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YOUR PERSONALIZED STUDY PROGR AM YOUR PERSONALIZED STUDY PROGR AM
To Access Your Online Course:
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1 www.mheducation.com/5stepslit Customizable Study Plan
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Games Center
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Interactive Lessons
cover entire book
mhaptyuh429 Practice Tests

designed to simulate the real thing
Enter your e-mail address and Practice Questions

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most needed
Digital Flashcards
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5 STEPS TO A 5 ™
AP English Literature
and Composition
2023
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
CONTENTS
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xi
Credits xiii
About the Authors xv
Introduction: The Five-Step Program xvii
STEP 1 Set Up Your Study Program

1 What You Should Know About the AP Literature Exam 3
Background on the Advanced Placement Exam 4
Reasons for Taking the Advanced Placement Exam 5
What You Need to Know About the AP Lit Exam 5
2 How to Plan Your Time 9
Three Approaches to Preparing for the AP Literature Exam 9
Calendars for Preparing for the AP Literature Exam 11
STEP 2 Determine Your Test Readiness

3 The Diagnostic/Master Exam 17
A Walk Through the Diagnostic/Master Exam 17
Diagnostic/Master Exam 19
Afterword 32
STEP 3 Develop Strategies for Success

4 Section I of the Exam: The Multiple-Choice Questions 35
Introduction to the Multiple-Choice Section of the Exam 35
Types of Multiple-Choice Questions 38
Scoring the Multiple-Choice Section 40
Strategies for Answering the Multiple-Choice Questions 41
Answer Sheet for Diagnostic Multiple-Choice Questions 49
The Multiple-Choice Section of the Diagnostic/Master Exam 51
Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions 62
Answers and Explanations 63
5 The Prose Passage Essay 67
Introduction to the Prose Passage Essay 67
Types of Prose Passage Essay Questions 68
Rating the Prose Passage Essay 69
Timing the Essay 71
Working the Prompt 71
Reading and Notating the Prose Passage 72
Writing the Opening Paragraph 76
Writing the Body 78
Sample Student Essays 80
❮ v

vi ❯ Contents
Rating the Student Essays 82

Rapid Review 85
6 The Poetry Essay 87
Introduction to the Poetry Essay 87
Types of Prompts Used for the Poetry Essay 88
Timing and Planning the Poetry Essay 89
Working the Prompt 89
Reading and Notating the Poetry Selection 90
Writing the Opening Paragraph 95
Writing the Body of the Poetry Essay 96
Rapid Review 101
7 The Free-Response Essay/Literary Argument 103
Introduction to the Free-Response Essay/Literary Argument 103
Types of Free-Response Prompts 106
General Rubrics for the Free-Response Essay 107
Timing and Planning the Free-Response Essay 107
Working the Prompt from the Diagnostic/Master Exam 108
Developing the Opening Paragraph 112
Developing the Body of the Essay 113
Final Comments 117
Rapid Review 117
Steps to Achieving Six Points for the AP English Literature Exam Essays 119
STEP 4 Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High

Introduction to Review Section 123
8 Comprehensive Review—Prose 125
Introduction to Prose 125
Five Aspects of Every Narrative 126
Types of Novels 131
Literary Terminology 132
Prose Analysis 134
Final Comments 136
Rapid Review 137
9 Comprehensive Review—Poetry 139
Introduction to Poetry 139
The Structure of Poetry 140
Types of Poetry 142
Interpretation of Poetry 155
Poems for Comparison and Contrast 161
Rapid Review 163

Contents ❮ vii
10 A Practical Approach—PLOTSUMAR 165

Introduction to PLOTSUMAR 165
PLOTSUMAR in Action 166
Applying PLOTSUMAR to a Poem 170
PLOTSUMAR Techniques 172
Rapid Review 175
STEP 5 Build Your Test-Taking Confidence

Practice Exam 1 179
Section I 181
Section II 192
Rating the Essay Section 199
Practice Exam 2 209
Section I 211
Section II 221
Rating the Essay Section 228
ELITE 5 Minutes to a 5
STUDENT 180 Activities and Questions in 5 Minutes a Day 239
EDITION
Appendixes
Suggested Reading Guide 565
Classicism 565
Realism 566
Romanticism 567
Impressionism 568
Expressionism 568
Naturalism 569
General Bibliography 571
Recommended Poets 571
Recommended Authors 571
Glossary 575
Websites 579


BIBLIOGRAPHY
PREFACE
Welcome to our latest revised AP Literature class. As we said in the earlier versions of this
book, we are first and foremost teachers who have taught Advanced Placement to literally
thousands of students who successfully took the AP exam. With this guide, we hope to
share with you what we know as well as what we have learned from our own students.
We see you as a student in our class—only quieter! Our philosophy has always been
NOT to teach only for the AP test. Instead, our goal has always been to develop those
insights, appreciations, and skills that lead to advanced levels of facility with literature and
composition. These are the very same skills which will enable you to do well on the AP
Literature exam. Our aim is to remove your anxiety and to improve your comfort level with
the test. We believe that you are already motivated to succeed; otherwise, you would not
have come this far. And, obviously, you would not have purchased this prep book.
Since you are already in an English class, this book is going to supplement your lit-
erature course readings, analysis, and writing. We are going to give you the opportunity to
practice processes and techniques that we know from experience REALLY WORK! If you
apply the techniques and processes presented in this book, we are confident you can suc-
ceed in both the course and on the exam.
We have listened to comments and suggestions from both instructors and students of
AP English Literature, and keeping their thoughts in mind, this revised text has more inter-
active activities and practice to help hone those skills needed to do well in class and on the
AP Literature exam. In addition, there are special review questions and activities related to
specific chapters that McGraw Hill has available on its website devoted to the 5 Steps series.
There you can test how well you have internalized the material in the chapter.
Let’s begin.
❮ ix


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our love and appreciation to Allan and to Leah for their constant support and encourage-
ment. Our very special thanks to our professional mentors who have guided us throughout
our careers: Steven Piorkowski and Howard Damon. To the following for their support and
suggestions: Diane Antonucci, Richard Andres, Mary Moran, Mike Thier, Mark Misthal,
Dave Martin, Edward Stern, Christine Scarf, John Smales, and Michael Hartnett—thank
you.
The authors wish to acknowledge the participation, insights, and feedback provided us
by the following colleagues and students:
Islip High School:
Teacher: Marge Grossgold
Students: Caitlin Rizzo and Katelyn Zawyrucha
Jericho High School:
Teachers: Diane Antonucci, Michael Hartnett
Students: Tara Arschin, Samantha Brody, Jenna Butner, Julie Ivans, Grace Kwak,
Ari Weiss, Erica Ross, David Swidler, and Sherli Yeroushalmi
Massapequa High School:
Teachers: Sue Bruno and Rosemary Verade
Student: Margaretta Dimos
Solomon Schechter School:
Teachers: Dennis Young and Miriam Fischer
Students: Yadin Duckstein, Ari Lucas, and Jonathan Kotter
Wantagh High School:
Teachers: Sherry Skolnick and Pat Castellano
Student: Lauren Manning
Also, our thanks to Danielle Tumminio and Andrew Brotman.
❮ xi


