to the king’s
person fighting at his elbow.
[160] We have no reason to believe that the Egyptian fashion
of wearing wigs obtained in Assyria (Layard, Nineveh, vol. ii. pp.
327, 378). Herodotus tells us that in his time the Chaldæans
wore long hair (i. 195).
[161] This is the opinion of M. Lenormant (Gazette des
Beaux Arts, vol. xxv. pp. 218–225), and M. Ménant has upheld
the same thesis in a paper read before the Académie des
Inscriptions (Remarques sur des Portraits des Rois Assyro-
Chaldéens, in the Comptes Rendus for 1881, pp. 254–267).
 [162] On this point again I regret to be unable to agree with M.
Ménant; I am unable to perceive any of the differences of which
he speaks (see p. 258 of his paper).
[163] Rawlinson, The Five Great Monarchies, vol. ii. p. 500.
[164] Upon the discovery of these figures and their nature, see
Layard, Discoveries, p. 230.
[165] Layard, Nineveh, vol. i. pp. 126–127. The English
explorer himself remarks in speaking of this relief, that the
features of the men show nothing of the special type which the
artist endeavoured to suggest by this clumsy expedient.
[166] This is what M. Ménant sees in this Babylonian stele: “It
represents a race with a short, thickset body, a short neck buried
between the shoulders, a flat nose and thick lips” (p. 259 of his
paper).
[167] Layard, Discoveries, p. 537.
[168] Herodotus, i. 192.
[169] Loftus gives a poor reproduction of this monument,
which he found at Sinkara (Travels, &c., p. 258). We have not
reproduced it, because it is in much worse condition than the
terra-cotta dog.
[170] Herodotus, i. 193.
[171] Rawlinson, The Five Great Monarchies, vol. i. p. 234.
Upon each of these figures appears the dog’s name, which
always bears some relation to the qualities he displayed in the
performance of his duties.
[172] This relief is figured in Rawlinson, The Five Great
Monarchies, vol. i. p. 356.
[173] W. Houghton, On the Mammalia of the Assyrian
Sculptures in the Transactions of the Society of Biblical
Archæology, vol. v. pp. 33–64, and 579–583.
[174] We are tempted to believe that these animals were
exterminated before the days of the Sargonids by the unrelenting
pursuit to which they were subjected; they are not to be found in
the pictures of Assurbanipal’s hunts. On the other hand, in the
palace of Assurnazirpal, which dates from two centuries earlier,
they were figured with peculiar insistence and in great detail
(Layard, Monuments, first series, plates 11, 12, 32, 43–44, 46, 48
and 49).
 [175] Rawlinson, The Five Great Monarchies, vol. i. p. 351;
Layard, Monuments, first series, plate 58. Second series, plates
26 and 29.
[176] Layard, Monuments, first series, plates 58 and 60.
[177] Place, Ninive, vol. ii. p. 233.
[178] Among the reliefs in which the Assyrian horse may be
best studied, are the slabs from the palace of Sennacherib, in
which a string of horses led by grooms are shown (Layard,
Monuments, second series, plate 7). They have no trappings or
clothing of any kind to hide their form.
[179] Other incidents, figured with no less spirit, will be found
in Rawlinson, The Five Great Monarchies, vol. i. pp. 355, 356;
516, 517.
[180] Layard, Nineveh, vol. ii. p. 21, Monuments, first series,
plate 61; second series, plate 50. Botta (Monuments de Ninive,
plate 128), reproduces a group of camels sketched with a light
hand, but with much truth and judgment.
[181] Layard, Nineveh, vol. ii. p. 433. All four faces of this
obelisk are reproduced on plates 53–56 of the first series of
Layard’s Monuments.
[182] Rawlinson, The Five Great Monarchies, vol. i. pp. 40
and 350; and Layard, Discoveries, p. 109.
[183] Layard, Nineveh, vol. ii. pp. 434, 435.