BIBLIOGRAPHY
CREDITS
From AS I LAY DYING by William Faulkner, copyright © 1930 and renewed 1958 by
William Faulkner. Used by permission of Random House, Inc.
“To David, About His Education,” by Howard Nemerov, from VOICES: THE 6th BOOK
edited by Geoffrey Summerfield, published by Rand McNally and Company, Chicago,
1969. Used by permission of Margaret Nemerov.
“The Flowers” from IN LOVE & TROUBLE: STORIES OF BLACK WOMEN,
copyright © 1973 by Alice Walker. Reprinted by permission of Harcourt, Inc.
“Now Goes Under” by Edna St. Vincent Millay. From COLLECTED POEMS,
HarperCollins. Copyright © 1928, 1955 by Edna St. Vincent Millay and Norma Millay
Ellis. All rights reserved. Reprinted by permission of Elizabeth Barnett, literary executor.
“On the Subway” from THE GOLD CELL by Sharon Olds, copyright © 1987 by Sharon
Olds. Used by permission of Alfred A. Knopf, a division of Random House, Inc.
“Love Poem” by John Frederick Nims. From SELECTED POEMS BY JOHN F. NIMS,
University of Chicago Press. Copyright © 1982 by John F. Nims. Reprinted by permission
of Bonnie Larkin Nims.
“The Naked and the Nude,” by Robert Graves, from COMPLETE POEMS by Robert
Graves. Used by permission of Carcanet Press Limited, Manchester, England. On behalf of
the Trustees of the Robert Graves Copyright Trust.
“Snake,” from THE COMPLETE POEMS OF D. H. LAWRENCE by D. H. Lawrence,
Viking Press, 1964. Used by permission of Laurence Pollinger Limited and the Estate of
Frieda Lawrence Ravagli.
“The Writer” from THE MIND-HEALER, copyright © 1971 by Richard Wilbur.
Reprinted by permission of Harcourt, Inc.
“The Good Life,” by Tracy K. Smith, from LIFE ON MARS, copyright © 2011 by Tracy
K. Smith. Used by permission of The Permissions Company, LLC on behalf of Graywolf
Press.
“Almost Livin’ Almost Dyin’,” by Juan Felipe Herrera, from NOTES ON THE
ASSEMBLAGE, copyright © 2015 by Juan Felipe Herrera. Used by permission of The
Permissions Company, LLC on behalf of City Lights Books.
“Litany” by Billy Collins, from NINE HORSES: POEMS, copyright © 2008 by Billy
Collins. Used by permission of Random House, an imprint and division of Penguin
Random House LLC.
“The Peculiar Second Marriage of Archie Jones,” by Zadie Smith, from WHITE TEETH:
A NOVEL, copyright © 2000 by Zadie Smith. Used by permission of Random House, an
imprint and division of Penguin Random House LLC.
“Literature Prose Analysis Flow Chart” by Wendy Ramos. Copyright 2020 by Wendy
Ramos. Reprinted by permission of Wendy Ramos.
“Beginnings” from SPLIT AT THE ROOT by Leah Napolin, copyright © 2018. Used by
permission of the author’s estate.
❮ xiii


ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Michael Hartnett has been a high school AP Literature teacher and college professor for
more than 30 years. He received his PhD in Literature from the State University of New
York at Stony Brook. He is the author of six published novels, the latest being Death Canal
(Black Rose Writing, 2022), and he has also worked as an editor for the literary magazine
Confrontation. Michael is the coauthor of the 5 Minutes to a 5 section of 5 Steps to a 5: AP
English Literature, Elite Edition.
Barbara L. Murphy taught AP Language and other college-level courses at Jericho High
School for over 26 years. She is a long-time reader of the AP English Language exam and
is a consultant for the College Board’s AP Language and Composition and Building for
Success divisions, for which she has conducted workshops, conferences, and Summer
Institutes.
After earning her BA from Duquesne University and her MA from the University of
Pittsburgh, Ms. Murphy did her doctoral course work at Columbia University. She also
holds professional certifications in still photography and motion picture production and is
one of the founding members of the women’s film company Ishtar Films.
So much of the primary planning, organization, choice of texts, and activities in this book
is due to the knowledge, determination, love of students, and bountiful sense of humor of
Estelle M. Rankin, original coauthor of 5 Steps to a 5: AP English Literature.
Ms. Murphy and Ms. Rankin are also the coauthors of McGraw Hill’s 5 Steps to a 5:
AP English Language, Writing the AP English Essay, and Writing an Outstanding College
Application Essay.
❮ xv


INTRODUCTION:
THE FIVE-STEP PROGRAM
Some Basics
Consider this section as a map of the new territory you are going to explore. We will provide
the general directions, and you can decide when, where, and how you will follow this map.
Reading
We believe that reading should be an exciting interaction between you and the writer. You
have to bring your own context to the experience, and you must feel comfortable reaching
for and exploring ideas. You are an adventurer on a journey of exploration, and we will act
as your guides. We will set the itinerary, but you will set your own pace. You can feel free
to “stop and smell the roses” or to explore new territory.
The Journey
On any journey, each traveler sees something different on new horizons. So, too, each stu-
dent is free to personalize his or her own literary experience, provided he or she tries at all
times to strive for excellence and accuracy.
Critical Thinking
There are no tricks to critical thinking. Those who claim to guarantee you a score of 5 with
gimmicks are doing you a disservice. No one can guarantee a 5; however, the reading and
writing skills you will review, practice, and master will give you the very best chance to do
your very best. You will have the opportunity to learn, to practice, and to master the critical
thinking processes that can empower you to achieve your highest score.
The Beginning
It is our belief that if you focus on the beginning, the rest will fall into place. Once you
purchase this book and decide to work your way through it, you are beginning your jour-
ney to the AP Literature exam. We will be with you every step of the way.
Why This Book?

We believe we have something unique to offer you. For over 25 years we have addressed the
needs of AP students just like you. And we’ve been fortunate to learn from these students.
Therefore, the content of this book reflects genuine student concerns and needs. This is a
student-oriented book. We will not overwhelm you with pompous language, mislead you
with inaccurate information and tasks, or lull you into a false sense of confidence with easy
shortcuts. We stand behind every suggestion, process, and question we present. There is no
“busywork” in this book.
❮ xvii

xviii ❯ Introduction: The Five-Step Program
We know you will not do every activity. Therefore, think of this book as a resource and
guide to accompany you on your AP Literature journey to the exam. This book is designed
to serve many purposes. It will:
• Clarify requirements for the AP English Literature exam.
• Provide you with test practice.
• Show you rubrics (grading standards) on which you can model and evaluate your own work.
• Anticipate and answer your questions.
• Enrich your understanding and appreciation of literature.
• Help you pace yourself.
• Make you aware of the Five Steps to Mastering the AP English Literature exam.
Organization of the Book

We know that your primary concern is to obtain information about the AP Literature
exam. So, we begin at the beginning with an overview of the AP exam in general. We then
introduce you to our Diagnostic/Master exam, which we use throughout the book to show
you the ins and outs of an AP Literature test. In separate chapters you will become familiar
with both sections of the exam. We will lead you through the multiple-choice questions and
explain how you should answer them. Then we will take you through the essay questions
and discuss approaches to writing these essays.
Because you must be fluent in the language and processes of literary analysis and com-
position, we provide a Comprehensive Review section in both prose and poetry. This review
is not a mere listing of terms and concepts. Rather, it is a series of practices that will hone
your analytical and writing skills. But, do not fear. You will find terms and concepts clearly
delineated within their contexts. We also provide annotated suggestions for high-interest
prose and poetry readings.
A separate section of the book contains practice exams. Here is where you will test
your skills and knowledge. You may be sure that the prose and poetry selections included
in each exam are on the AP level. The multiple-choice questions provide you with practice
in responding to typical types of questions asked in past AP exams. The essay questions are
designed to cover the techniques and terms required by the AP exam. The free-response
essays are both challenging and specific, yet they are broad enough to suit all curricula. After
taking each test, you can check yourself against the explanations of every multiple-choice
question and the ratings of the sample student essays.
The final section is one that you should not pass over. It presents a Suggested Reading
Guide, a General Bibliography, a Glossary of Terms that may be of importance to you, and
a list of websites related to the AP Literature exam.
Introduction to the Five-Step Preparation Program

The Five-Step Program is a powerful program designed to provide you with the best
possible skills, strategies, and practice to help lead you to that perfect 5 on the Advanced
Placement English Literature exam that is administered each May to more than 350,000
high school students. Each of the five steps will provide you with the opportunity to get
closer and closer to the 5, which is the gold medal to all AP students.

Introduction: The Five-Step Program ❮ xix
Step 1: Set Up Your Study Program

• Useful information about the Advanced Placement program and exams
• Three alternative study schedules and advice for determining which is best for you
Step 2: Determine Your Test Readiness

• A first look at the overall exam, to be repeated in greater detail later
Step 3: Develop Strategies for Success

• Learn about the test itself
• Learn to read multiple-choice questions
• Learn how to answer multiple-choice questions, including whether or not to guess
• Learn how to deconstruct the essay prompts
• Learn how to plan the essay
Step 4: Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High

• Practice activities that will hone your skills in close reading
• Practice activities in critical thinking
• Practice activities in critical/analytical writing
Step 5: Build Your Test-Taking Confidence

• Two practice exams that test how well honed your skills are
• Rubrics for self-evaluation
Finally, at the back of the book you’ll find additional resources to aid your preparation.
These include:
• A comprehensive review of literary analysis
• A glossary of terms
• A bibliography for further reading
• A list of websites related to the AP English Literature exam
The Graphics Used in This Book

To emphasize particular skills and strategies, we use several icons throughout this book. An
icon in the margin will alert you that you should pay particular attention to the accompa-
nying text. We use three icons:
KEY IDEA
This icon points out a very important concept or fact that you should not pass over.
This icon calls your attention to a problem-solving strategy that you may want to try.
STRATEGY
This icon indicates a tip that you might find useful.

TIP

xx ❯ Introduction: The Five-Step Program
Boldfaced and italicized words indicate important terms as well as those that are
included in the Glossary at the back of the book.
Throughout the book you will find margin notes and boxes. We want you to pay close
attention to these areas because they can provide tips, hints, strategies, and explanations
that will help you reach your full potential.

5 STEPS TO A 5 ™
and Composition
2023


STEP 1
Set Up Your Study Program
CHAPTER 1 What You Should Know About the AP Literature Exam
How to Plan Your Time
CHAPTER 2
AP English Literature 2023_Elite_CHAP.indd 1 5/27/22 11:49 AM


CHAPTER
1
What You Should Know About
the AP Literature Exam
IN THIS CHAPTER
Summary: Information about the AP English Literature and Composition
exam and its scoring
KEY IDEA Key Ideas

✪ Learn answers to frequently asked questions
✪ Learn how your final score is calculated
✪ Learn tips for successfully taking the exam
The College Board has introduced changes that will be reflected

in the AP English Literature exam.
You should be aware of the following:
The rating of the exam will remain 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
Multiple choice will comprise 45% of the final score, with the essay section of the
exam comprising 55%.
• There are no changes to MC questions.
• There are no changes to the types of prompts (FRQ): poetry + prose + free
response
• There is renewed emphasis on skills development in consideration of prose +
poetry + longer works
❮ 3

4 ❯ STEP 1. Set Up Your Study Program
• The MAJOR CHANGE is in the method of rating essays

• From holistic to analytic
• From 9 points to 6 points
• 6 points
3 1 point for thesis/claim
3 4 points for appropriate evidence and commentary
3 1 point for syntax, diction, and/or complexity
Background on the Advanced Placement Exam

“AP” does not stand for “Always Puzzling.” The following should help lift the veil of
mystery associated with the AP exam.
What Is the Advanced Placement Program?

The Advanced Placement program was begun by the College Board in 1955 to construct
standard achievement exams that would allow highly motivated high school students the
opportunity to be awarded advanced placement as freshmen in colleges and universities in the
United States. Today, there are more than 39 courses and exams with over 2.7 million students
from every state in the nation, and from foreign countries, taking the annual exams in May.
As is obvious, the AP programs are designed for high school students who wish to
take college-level courses. The AP Literature course and exam are designed to involve high
school students in college-level English studies in both literature and composition.
Who Writes the AP Literature Exam?

According to the folks at the College Board, the AP Literature exam is created by col-
lege and high school English instructors called the AP Development Committee. The
committee’s job is to ensure that the annual AP Literature exam reflects what is being taught
and studied in college-level English classes in high schools.
This committee writes a large number of multiple-choice questions that are pretested
and evaluated for clarity, appropriateness, and a range of possible answers. The committee
also generates a pool of essay questions, pretests them, and chooses those questions that best
represent the full range of the scoring scale to allow the AP readers to evaluate the essays fairly.
It is important to remember that the AP Literature exam is thoroughly evaluated after
it is administered each year. This way, the College Board can use the results to make course
suggestions and to plan future tests.
What Are the Advanced Placement Scores, and Who Receives Them?
Once you have taken the exam and it has been scored, your test will be assigned one of five
numbers by the College Board:
• 5 indicates you are extremely well qualified.
• 4 indicates you are well qualified.
• 3 indicates you are qualified.
• 2 indicates you are possibly qualified.
• 1 indicates you are not qualified to receive college credit.
A score of 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 will be reported to your college or university first, to your
high school second, and to you third. All this reporting is usually completed by the middle
to end of July.

What You Should Know About the AP Literature Exam ❮ 5
Reasons for Taking the Advanced Placement Exam

At some point during the year, every AP student asks the ultimate question: Why am I
taking this exam?
Good question. Why put yourself through a year of intensive study, pressure, stress, and
preparation? To be honest, only you can answer that question. Over the years, our students
have indicated to us that there are several prime reasons why they were willing to take the
risk and to put in the effort:
• For personal satisfaction
• To compare themselves with other students across the nation
• Because colleges look favorably on the applications of students who elect to enroll in
AP courses
• To receive college credit or advanced standing at their colleges or universities
• Because they love the subject
• So that their families will really be proud of them
There are plenty of other reasons, but no matter what the other reasons might be, the
top reason for your enrolling in the AP Lit course and taking the exam in May should be
to feel good about yourself and the challenges you have met.
What You Need to Know About the AP Lit Exam

Let’s answer a few of the nitty-gritty questions about the exam and its scoring.
If I Don’t Take an AP Lit Course, Can I Still Take the AP Lit Exam?
Yes. Even though the AP Lit exam is designed for the student who has had a year’s course
in AP Literature, there are high schools that do not offer this type of course, yet there are
students in these high schools who have also done well on the exam. However, if your high
school does offer an AP Lit course, by all means take advantage of it and the structured
background it will provide you.
How Is the Advanced Placement Literature Exam Organized?

The exam has two parts and is scheduled to last 3 hours. The first section is a set of
multiple-choice questions based on a series of prose passages and poems. You will have
1 hour to complete this part of the test. The second section of the exam is a 2-hour essay-
writing segment consisting of three different essays: one on prose, one on poetry, and one
free-response based on a major work of literary complexity.
After you complete the multiple-choice section and hand in your test booklet and
scan sheet, you will be given a brief break. Note that you will not be able to return to the
multiple-choice questions when you return to the examination room.
Must I Check the Box at the End of the Essay Booklet That Allows
the AP People to Use My Essays as Samples for Research?
No. This is simply a way for the College Board to make certain that it has your permission
if it decides to use one or more of your essays as a model. Checking the box will not affect
your grade.