[184] Layard, Nineveh, vol. ii. p. 436. The Assyrians seem to
have been much struck with these apes when they first appeared
at Calah. This is shown by the care expended upon them by the
sculptor of Shalmaneser’s obelisk; he has reproduced the bas-
relief of Assurnazirpal on a smaller scale (Layard, Monuments,
first series, Plate 55).
[185] Layard, Nineveh, vol. ii. p. 437.
[186] Layard, Monuments, series ii. plates 32 (Khorsabad),
and 40 (Kouyundjik).
[187] A lion hunt is to be found in the bas-reliefs of
Assurnazirpal, dating from the ninth century, b.c. (Layard,
Monuments, first series, plates 10 and 31); but it is especially in
those of Assurbanipal (7th century), that the animal becomes so
conspicuous.
 [188] On the subject of these great hunts and their
arrangements, see Rawlinson, The Five Great Monarchies, vol.
i. pp. 505–512. The custom is still kept up in Eastern countries,
and their personnel is pretty much the same as it was in antiquity.
See Chardin, Voyage en Perse (Langles’ edition), vol. iii. p. 399;
and Rousselet, L’Inde des Rajahs, pp. 202, 464, 468.
[189] These caged lions are only found in the bas-reliefs of
Assurbanipal. The number of lions killed between the eleventh
and seventh centuries b.c. must have been something
extraordinary. Tiglath-Pileser I. boasts in one of his inscriptions of
having done eight hundred lions to death. In time they must have
become rare in Assyria. They must then have been brought from
Chaldæa or Susiana, where they have always been more
abundant, and transported to the north in carts, cages and all,
there to afford sport for the king. In our day lions are hardly to be
found higher up the Tigris than Bagdad; but on the Euphrates
they occur much farther north, as far as Bir and all over the valley
of the Khabour (Layard, Nineveh, vol. ii. p. 48). They are most
numerous in the marshes of the lower Euphrates, where they
were hunted in boats by the kings of Assyria (Rawlinson, The
Five Great Monarchies, vol. i. pp. 361 and 508). Most of the lions
of Mesopotamia have very little mane, but a few have been
encountered here and there in which that feature is largely
developed. These seem to have been chosen as models by the
Assyrian artists.
[190] In one single series of these reliefs, there are eleven
lions killed and seven terribly wounded.
[191] The king sometimes found himself engaged with a lion at
the closest quarters. In an inscription on one of these reliefs,
Assurbanipal thus expresses himself. “I, Assurbanipal, king of the
nations, king of Assyria, fighting on foot in my great courage with
a lion of terrifying size, I seized him by the ear(!), and, in the
name of Assur and Istar, goddess of war, I put an end to his life
with the lance I held in my hand.” (Fox Talbot in the Journal of
the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. xix. p. 272).
[192] Layard, Discoveries, p. 487. As to the part played by the
lion in the ceremonies of the present court of Abyssinia, see
Georges Perrot, Les Fouilles de M. de Sarzec en Chaldée, pp.
532, 534, of the Revue des deux Mondes for October 1, 1882.
[193] The same rock may be identified in the fragments from
Tello. There is a kind of cylindrical base in the Louvre, which
appears to have been cut from a material differing in no respect
from that of the object figured above. Lions’ heads appear upon it
also.
[194] Upon the employment of the head and paws of the lion
as an ornament, see also Layard, Nineveh, vol. ii. p. 301.
[195] In the inventory this monument is described as acquired
in Syria, that is to say it was bought from M. Peretié, at Beyrout.
M. Peretié was a well-known collector, and objects found in
Mesopotamia were continually brought to him from Mossoul,
Bagdad, and Bassorah. There can be no doubt as to the origin of
this little monument; the execution is certainly Chaldæan or
Assyrian. The same monster, rampant, is to be found on the
Assyrian cylinder described by M. Lenormant under the title, Le
Dieu-lune délivré de l’Attaque des mauvais Esprits (Gazette
archéologique, 1878, p. 20).
[196] As to where this colossus was found, see Layard,
Nineveh, vol. i. p. 68.
[197] De Longperier, Deux bronzes Antiques de Van (in his
Œuvres, vol. i. pp. 275–278).