How Is My AP Lit Exam Scored?

Let’s look at the basics first. The multiple-choice section counts for 45 percent of your total
score, and the essay section counts for 55 percent. Next comes a four-part calculation: the
raw scoring of the multiple-choice section, the raw scoring of the essay section, the calcula-
tion of the composite score, and the conversion of the composite score into the AP grade
of 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1.
How Is the Multiple-Choice Section Scored?

The scan sheet with your answers is run through a computer that counts the number of cor-
rect answers. Questions left blank and questions answered incorrectly are treated the same
and get no points. There is no “guessing penalty,” which would involve the deduction of a
fraction of a point for answering a question but getting it wrong.
How Is My Essay Section Scored?

Each of your essays is read by a different, trained AP reader. The AP/College Board people
have developed a highly successful training program for these readers. This factor, together
with many opportunities for checks and double checks of essays, ensures a fair and equita-
ble reading of each essay.
The scoring guides are carefully developed by a chief faculty consultant, a question
leader, table leaders, and content experts. All faculty consultants are then trained to read
and score just one essay question on the exam. They actually become experts in that one
essay question. No one knows the identity of any writer. The identification numbers and
names are covered, and the exam booklets are randomly distributed to the readers in packets
of 25 randomly chosen essays. Table leaders and the question leader review samples of each
reader’s scores to ensure that quality standards are consistent.
Each essay is scored as 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, plus 0, with 6 the highest possible score. Once
your essay is given a number from 6 to 1, the next set of calculations is completed using a
formula developed to account for the score of each essay. This is the raw score for the essay
section of the exam.
(pts. × 3.055) + (pts. × 3.055) + (pts. × 3.055) = essay raw score
Essay 1 Essay 2 Essay 3
How Is My Composite Score Calculated?

The total composite score for the AP Lit test is 150. Of this score, 55 percent is the essay
section; that equals 82.5 points. The multiple-choice section is 45 percent of the composite
score, which equals 67.5 points. Each of your three essays is graded on a 6-point scale;
therefore, each point is worth 4.58. Divide the number of multiple-choice questions by
67.5.
If you add together the raw scores of each of the two sections, you will have a composite
score.

What You Should Know About the AP Literature Exam ❮ 7
“Over the years, How Is My Composite Data Turned into the Score
in comparison to That Is Reported to My College?
students who fight
the material, I’ve Keep in mind that the total composite scores needed to earn a 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 are different
found students who each year. This is determined by a committee of AP/College Board/Educational Testing
receive the 4s and 5s Service directors, experts, and statisticians. The score is based on items such as:
are those who truly
allow themselves
• AP distribution over the past three years
to relate to the • Comparability studies
literature covered • Observations of the chief faculty consultant
in the class.” • Frequency distributions of scores on each section and the essays
—Pat K. • Average scores on each exam section and essays
AP teacher
However, over the years a trend is apparent which indicates the number of points
required to achieve a specific score:
• 150–100 points = 5
• 99–86 = 4
• 85–67 = 3
Scores of 2 and 1 fall below this range. You do not want to go there.
What Should I Bring to the Exam?

You should bring:
• Several pencils with erasers
• Several black pens (black ink is easier to read than other colors)
• A watch
• Something to drink—water is best
• A quiet snack
• Tissues
Is There Anything Else I Should Be Aware Of?

You should be aware of the following:
• Allow plenty of time to get to the test site.
• Wear comfortable clothing.
• Eat a light breakfast or lunch.
• Remind yourself that you are well prepared and that the test is an enjoyable challenge
and a chance to share your knowledge. Be proud of yourself! You worked hard all year.
Now is your time to shine.
Is There Anything Special I Should Do the Night Before the Exam?

We certainly don’t advocate last-minute cramming. If you’ve been following the guidelines,
you won’t have to cram. But there may be a slight value to some last-minute review. Spend
the night before the exam relaxing with family or friends. Watch a movie; play a game;
gab on the phone, blog, or Twitter. Then find a quiet spot. While you’re unwinding, flip
through your own notebook and review sheets. Recall some details from the full-length
works you’ve prepared and think of your favorite scenes. By now, you’re bound to be ready
to drift off. Pleasant dreams.


CHAPTER
2
How to Plan Your Time
IN THIS CHAPTER
Summary: Assess your own study patterns and preparation plans.
KEY IDEA Key Ideas

✪ Explore three approaches
✪ Choose a calendar that works for you
Three Approaches to Preparing for the AP Literature Exam

No one knows your study habits, likes, and dislikes better than you do. So you are the only
one who can decide which approach you want and/or need to adopt to prepare for the
Advanced Placement Literature exam. Look at the brief profiles below. These may help you
to place yourself in a particular prep mode.
You’re a full-year prep student (Approach A) if:
1. You’re the kind of person who likes to plan for a vacation or the prom a year in advance.
2. You’d never think of missing a practice session, whether it’s your favorite sport, musical
instrument, or activity.
3. You like detailed planning and everything in its place.
4. You feel you must be thoroughly prepared.
5. You hate surprises.
6. You’re always early for appointments.
❮ 9

You’re a one-semester prep student (Approach B) if:

1. You begin to plan for your vacation or the prom 4–5 months before the event.
2. You are willing to plan ahead so that you will feel comfortable in stressful situations, but
you are okay with skipping some details.
3. You feel more comfortable when you know what to expect, but a surprise or two does
not floor you.
4. You’re always on time for appointments.
You’re a 4–6 week prep student (Approach C) if:
1. You accept or find a date for the prom a week before the big day.
2. You work best under pressure and tight deadlines.
3. You feel very confident with the skills and background you’ve gained in your AP
Literature class.
4. You decided late in the year to take the exam.
5. You like surprises.
6. You feel okay if you arrive 10–15 minutes late for an appointment.

How to Plan Your Time ❮ 11
CALENDARS FOR PREPARING

FOR THE AP LITERATURE EXAM
This is a personal journey, and each of you will have particular time constraints.
Choose the calendar that will work best for you.
Calendar for Approach A:

Yearlong Preparation for the AP Literature Exam
Although its primary purpose is to prepare you for the AP Literature exam you
will take in May, this book can enrich your study of literature, your analytical
skills, and your writing skills.
SEPTEMBER–OCTOBER (Check off the DECEMBER

activities as you complete them.)
Maintain notes on literary works you
Determine the student mode into which studied in and out of class.
you place yourself. Refine your analytical skills.
Carefully read Chapters 1 and 2. Write the prose passage or poetry essay in
Pay close attention to the walk through the Diagnostic/Master exam. (This will
the Diagnostic/Master exam. depend on the organization of your own
Take a close look at the AP Central curriculum.)
website(s). Compare your essay with sample student
Skim the Comprehensive Review section. essays.
Buy a highlighter.
Flip through the entire book. Break in JANUARY (20 weeks have elapsed.)
the book. Write in it. Highlight it.
Get a clear picture of what your own Write the third essay in the Diagnostic/
school’s AP Literature curriculum is. Master exam. (This will depend on the
Review the Bibliography and establish a one you did previously.)
pattern of outside reading in the literary Compare your essay with sample student
genres (pp. 247–249). essays.
Begin to use the book as a resource.
FEBRUARY
NOVEMBER (The first 10 weeks have elapsed.)
Take the multiple-choice section of the
Write the free-response essay in the Diagnostic/Master exam.
Diagnostic/Master exam. Carefully go over the explanations of the
Compare your essay with the sample answers to the questions.
student essays. Score yourself honestly.
Refer to the section on the free-response Make a note of terms, concepts, and types
essay. of questions that give you difficulty.
Take five of our prompts and write solid Review troublesome terms in the Glossary.
opening paragraphs.

MARCH (30 weeks have elapsed.) Practice creating multiple-choice questions

of different types with your study group.
Form a study group. Develop and review worksheets for and
Outline or create a chart for full-length with your study group.
works that would be appropriate for the
free-response essay. MAY—First Week (THIS IS IT!)
Choose a favorite poem and create an
essay question to go with it, or use one of Highlight only those things in the
our suggested prompts. Glossary you are still unsure of. Ask your
Choose a prose passage or essay and create teacher for clarification. Study!
an essay question to go with it, or choose Thoroughly prepare three to five com-
one of our suggested prompts. plete, full-length works; include several
Write the poetry essay. quotations that you can work into various
Write the prose essay. responses.
Compare essays and rate them with your Write at least three times a week under
study group. (Use our rubrics.) timed conditions.
Take Practice Test 2.
APRIL Score yourself.
Give yourself a pat on the back for how
Take Practice Test 1 in the first week of much you have learned and improved over
April. the past 9 months.
Evaluate your strengths and weaknesses. Go to the movies. Call a friend.
Study appropriate chapters to correct your Get a good night’s sleep. Fall asleep
weaknesses. knowing you are well prepared.
GOOD LUCK ON THE TEST.
KEY IDEA
Make certain you become familiar with and make good use of AP Central’s
APCLASSROOM site at https://myap.collegeboard.org/login?.

How to Plan Your Time ❮ 13
Calendar for Approach B:

Semester-Long Preparation for the AP Literature Exam
Working under the assumption that you’ve completed one semester of literature
studies, apply those skills you’ve learned to prepare for the May exam.
You have plenty of time to supplement your course work by taking our study
recommendations, maintaining literary notations, doing outside readings, and
so on.
We divide the next 16 weeks into a workable program of preparation for you.
JANUARY–FEBRUARY (Check off the APRIL

activities as you complete them.)
Take Practice Test 1 in the first week
Carefully read Chapters 1 and 2. of April.
Write the three essays in the Diagnostic/ Evaluate your strengths and weaknesses.
Master exam. Study appropriate chapters to correct your
Compare your essays with the sample stu- weaknesses.
dent essays. Practice creating multiple-choice questions
Complete the multiple-choice section of of different types with your study group.
the Diagnostic/Master exam. Develop and review worksheets for and
Carefully go over the answers and with your study group.
explanations of the answers.
Take a close look at the Bibliography for MAY First Week (THIS IS IT!)
suggestions on possible outside readings.
Highlight only those things in the
MARCH (10 weeks to go.) Glossary you are still unsure of. Ask your
teacher for clarification. Study!
Form a study group. Thoroughly prepare at least three to five
Outline or create a chart for full-length complete, full-length works; include sev-
works that would be appropriate for the eral quotations that you can work into
free-response essay. various questions.
Choose a favorite poem and create an Write at least three times a week under
essay question to go with it, or use one of timed conditions.
our suggested prompts. Take Practice Test 2.
Choose a prose passage or essay and create Score yourself.
an essay question to go with it, or choose Give yourself a pat on the back for how
one of our suggested prompts. much you have learned and improved over
Write the poetry essay. the past 9 months.
Write the prose essay. Go to the movies. Call a friend.
Compare essays and rate them with your Get a good night’s sleep. Fall asleep
study group. (Use our rubrics.) knowing you are well prepared.
GOOD LUCK ON THE TEST.
KEY IDEA

“One of the first steps Calendar for Approach C:

to success on the AP 4–6 Week Preparation for the AP Literature Exam
exam is knowing
your own study At this point, we are going to assume that you have been developing your literary,
habits.”
—Margaret R.
analytical, and writing skills in your English class for more than 6 months. You
AP English will, therefore, use this book primarily as a specific guide to the AP Literature
teacher exam.
Remember, there is a solid review section in this text to which you should
refer.
Given the time constraints, now is not the time to try to expand your
AP Literature background. Rather, it is the time to limit and refine what you
already know.
APRIL Create review sheets for three to five solid,

full-length works.
Skim through Chapters 1 and 2. Skim and highlight the Glossary.
Carefully go over the “rapid reviews.” Develop a weekly study group to hear
Strengthen, clarify, and correct areas you each other’s essays and to discuss
are weak in after taking the Diagnostic/ literature.
Master exam.
Write a minimum of three sample open- MAY First Week (THIS IS IT!)
ing paragraphs for each of the three types
of essays. Complete Practice Test 2.
Write a minimum of two timed essays for Score yourself and analyze your errors.
each type of essay on the exam. Refer to appropriate chapters to correct
Complete Practice Test 1. your weaknesses.
Score yourself and analyze your errors. Go to the movies. Call a friend.
Refer to appropriate chapters to correct Get a good night’s sleep. Fall asleep know-
your weaknesses. ing you are well prepared.
Refer to the Bibliography.
If you feel unfamiliar with specific poetic GOOD LUCK ON THE TEST.
forms, refer to the list of suggested, appro-
priate works.
KEY IDEA

STEP 2
Determine Your Test
Readiness
CHAPTER 3 The Diagnostic/Master Exam


CHAPTER
3
The Diagnostic/Master Exam
IN THIS CHAPTER
Summary: Put yourself to the test with the diagnostic exam.
KEY IDEA Key Ideas

✪ Peruse the multiple-choice section in Section I of the exam
✪ Familiarize yourself with the essays in Section II
A Walk Through the Diagnostic/Master Exam

“You know, from my This chapter presents our version of an Advanced Placement Literature and Composition
experience with AP exam which we use throughout this book to demonstrate processes, examples, terms, and
exams, I’ve learned so on. We call this the Diagnostic/Master exam. You will not be taking this exam at this
never to assume point, but we would like you to “walk through” the exam with us now.
anything.”
—Jeremy G.
The first part of this 3-hour exam is always the multiple-choice section, which lasts
AP student 1 hour. It is related to both prose passages and poetry. The multiple-choice section of the
Diagnostic/Master exam contains two prose passages from different time periods and of
different styles. It also has two poems from different time periods and of different forms.
The multiple-choice questions for each selection were developed to provide you with a wide
range of question types and terminology that have been used in the actual AP Lit exams
over the years.
To begin to know what the exam looks like, take some time to look through the
multiple-choice section of the Diagnostic/Master exam. Do not try to answer the questions;
just peruse the types of passages and questions.
• Take a turn through all of the pages of the test and familiarize yourself with the format.
• See where the longer and shorter readings are.
• See how many prose and poetry passages there are.
❮ 17

18 ❯ STEP 2. Determine Your Test Readiness
• Check the total number of questions and know what you are facing.
• Check out the essay prompts.
A Word About Our Sample Student Essays

We field-tested each of the essay questions in a variety of high schools, both public and
private. We could have chosen to present essays that would have “knocked your socks off,”
but we chose to present samples that are truly representative of the essays usually written
within the time constraints of the exam.
These essays are indicative of a wide range of styles and levels of acceptability. We want
you to recognize that there is not one model to which all essays must conform.
“To Thine Own Self Be True” (Polonius—Hamlet)

“Be true to yourself ” is always the best advice and is especially appropriate for a writer.
Listen to your teacher’s advice; listen to our advice; listen to your own voice. Yours is the
voice we want to “hear” in your writing. Use natural vocabulary and present honest obser-
vations. It is wonderful to read professional criticism, but you cannot adopt someone else’s
ideas and remain true to your own thoughts. Trust your brain—if you’ve prepared well,
you’ll do well.