[198] In de Longperier’s reproduction of one of these figures,
the ring attached to its back is shown.
[199] G. Perrot, Les Fouilles de M. de Sarzec en Chaldée, in
the Revue des deux Mondes, for October 1, 1882. A methodical
account of the whole enterprise will be found in a forthcoming
work, which will bear for title: Découvertes en Chaldée, par M. E.
de Sarzec, ouvrage publié par les soins de la conservation des
antiquités orientales au Musée du Louvre. Its quarto size will
make it a more convenient work than those of Botta and Place.
The illustrations will be produced by the Dujardin heliogravure
process.
[200] Saïd-Hassan and Chatra, of which we have made use to
give some approximate idea as to where Tello is situated, are
marked upon the map given by Loftus (Travels and Researches,
&c.).
[201] Vol. I. Chap. I. § 4.
[202] M. Oppert believes that he has discovered in the
inscriptions of Gudea, proof that the stone he employed came
from Egypt. We cannot attempt to discuss the phrases which
seem to him to bear that sense. We have some difficulty,
however, in believing either that they took the trouble to transport
such ponderous blocks across the desert, or that they sent them
on a voyage round the whole peninsula of Arabia, a voyage that
must have lasted some months, and that when similar materials
were within reach. See what Mr. Taylor says about the district
which is called Hedjra (heap of stones, from Hadjar, stone), from
the numerous masses of black granite that may be found there.
This district is almost opposite Schenafieh, not far from Bahr-ul-
nejef (Notes on Abou-Sharein, p. 404, of vol. xv, of the Royal
Asiatic Society’s Journal).
[203] Heuzey, Les Fouilles de la Chaldée, p. 16 (extracted
from the Revue archéologique for January, 1881).
[204] Perhaps we should rather give the Chaldæan artist the
credit of having produced a not untruthful bird’s-eye view. The
bodies in the sepulchre are evidently stretched side by side, and
they diminish in size from front to back, as their distance from the
eye of the spectator increases. The two living men are mounting
upon the edge, or wall, of the grave, an edge such as the tomb
figured on p. 358 of Vol. I. (Fig. 164) must have had before its lid
was put on. In these two figures there is an unmistakable attempt
to give the effect of distance in varying their size. A curious detail
in this relief is the post with a rope knotted round it that appears in
the lower left hand corner.—Ed.
[205] It has been thought that the inscriptions contain proof,
that, during the period, to which this primitive art belongs, Sirtella
was the capital of a small independent kingdom, while the title of
Gudea (patési, or governor) would seem to show that in his time it
formed part of a larger state. Gudea can only have been a great
feudatory; his position must have been similar to the nome
princes in Egypt. Heuzey, in the Comptes rendus de l’Académie
des Inscriptions for 18 August, 1882.
[206] A tenth statue of Gudea, very much mutilated, is not yet
exhibited. There is also the lower part of a small seated statue,
without inscription.
[207] The great seated statue that occupies the middle of the
room is five feet three inches in height, and has no head. One of
the standing statues is four feet eight inches high. The one
figured in our Plate VI. is only four feet two inches. The small
statue called the architect (Fig. 96) is three feet one inch. It will be
seen that some of these figures are over, and some under, life-
size; one only, if we allow for the head, will correspond with what
we may call the height of a man.
[208] Letter from M. de Sarzec read to the Académie des
Inscriptions on the 2nd December, 1881 (reprinted in Heuzey,
Fouilles de Chaldée).
[209] On the knees of these seated figures we find the scale,
the stylus and the plan of a fortified city that we explained on
pages 327 and 328 of our first volume.
[210] Heuzey, Les Fouilles de Chaldée, p. 12.
[211] Some may be inclined to think that the bald head may
once have been protected by a covering cut from a separate
block. This idea was suggested to us by the existence in the
British Museum of a kind of wig of black stone (Nimroud Gallery,
case H). It is carved to imitate hair, and, in front, has a kind of
crest, the whole being cut from one piece of stone. It may have
been used to surmount a limestone figure, and the contrast
between the light colour of the one material, and the blackness of
the other would be neither unpleasant nor unfitting. In another
case (A) of the same gallery, we find beards and wigs made some
of glass, others of a sandy frit imitating lapis-lazuli. The use of
these disconnected pieces must then have been very
widespread. But we doubt whether the Tello head ever had such
a covering, because that part of its surface which would in such a
case have been hidden from sight, is finished with the same care
as all the rest. If the artist had included a wig in his calculations,
would he have taken the pains he did with the modelling and
polishing of the cranium?
[212] In the sculptures representing the erection of
Sennacherib’s palace, many of the workmen have their heads
protected from the sun by a turban resembling that of the Tello
statue. This can hardly be clearly seen in small scale
reproductions (Vol. I. Figs. 151 and 152), but Layard gives two of
these heads on the original scale, for the express purpose of
calling attention to their singular head-dress (Monuments, series
ii. plate 16).
[213] Here M. Heuzey answers M. Ménant, who thought he
could discover in these two heads that the sculptor’s models had
not been Semites, but belonged to the primitive race, of
Turanians, no doubt, by whom the Chaldæan civilization was
founded (Les Fouilles de M. de Sarzec en Mesopotamia, in the
number for December, 1880, of the Gazette des Beaux-Arts).
[214] Heuzey, Les Fouilles, &c., p. ii.
[215] Heuzey, Les Fouilles de Chaldée, pp. 13, 14.
[216] De Longpérier, Musée Napoléon III., plate 2.
[217] Art in Ancient Egypt, vol. ii. fig. 271.
[218] Heuzey, Catalogue, p. 32.
[219] Heuzey, Les Fouilles de la Chaldée, p. 15.
[220] We may give as an instance the very small fragment of a
relief in white stone, representing the Indian humped bull, the
zebu, which has also been met with in the Assyrian bas-reliefs.
The treatment is very fine.
[221] See De Longperier, Monuments antiques de la
Chaldée decouverts et rapportés par M. de Sarzec (Œuvres, vol.
i. p. 335). The learned archæologist, of whom the writing of this
paper was one of the last occupations, saw in this fragment
evidence of worship rendered to the great rivers that watered and
fertilized Mesopotamia; the double stream of water is the symbol
of Naharaim, or “the two rivers,” a symbol whose presence in
other objects from the same region he points out.
[222] Loftus (Travels, p. 116), describes a statue of black
granite that he found at Hammam in lower Chaldæa. So far as we
can tell from his short description, it must bear no slight
resemblance to the Tello statues. The right shoulder was bare
and had an inscription engraved upon it. The rest of the figure
was clothed, and the hands were crossed upon the knees. The
head was missing. At Warka the same traveller saw a bas-relief
representing a man striking an animal; it was of basalt and was
broken into several pieces. Among the objects acquired in 1877
by the British Museum, I find mentioned “a fragment of black
granite or basalt, which seems to belong to a statue of
Hammourabi, king of Babylon about 1,500 years before our era.”
(Account of the Income and Expenditure of the British Museum
for 1878.) Is not this the broken statue which now figures in the
gallery under the name of Gudea? At the first moment the
inscription may not have been readily deciphered; the summary
report presented to Parliament seems, indeed, to name
Hammourabi with some hesitation.
 [223] This type comes from Tello. Among the statuettes found
there by M. de Sarzec, there were some in which it was
reproduced, but they were all inferior to the example figured
above. Layard found statuettes inspired by the same motive in a
mound near Bagdad (Discoveries, p. 477).
[224] Heuzey, Catalogue, p. 30.
[225] Ibid. p. 35.
[226] Layard found this type near Bagdad (Discoveries, p.
477), and Loftus encountered a great number of examples in his
explorations at Susa (Travels, &c., p. 379). Those brought by him
to London are quite similar to the statuette in the Louvre that we
have chosen for reproduction (Heuzey, Catalogue, p. 32).