The Diagnostic/Master Exam ❮ 19
DIAGNOSTIC/MASTER EXAM
Advanced Placement Literature and Composition

Section I
Total time—1 hour
Carefully read the following passages and answer the questions that come after them.
Questions 1–10 are based on the next passage.
Now Goes Under . . .

by Edna St. Vincent Millay
Now goes under, and I watch it go under, the sun
That will not rise again.
Today has seen the setting, in your eyes cold
and senseless as the sea,
Of friendship better than bread, and of bright charity 5
That lifts a man a little above the beasts that run.
That this could be!

That I should live to see
Most vulgar Pride, that stale obstreperous clown,
So fitted out with purple robe and crown 10
To stand among his betters! Face to face
With outraged me in this once holy place,
Where Wisdom was a favoured guest and hunted
Truth was harboured out of danger,
He bulks enthroned, a lewd, and insupportable stranger! 15
I would have sworn, indeed I swore it:

The hills may shift, the waters may decline,
Winter may twist the stem from the twig that bore it,
But never your love from me, your hand from mine.
Now goes under the sun, and I watch it go under. 20

Farewell, sweet light, great wonder!
You, too, farewell—but fare not well enough to dream
You have done wisely to invite the night before the darkness came.
1. The poem is an example of a(n) 2. The setting of the sun is a symbol for
A. sonnet A. the beginning of winter
B. lyric B. encountering danger
C. ode C. the end of a relationship
D. ballad D. facing death
E. dramatic monologue E. the onset of night

20 ❯ STEP 2. Determine Your Test Readiness
3. The second stanza is developed primarily by 7. The reader can infer from the play on words in
A. metaphor the last stanza that the speaker is
B. simile A. dying
C. personification B. frantic
D. hyperbole C. wistful
E. allusion D. bitter
E. capricious
4. “He” in line 15 refers to
A. Wisdom 8. “This once holy place” (line 12) refers to
B. Truth A. the sunset
C. I B. the relationship
D. Pride C. the sea
E. charity D. the circus
E. the Church
5. According to the speaker, what separates man
from beast? 9. The cause of the relationship’s situation is
A. love A. a stranger coming between them
B. friendship B. the lover not taking the relationship
C. charity seriously
D. truth C. the lover feeling intellectually superior
E. wisdom D. the lover’s pride coming between them
E. the lover being insensitive
6. For the speaker, the relationship has been all of
the following except 10. The speaker acknowledges the finality of the
A. honest relationship in line(s)
B. dangerous A. 1–2
C. spiritual B. 7
D. ephemeral C. 8
E. nourishing D. 16
E. 18–19
Questions 11–23 are based on the following passage from The Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad, 1899.
The sea-reach of the Thames stretched before us like the beginning of an

interminable waterway. The air was dark above Gravesend, and farther back still
seemed condensed into a mournful gloom, brooding motionless over the biggest and
the greatest town on earth.
“I was thinking of very old times, when the Romans first came here, nineteen 5
hundred years ago—the other day . . . Light came out of this river since—you say knights?
Yes; but it is like a running blaze on a plain, like a flash of lightning in the clouds. We live
in the flicker—may it last as long as the old earth keeps rolling! But darkness was here
yesterday. Imagine the feelings of a commander of a fine—what d’ye call ’em?—trireme
in the Mediterranean, ordered suddenly to the north; run overland across the Gauls in a 10
hurry; put in charge of one of these craft the legionnaires—a wonderful lot of handy men
they must have been, too—used to build, apparently by the hundred, in a month or two, if
we may believe what we read. Imagine him here—the very end of the world, a sea the color
of lead, a sky the color of smoke, a kind of ship about as rigid as a concertina—and going
up this river with stores, or orders, or what you like. Sandbanks, marshes, forests, savages— 15
precious little to eat for a civilized man, nothing but Thames water to drink. No Falernian

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objects of foreign manufacture and those productions of the same
kind that were made at home; in many cases it requires the tact and
instinct of the archæologist to know one from the other. Such
faculties are always, in some degree, liable to err, while in many
cases it is very difficult to give reasons for the conclusions arrived at
by their exercise. The simplest way out of the difficulty has seemed
to us to describe these remains at the same time as the main
compositions to which they were formerly attached. But while we do
so we keep their doubtful character in mind; in our definition of the
style of Chaldæo-Assyrian sculpture we shall only have recourse to
them under great reserve, especially as the style in question is to be
amply studied without their help.
§ 3. The Principal Conventions of Chaldæo-Assyrian Sculpture.
The art of Mesopotamia, like that of Egypt, had its conventions,

some of which were peculiar to itself, while others are common to all
nations that have arrived at sovereign power and maturity of
knowledge.
Like all those who attempt plastic figuration by the light of nature,
the artists of Mesopotamia began with profiles. In speaking of
Egyptian sculpture we had occasion to show how this method of
representation is always followed by first beginners,[143] as it is the
simplest and easiest of all. The Chaldæo-Assyrian artists, unlike
those of Egypt and Greece, were unaccustomed to the nude, and
were therefore without the incentive it supplies to fight against nature
and to make her live in all her variety of aspect, a variety which work
in the round is alone able to grasp without the aid of convention. One
consequence of this is that almost exclusive love of the bas-relief in
which Mesopotamian art is unlike that of any other people. In its very
beginning it seems to have made a vigorous and promising effort to
rise to the production of statues in the round, but discouragement
appears to have rapidly followed, and in later years but a very few
attempts, and those attended with no great success, were made.
The salience of figures was increased or diminished according to
their place and the part they played, but the idea of detaching them
altogether from the background and giving them an independent
existence of their own, was soon abandoned. Under the first
Chaldæan empire, real statues, round which we can walk, were
modelled (see Plates VI. and VII.). In several of these, although the
forms are not so round as in nature, the back is as carefully treated
as the front. On the other hand, the few Assyrian statues that have
come down to us are all too thin from front to back, while their backs
are hardly more than roughly-dressed stone. You feel at once that
they were made to stand against a wall, and you think of children
and of those whose limbs are so infirm that they cannot stand
without support. Before such things, we are far enough, not only
from the grace, vitality, and freedom of the Greeks, but even from the
proud repose of the Egyptian colossi. Although our figures show, of
course, only the front view, this impression is very striking in the
statues of Nebo (Vol. I. Fig. 15) and Assurnazirpal (Fig. 60), which
have migrated from Nimroud to the British Museum. The latter was
found by Layard at the entrance of one of the temples whose plans
we have given (Vol. I. Fig. 189). It is cut from a very hard and close-
grained limestone, and stands upon a pedestal that is nothing but
another block of the same material. We have been compelled, in
order to keep our figure sufficiently large, to reduce this block to the
dimensions of a shallow plinth. In reality it is a cube thirty-one inches
high and twenty-one and three-quarter inches wide.[144]
PLATE VI
ROYAL STATUE
Louvre
J. Bourgoin, del. Imp. Ch.
Chardon Sulpis, sc.
The statues of Nebo and Assurnazirpal are standing figures, but,