[227] In the case of the Caillou Michaux, this has been clearly
established by M. Oppert (Expédition scientifique, vol. i. pp. 253,
254). He remarks that the betrothed of the person who had
caused the stone to be cut, is spoken of as a “native of the town
of Sargon;” so that the stone must be later than the end of the
eighth century, b.c. And all the monuments belonging to this class
bear such a strong mutual resemblance, that their dates cannot
be very widely separated. They are reproduced on a large scale,
both texts and figures, in the Cuneiform inscriptions of Western
Asia, vol. iii. plates 41–45, and vol. iv. plates 41–43. We have
reproduced two, in vol. i. fig. 10, and above, fig. 43.
[228] According to Millin, who was the first to draw attention
to this monument, its material is a black marble; it would be a
mistake to call it basalt (Monuments antique inedits, vol. i. p. 60,
note 6). The inscription on the Caillou Michaux has been
translated by Oppert (Chronologie des Assyriens et des
Babylonians, p. 40), and by Fox Talbot in the Journal of the
Royal Asiatic Society, vol. xviii. pp. 53–75. [There is a cast of this
Caillou in the Assyrian Side Room at the British Museum.—Ed.]
[229] The weight of these objects was in itself sufficient to
prevent them being easily removed. The Caillou Michaux weighs
rather more than 70 lbs.
[230] Heuzey, Catalogue, p. 32.
[231] Ἔστι δὲ τοῦ ἐν Βαβυλῶνι ἱροῦ καὶ ἄλλος κάτω νηός, ἔνθα
ἄγαλμα μέγα τοῦ Διὸς ἔνι κατήμενον χρύσεον (i. 183).
[232] Ἐπ’ ἄκρας τῆς ἀναβάσεως τρία κατέσκευασεν ἀγάλματα
χρυσὰ σφυρήλατα, Διός, Ἥρας, Ῥέας. Diodorus, ii. ix. 5–8.
 [233] The Five Great Monarchies, &c., vol. ii. p. 79.
[234] See ante.
[235] Layard, Monuments, second series, plate 5.
[236] For the reasons which led him to take this step, see the
Introduction to the first series of plates published in the
Monuments.
[237] The original arrangement of these things is shown in the
second series of Layard’s Monuments, plate 4.
[238] We have round-headed steles of Assurnazirpal, of
Shalmaneser II., of Samas-vul II., and of Sargon. Those of other
princes are figured in the reliefs. In the Balawat gates we find
Shalmaneser erecting them wherever his conquests led him
(plate 12).
[239] We have not copied the uniform dark green tint forced
upon the English publication by the necessity for printing in one
colour. We have borrowed from the fragments in the possession
of M. Schlumberger the broken hues of the patina deposited upon
the bronze by age, a patina which has, perhaps, been too much
removed by the cleaning to which the pieces in London have
been subjected.
[240] In page 3 of his Introduction, Mr. Pinches speaks of a
“crocodile and a young hippopotamus.” I do not think that either of
those animals can ever have lived in the cold waters of Lake Van,
which receives, in the spring, such a large quantity of melted
snow.
On the other hand, the argument applied by M. Perrot to
architectural forms (see vol. i. pp. 139 (note 2) and 395), may
here be invoked by Mr. Pinches. It is more likely that the artist
introduced such animals as were to be found in the rivers and
meres of Mesopotamia, than that he ascertained how Lake Van
was peopled before he began his work.—Ed.
[241] In order that we might give two interesting subjects on a
single page, we have here brought together two divisions that do
not belong to the same band in the original.
[242] Herodotus, i. 184.
[243] In repeating this hypothesis we have followed Professor
Rawlinson (The Five Great Monarchies, vol. ii. pp. 119–121); to
us it appears worthy of extreme respect.
 [244] See above, page 40.
[245] See also Layard, Monuments, first series, plates 57–67.
[246] Among the reliefs in which the transport of the materials
for Sargon’s palace is represented, there is one which shows
timber being dragged down to the Phœnician coast. Here the sea
is no longer indicated merely by sinuous lines and a few fishes as
in most of the earlier reliefs; there are all kinds of animals, shells,
turtles, crabs, frogs, and even sea-serpents (Botta, Monument
de Ninive, plate 34). In one place we find a wooded hill, with trees
still of indeterminate form (plate 78). In another we may recognize
pines in the forest traversed by the Assyrian cavalry (plates 108–
113); birds fly among the branches and several among them fall
pierced with the arrows of the hunters. Other trees bear fruit
(plate 114). Partridges run upon the slopes of the hill. See also in
the basalt reliefs from the building we have called a temple, a
coniferous tree of some kind, probably a cypress, the general
form of which is very well rendered (Place, Ninive, plate 48).
[247] This stele now belongs to the Berlin Museum. It has
recently been the subject of an important work by a learned
German Assyriologist, Herr Schrader (Die Sargonstele des
Berliner Museums, in the Abhandlungen of the Berlin Academy
for 1881). He gives a translation of the inscription, with a
commentary, showing the date of the stele to be 707, or the
fifteenth year of Sargon’s reign.
[248] These lions are figured by Layard, Monuments, first
series, vol. i. p. 128. Their inscriptions are brought together in a
single plate in the Discoveries, p. 601. The Aramaic texts will be
published in the Corpus inscriptionum Semiticorum, in the first
instalment of the part devoted to Aramaic inscriptions.
These lions of Khorsabad and Nimroud may be compared,
both for type and use, to the bronze lion found at Abydos, on the
Hellespont, in 1860. M. de Vogué has made us acquainted with
the latter in the pages of the Revue archéologique for January,
1862. His article, which contains a reproduction both of the
monument as a whole and of its inscription, and an explanation of
the latter, has been reprinted in the Mélanges d’archéologie
orientale (8vo. 1868, pp. 179–196). Mr. Norris has published a
special study of the weights in the British Museum (On the
Assyrian and Babylonian Weights, in the Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society, vol. xvi. p. 215).
 [249] Botanists are of opinion that the conventional
representations of the marsh vegetation suggests the horse-
grass, or shave-grass (prêle), rather than the arundo-donax, in
which the leaves are longer and thinner.
[250] See Layard, Monuments, second series, plates 12 and
13.
[251] Layard, Monuments, second series, plates 14, 15.
[252] Layard, Monuments, second series, plate 17.
[253] Sennacherib caused his sculptors to celebrate the
campaign in which he subdued the peoples of Lower Chaldæa.
Like the Arab of to-day, they took refuge when pursued among the
marshes in the neighbourhood of the Persian Gulf (Layard,
Monuments, second series, plate 25). The light, flat-bottomed
boats, with their sharp prows, are shown pushing through the
reeds, and bending them down into the water to clear a passage.
[254] The slabs taken from this corridor are now in the
Kouyundjik Gallery of the British Museum, and numbered from 37
to 43. See also Layard’s Monuments, second series, plates 7–9.
[255] See Layard, Monuments, second series, plates 47–49.
&c.
[256] These sculptures were discovered and described for the
first time by M. Rouet, the immediate successor of M. Botta, at
Mossoul (Journal Asiatique, 1846, pp. 280–290). More detailed
descriptions will be found in Layard, Discoveries, pp. 207–216,
and in Place, Ninive, vol. ii. pp. 161–164. The latest and most
complete translation of the Bavian inscriptions, or rather of the
one inscription that is repeated in three different places, has been
given by M. Pognon, under the following title: L’Inscription de
Bavian, texte, Traduction et Commentaire philologique avec trois
Appendices et un Glossaire, 1 vol. 8vo. in two parts, 1879 and
1880 (in the Bibliothèque de l’École des Hautes-Études).
[257] Layard, Discoveries, p. 216.
[258] Layard tells us that near the entrance to the gorge, and
under the alluvial earth carried down by the stream, he found the
remains of carefully-built stone walls, but he is silent as to the
character of the building to which they may have belonged.
(Discoveries, p. 215.)
[259] See the vignette on page 214 of Layard’s Discoveries.
 [260] Perrot and Guillaume, Exploration archéologique de
la Galatie, vol. i. pp. 367–373, and vol. ii. plates 72–80.
[261] Layard, Discoveries, p. 210.
[262] Layard, Discoveries, p. 211.