at Kaleh-Shergat, Layard found a seated figure of Shalmaneser II.
(Fig. 61).[145] It is in black basalt and has no head. It is of great
interest because it recalls the very oldest Chaldæan statues both in
material and attitude. It has suffered so much, however, and its
workmanship seems to have been so sketchy, that even in the
original itself the details of modelling and costume are hardly to be
recognized. We give a slight sketch of it merely to show its pose.
These statues, if they deserve such a name, show the work of
the Assyrians at its feeblest; the plastic genius of the people must
not be judged from them, but from the genre in which they were most
at home, from the long lines of figures that stand out in various
salience from the palace walls. Among the productions of this latter
class that have come down to our time we find every degree of relief,
from the bas-relief strictly speaking, to what is but little removed from
the round.
Fig. 61.—Statue of Shalmaneser II. Height 58 inches.
British Museum.
Let us begin with the bas-relief. It is with sculptures executed on
this principle that the walls of temples and palaces were covered, as
if with a stone tapestry. The Assyrian process is identical in principle
with that afterwards adopted by the Greeks, as, on the whole, the
most convenient for the purpose in view. We find no examples of the
Egyptian fashion of defining the outlines of figures by a deep groove
cut with the point, nor of those figures that were, so to speak, let into
and modelled within the surface of the wall.[146] In both Chaldæa
and Assyria the figure stands out from the bed of the relief from two
or three millimetres to a centimetre, according to its size. The bed is
nowhere hollowed, it is one even surface, except that where the
figures are very small, and consequently of very slight relief, the
sculptor has reinforced them with an incised outline one or two
millimetres deep. This artifice must be examined on the monuments
themselves; it could hardly be shown in reproductions on a reduced
scale.
Most of the great bas-reliefs have but one plane, and to this they
owe the simplicity that gives them a certain nobility in spite of their
monotonous design (see Vol. I. Figs. 4, 5, 6, 8, 13, 22, 23, 24, &c.).
Examples of two planes, in which the figures are grouped in couples,
the nearest to the spectator in each couple covering a large part of
his companion, are by no means rare (see Fig. 62); we may say the
same of those in which a background of trees is introduced beyond
the figures (Fig. 63). This arrangement is especially frequent in the
more complicated pictures, where the figures are small and
numerous; but even in the last century of the Assyrian monarchy,
when the sculptor showed an ever-increasing desire to draw
attention and excite interest by the introduction of these picturesque
details, he never quits his hold of a right instinct for the true
conditions of the bas-relief. Unlike the Roman sculptors, and even
those of the Renaissance, he shows no hankering after those effects
that seem to get rid of the bed; he never destroys the clarity of his
conception by unduly multiplying the planes. He did not understand
how to put objects in perspective or manage foreshortening, and this
ignorance served him well; it preserved him from the temptation into
which more skilful artists are so prone to fall; it prevented him from
forgetting “that the design best suited to the bas-relief is purely
geometrical in its essentials.”[147]
The relief, of course, becomes higher as the size of the figures
increases. It is as much as from eight to ten inches in the winged
genii (Figs. 27 and 34) that accompany and divide the bulls on the
decorated façades and in the gateways. Even when it is highest the
salience does not go beyond what is called mezzo-relievo; that is to
say, no part of the principal or accessory figure, of the genius himself
or of the lion, stands out from the wall in the round, as, for instance,
do the heads and limbs in the metopes of the Parthenon.
TWO CHALDÆAN HEADS
J. Bourgoin, del. Ramus sc.
Imp. Ch. Chardon
Fig. 62.—Pair of warriors. Louvre. Drawn by Saint-
Elme Gautier.
The same remark holds good of the colossal figures of lions
(Plate VIII.) and winged bulls (Plate IX.) which acted as guardians of
the palace. We have already explained the ideas attached to these
monsters by the Assyrians,[148] we shall here dwell upon some
peculiarities of their execution. In these images there is a
compromise between “the round” and the bas-relief of a very original
and peculiar character.
Looked at from in front these lions and bulls seem to be
independent statues; the head, the chest, the legs stand out with as
much freedom and amplitude of development as in nature; but step a
little to one side, to the right or the left as the case may be, and their
aspect will change. You will then see that only the fore-part of the
animal is disengaged from the block of alabaster or limestone in
which it is cut, the rest of the body remains imprisoned in its
substance. The contours alone are indicated, in low relief, on the two
sides of the ponderous slab. Thus we have half, or rather a quarter,
of the statue standing out from sixteen to twenty inches in front of the
slab on which the sides are shown in silhouette. It looks as if the
image had made an effort to shake itself clear of the mass of stone
and had only partially succeeded. We find ourselves wondering
whether, if Nineveh had not perished and the development of her art
had gone on without interruption, these great beasts would not have
ended by conquering their liberty and winning for themselves an
existence independent of the walls to which they were attached. But
the nature of the material employed says no—alabaster is too soft,
and the legs of the lions and bulls could not support their massive
bodies without assistance.
Fig. 63.—Prisoners. From the palace of Sennacherib; from Layard.

LION FROM THE PALACE OF ASSURNAZIRPAL, NIMROUD
British Museum
Saint-Elme Gautier del etsc Imp. Ch. Chardon
There are other peculiarities in these images. Looked at from in