[263] Mr. Layard intended to give accurate and complete
drawings of all the bas-reliefs at Bavian. For that purpose he
despatched to the valley a young artist named Bell, who had been
sent out to him by the authorities of the British Museum.
Unhappily, this young man was drowned while bathing in the
torrent, in July, 1851. Before his death he seems only to have
copied the great relief; hence, in Layard’s great work Bavian is
represented only by the plate we have copied. In the Discoveries
a few additional sketches are given.
[264] Page 203.
[265] In the valley of the Nahr-el-Kelb, there are five or six
Assyrian reliefs mingled with those of Egyptian origin. They may
at once be distinguished from the works of the Rameses by their
arched tops. The only one of which the inscriptions are still
legible, is that of Esarhaddon (see Monuments inédits de l’Institut
de Correspondance archéologique, 1858, plate 51, fig. f, and
especially Lepsius, Ægyptische Denkmæler, part iii. plate 197,
fig. d). Judging from their style and the historical information we
possess, these steles may be attributed to Tiglath-Pilezer,
Assurnazirpal, Shalmaneser II., and Sennacherib. The remaining
figures must be referred to other princes. Quite lately Mr.
Boscawen has published an interesting article (The Monuments
and Inscriptions on the Rocks at Nahr-el-Kelb) in the seventh
volume of the Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology
(pp. 331–352). It is accompanied by a general view of the site,
and a very careful plan of that part of the valley in which the
Egyptian and Assyrian inscriptions are to be found. Professor
Lortet has also paid a recent visit to the valley. We are indebted
to one of his photographs for our fig. 122 (Tour du Monde, 1882,
p. 415). We should have expected to find traces of these Assyrian
rock-sculptures on the shores of Lake Van, where the princes of
Nineveh so often appeared as conquerors: so far, however,
nothing beyond cuneiform inscriptions has been found. There are
no royal effigies (Schulze, Mémoire sur le Lac de Van, in the
Journal Asiatique for April-June, 1840, and Layard, Discoveries,
chapter xviii.).
 [266] Layard, Discoveries, p. 369.
[267] Place, Ninive, vol. ii. p. 154.
[268] See vol. i. page 75, and fig. 13.
[269] The bas-reliefs of Malthaï have been described by
Layard (Nineveh, vol. i. pp. 230, 231), and, with greater
minuteness, by Place (Ninive, vol. ii. pp. 153–160). The latter
alone gives a reproduction of them, made from photographs.
Between the two accounts there is one considerable discrepancy:
Layard speaks of four groups of nine figures each, Place of three
only.
[270] Other cylinders belonging to the same group will be
found reproduced in Layard Recherches sur le Culte de Vénus,
notably in plate iv. figs. 9–12.
[271] French National Library, No. 710.
[272] Florence Museum.
[273] Art in Ancient Egypt, vol. i. pp. 120–122.
[274] Flandin published in the Revue des deux Mondes (15
June, and 1 July, 1845), two papers under the general title of
Voyage archéologique à Ninive, and headed severally
L’Architecture assyrienne, and La Sculpture assyrienne. The
assertion to which we have alluded will be found in the second of
the two articles, at page 106.
[275] Botta, Monument de Ninive, vol. v. p. 178.
[276] Place, Ninive, vol. ii. pp. 82, 83.
[277] Ibid. vol. iii. plate 46, No. 4.
[278] Botta (Monument de Ninive, vol. v. p. 178.) Layard,
Nineveh, vol. ii. p. 310.
[279] Upon this question of polychromy in the reliefs, a very
precise note of Layard’s may be consulted with profit (Nineveh,
vol. ii. p. 312). The discussion has also been very judiciously
summed up by Rawlinson (The Five Great Monarchies, vol. i.
pp. 357–365). One of the plates from which we may gather the
best idea of how this sculpture must have looked when its
colouring was intact, is that in which Layard gives a reproduction
of one of the winged bulls as it appeared when first uncovered
(Monuments, first series, plate 92).
[280] Botta, Monument de Ninive, plates 12 and 14.