front they appear stationary, their two fore-feet being on the same
plane and close together; any other arrangement would have been
awkward. But if we look at them from the side they appear to be
walking, in which attitude alone would all the four legs be visible and
clear of each other. In most cases the bulls were not parallel to the
façades they decorated, but perpendicular to them;[149] they faced
the visitor as he approached the gate, and it was not until he entered
the passage that he got a side view of their bodies stretching along
its walls (Figs. 26 and 27). Some contrivance was sought by which
their figures should appear complete from both points of view, and
the following expedient was hit upon. As soon as you had entered
the passage between the bulls, you could, of course, no longer see
more than the fore-leg nearest you; the other was hidden by it. The
latter was then repeated by the sculptor and thrown back under the
body of the animal, which, in the result, had five legs.
The idea is a better one than we are at first inclined to believe.
More than once, perhaps, at the Louvre or the British Museum, you
have paused before these colossal images, you have measured their
height with your eye and admired their tranquil majesty. But have
you ever noticed the artifice I have just described? To see it clearly
you must choose a standpoint on the right or left front, as our
draughtsman has done (Plates VIII. and IX.). If no chance has led
you to such a standpoint in the first instance, if you have, as is most
likely, looked at the figure first in front and then from the side, you
have probably never suspected the sort of trick that the sculptor has
played upon you. This contrivance is one of the distinguishing marks
of Ninevite art;[150] it occurs nowhere else, unless in monuments
such as those of Cappadocia, which are more or less feeble copies
of Assyrian models.[151]
The conventions that remain to be noticed will not detain us so
long. They are such as have been practised in all imperfect schools
of art,—in all, in fact, that preceded the art of the Greeks.
Even in the greatest and most perfect schools of sculpture, the
bas-relief, as if influenced by a souvenir of its origin, prefers figures
in profile to those in full face. In those exceptional instances in which
the Assyrians abandoned this preference, as, for example, in the
decoration of entrances, they were visibly embarrassed. They did not
understand how to foreshorten the feet, therefore they put the lower
part of the figure in profile while the upper part faced the spectator
(see Fig. 34).[152] This puts the figure in a painful and awkward
attitude which could not be imitated by a living man without a violent
effort, or retained for more than a second or two. It is the same when
they wish to make a figure turn; the movement of the shoulders and
neck is so clumsily rendered that the sculptor seems to have put on
the head the wrong side foremost.[153] In general, however, the
ample draperies help the artist out of his difficulties. Thanks to the
veil which hides his ignorance of the attachment of limbs and the
play of muscles, he succeeds in avoiding those dislocations that are
so frequent in the Egyptian bas-reliefs and sometimes result in
obvious deformity.[154]
When he had to render the human countenance the sculptor of
Babylon or Nineveh fell into the same fault as he of Memphis; he
placed a full, or nearly a full, eye in his profiles, and for the same
reason.[155] This defect is not always so conspicuous as in a bas-
relief from Nimroud representing a tributary of Assurnazirpal bringing
two apes, one of which stands on his master’s shoulders while the
other leaps before his feet (Fig. 64); but it is never absent altogether.
Fig. 64.—Vassal bringing monkeys. Height 8
feet. British Museum.
Drawn by Saint-Elme Gautier.
If in its fidelity to habits that we may call childish the sculpture of
Mesopotamia bears a strong resemblance to that of Egypt, it is
nevertheless far inferior to it in other respects. The artist never
seems to have looked closely enough or with a sufficiently awakened
eye to perceive the differences that distinguish one individual or
even one race from another; at least if he saw them he did not
understand how to reproduce them; he did not even try to do so.
From the very beginning—so far as we know it—the art of the Nile
valley turned out portraits both of Pharaoh and of private individuals
that are astonishing in their truth and life.[156] Even in those
executed in a more summary fashion and not in any way to be
classed as masterpieces, we find a singular aptitude in seizing and
noting those peculiarities which make of every human face an
unique creation, a medal of which but one example has been struck.
Ethnic characteristics are given with no less truth; we have seen
elsewhere how many faithful portraits they have left of the races with
whom they entertained long and unbroken relations.[157]
Very few traces of this talent or disposition are to be found in the
monuments of Mesopotamia. Of course in a draped school of
sculpture we could hardly expect to find any great preoccupation
with the various beauties of the human body. Given the Assyrian
costume, it was impossible that the Assyrian artist should aspire to
bring out those beauties. In many works from the Nile valley the
influence of the sex, the age, and even the profession upon the
development of the muscles, upon, if we may be allowed the
expression, the physiognomy of the flesh, is skilfully shown in the
modelling.[158] But faces were not concealed by the Assyrian
draperies; why then were their distinctive marks of individuality so
consistently ignored? The sculptor should have concentrated his
attention upon them all the more, and so arrived at a faithful portrait.
He did not do so however. Neither Assyrian nor Chaldæan had any
such ambition. By a process of selection and abstraction they arrived
at a kind of mean, at a certain ideal of manly beauty which served
them to the end. That ideal is characterized by the abundance and
symmetrical arrangement of the hair and beard, by a low forehead,
heavy and strongly-arched eyebrows, a hooked and rounded nose, a
small mouth with full but not too heavy lips, a strong, rounded chin,
and limbs whose muscular development betrayed their vigour.
Fig. 65.—Head of a eunuch; from Layard.
The universal acceptance of this type is proved chiefly by the
Assyrian sculpture. The fact is that among all the thousands of
figures it produced there are but two heads, the one with, the other
without, a beard. We have already encountered the first in all the
scenes in which the king, his ministers, his officers or his soldiers
appear. It is also used for the gods (Vol. I. Figs. 13 and 15) and the
winged bulls, whose heads, perhaps, like the Egyptian sphinxes,
were supposed to be reproductions of the royal features. The
beardless variety seems, in the royal processions, to be confined to
those eunuchs who have always played such an important part at
Oriental courts (Vol. I. Figs. 23 and 24, and Vol. II. Plate X.); the
fleshy heaviness of their cheeks and necks (Fig. 65) has been
thought to confirm this idea. But we should be mistaken if we
recognized these miserable beings in all the beardless figures. The
latter are so numerous in some compositions that no such
explanation is admissible. In many instances they seem to represent
people of the lowest class, peasants, labourers, and slaves (see Vol.
I. Figs. 45, 151, 152, and Vol. II. Figs. 44 and 48). As the oldest
sculptures of Chaldæa suffice to prove, the habit of wearing the hair
and beard long did not date from the earlier years of that country. In
those sculptures we find heads completely shaved. It is possible that
the ancient custom was changed when the formidable army to which
Assyria owed its power and fortune was created. The beard may
then have become, as the moustache used to be with us, a sign of
the military caste. We never find soldiers or their officers without it;
[159] but their hair and beards are shorter than those of the king and
his ministers (Fig. 66); they do not fall upon the chest and shoulders
in several rows of curls carefully arranged.[160] In the reliefs the
amplitude and length of the beard are always a sign of the highest
rank.
WINGED BULL
FROM KHORSABAD
Louvre
Fig. 66.—Assyrian soldier; from
the Louvre. Height of slab 2 feet.
The temples, the forehead, and the nape of the neck were lost
under this abundant hair, while the beard covered all below the
cheek-bones and the tiara the top of the head. Beyond the nose and
eyes there was hardly anything left by which one individual could be
distinguished from another. Now the Assyrian race was a race in the
proper sense of the word; it was homogeneous and pure-blooded.
Between one member and another of the aristocracy that reigned
and fought, these two features would vary little. All their noses were
more or less aquiline, all or nearly all their eyes large and black. The
national fashion of wearing the hair would suppress many of the
characteristics by which we know one man from another. From all
this it results that the crowd of kings and nobles who furnished the
sculptor with his favourite theme are vastly like each other. This
similarity or rather uniformity was ill calculated to awaken the sense
of portraiture in the artist. The features that distinguished one king
from another are slurred over by the sculptor simply because they
were in reality so lightly marked that he hardly perceived their
existence.
PLATE V
J.Bourgoin del. Imp.Ch.Chardon. J.Sulpis.sc.

ASSURBANIPAL IN HIS CHARIOT
FROM KOUYUNDJIK
Louvre
We know that this opinion is not shared by all those who have
busied themselves with the Assyrian monuments. It has been said
and, in the belief of some, proof has been given, that we possess the
elements of an Assyrian iconography, that the images of the kings, in
the steles and on the palace walls, are true and faithful portraits.[161]
We believe this to be a mistake. No doubt the proportions of the
body, the expression of the face, and the general lines of the profile,
are not the same for Assurnazirpal, Sargon, and the sons and
grandsons of that prince. But what must we conclude from that?
Only that Assyria did not escape, any more than Egypt, from the
action of that law of change which is the very condition of life; that
from one century and one reign to another the taste and execution of
the Assyrian sculptors were modified, though in a very feeble
degree. Thus figures are shorter and more thickset in the north-
western palace at Nimroud than at Khorsabad or Kouyundjik; they
are finer in their proportions, more graceful, and altogether better in
their art under Assurbanipal than under his grandfather, the founder
of the dynasty. Art, as we shall bring abundant evidence to prove,
followed the same path at Nineveh as everywhere else. This is not to
be denied; but before the hypothesis against which we contend can
be accepted, its advocates must show that, in each series of
monuments, the king is to be distinguished by his personal features
from the people about him. You must not take the evidence of
drawings or even of photographs; you must examine the originals
themselves. This I have done with the most scrupulous attention
both in the British Museum and the Louvre. I have carefully
examined and compared the four great series of royal bas-reliefs
that have come down to us, belonging respectively to Assurnazirpal,
Sargon, Sennacherib, and Assurbanipal. If such an examination be
made without prejudice, I am satisfied that only one conclusion can
be come to. In all the pictures dating from one reign the king himself
differs not at all from his officers and nobles; he is only to be
recognized by his lofty tiara, an ornament that he alone had the right
to wear, by his sceptre or some other attribute of the kind, by his
richer costume, and, finally, by his greater stature. The sculptor
always makes him taller than his subjects, still more than his
enemies and captives (Vol. I. Fig. 22, and Fig. 15 above). This latter
proceeding seems childish, but it is so natural, and is found in so
many countries, that it is not at all astonishing. The sculptor has
counted upon all these attributes to show, at a glance, which is the
king; and they are, in fact, of a nature to prevent any chance of a

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