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Electronic Packaging
Science and Technology
Electronic Packaging Science
and Technology
King-Ning Tu
National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, ROC
Chih Chen
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Yang
Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, ROC
Hung-Ming Chen
Institute of Electronics, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University,
Hsinchu, Taiwan, ROC
This edition first published 2022
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Tu, K. N. (King-Ning), 1937– author. | Chen, Chih, 1970– author. |
Chen, Hung-Ming, author.
Title: Electronic packaging science and technology / King-Ning Tu,
University of California, Los Angeles, United States of America; Chih
Chen, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwain; Hung-Ming Chen,
National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwain.
Description: 1st edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2022. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021039114 (print) | LCCN 2021039115 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119418313 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119418320 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119418337 (epub)
Classification: LCC TK7870.15 .T8 2022 (print) | LCC TK7870.15 (ebook) |
DDC 621.381/046–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021039114
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Cover design by Wiley
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Strive, Pondicherry, India
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v
Contents
Preface xi
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Impact of Moore’s Law on Si Technology 3
1.3 5G Technology and AI Applications 4
1.4 3D IC Packaging Technology 7
1.5 Reliability Science and Engineering 11
1.6 The Future of Electronic Packaging Technology 13
1.7 Outline of the Book 14
References 15
Part I 17
2 Cu-to-Cu and Other Bonding Technologies in Electronic

Packaging 19
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Wire Bonding 20
2.3 Tape-Automated Bonding 23
2.4 Flip-Chip Solder Joint Bonding 26
2.5 Micro-Bump Bonding 32
2.6 Cu-to-Cu Direct Bonding 35
2.6.1 Critical Factors for Cu-to-Cu Bonding 36
2.6.2 Analysis of Cu-to-Cu Bonding Mechanism 39
2.6.3 Microstructures at the Cu-to-Cu Bonding Interface 46
vi Contents
2.7 ybrid Bonding 51

H
2.8 Reliability – Electromigration and Temperature Cycling Tests 54
Problems 56
References 57
3 Randomly-Oriented and (111) Uni-directionally-Oriented

Nanotwin Copper 61
3.1 Introduction 61
3.2 Formation Mechanism of Nanotwin Cu 63
3.3 In Situ Measurement of Stress Evolution During Nanotwin
Deposition 67
3.4 Electrodeposition of Randomly Oriented Nanotwinned
Copper 69
3.5 Formation of Unidirectionally (111)-oriented Nanotwin
Copper 71
3.6 Grain Growth in [111]-Oriented nt-Cu 75
3.7 Uni-directional Growth of η-Cu6Sn5 in Microbumps
on (111) Oriented nt-Cu 77
3.8 Low Thermal-Budget Cu-to-Cu Bonding
Using [111]-Oriented nt-Cu 78
3.9 Nanotwin Cu RDL for Fanout Package and 3D IC Integration 83
Problems 86
References 87
4 Solid–Liquid Interfacial Diffusion Reaction (SLID) Between

Copper and Solder 91
4.1 Introduction 91
4.2 Kinetics of Scallop-Type IMC Growth in SLID 93
4.3 A Simple Model for the Growth of Mono-Size Hemispheres 95
4.4 Theory of Flux-Driven Ripening 97
4.5 Measurement of the Nano-channel Width Between Two
Scallops 100
4.6 Extremely Rapid Grain Growth in Scallop-Type Cu6Sn5 in
SLID 100
Problems 102
References 103
5 Solid-State Reactions Between Copper and Solder 105

5.1 Introduction 105
5.2 Layer-Type Growth of IMC in Solid-State Reactions 106
5.3 Wagner Diffusivity 111
5.4 Kirkendall Void Formation in Cu3Sn 113
Contents vii
5.5 idewall Reaction to Form Porous Cu3Sn in μ-Bumps 114

S
5.6 Effect of Surface Diffusion on IMC Formation in Pillar-Type
μ-Bumps 120
Problems 124
References 125
Part II 127
6 Essence of Integrated Circuits and Packaging Design 129

6.2 Transistor and Interconnect Scaling 131
6.3 Circuit Design and LSI 133
6.4 System-on-Chip (SoC) and Multicore Architectures 139
6.5 System-in-Package (SiP) and Package Technology Evolution 140
6.6 3D IC Integration and 3D Silicon Integration 144
6.7 Heterogeneous Integration: An Introduction 145
Problems 146
References 146
7 Performance, Power, Thermal, and Reliability 149

7.2 Field-Effect Transistor and Memory Basics 151
7.3 Performance: A Race in Early IC Design 155
7.4 Trend in Low Power 157
7.5 Trade-off between Performance and Power 159
7.6 Power Delivery and Clock Distribution Networks 160
7.7 Low-Power Design Architectures 163
7.8 Thermal Problems in IC and Package 166
7.9 Signal Integrity and Power Integrity (SI/PI) 168
7.10 Robustness: Reliability and Variability 169
Problems 171
References 172
8 2.5D/3D System-in-Packaging Integration 173

8.2 2.5D IC: Redistribution Layer (RDL) and TSV-Interposer 174
8.3 2.5D IC: Silicon, Glass, and Organic Substrates 176
8.4 2.5D IC: HBM on Silicon Interposer 177
8.5 3D IC: Memory Bandwidth Challenge for
High-Performance Computing 178
8.6 3D IC: Electrical and Thermal TSVs 180
viii Contents
8.7 3 D IC: 3D-Stacked Memory and Integrated Memory

Controller 182
8.8 Innovative Packaging for Modern Chips/Chiplets 183
8.9 Power Distribution for 3D IC Integration 186
8.10 Challenge and Trend 187
Problems 188
References 188
Part III 191
9 Irreversible Processes in Electronic Packaging Technology 193

9.2 Flow in Open Systems 196
9.3 Entropy Production 198
9.3.1 Electrical Conduction 199
9.3.1.1 Joule Heating 201
9.3.2 Atomic Diffusion 203
9.3.3 Heat Conduction 203
9.3.4 Conjugate Forces When Temperature Is a Variable 205
9.4 Cross-Effects in Irreversible Processes 206
9.5 Cross-Effect Between Atomic Diffusion and Electrical
Conduction 207
9.5.1 Electromigration and Stress-Migration in Al Strips 209
9.6 Irreversible Processes in Thermomigration 211
9.6.1 Thermomigration in Unpowered Composite Solder Joints 212
9.7 Cross-Effect Between Heat Conduction and Electrical
Conduction 215
9.7.1 Seebeck Effect 216
9.7.2 Peltier Effect 218
Problems 219
References 219
10 Electromigration 221
10.2 To Compare the Parameters in Atomic Diffusion and Electric
Conduction 222
10.3 Basic of Electromigration 224
10.3.1 Electron Wind Force 225
10.3.2 Calculation of the Effective Charge Number 227
10.3.3 Atomic Flux Divergence Induced Electromigration Damage 228
10.3.4 Back Stress in Electromigration 230
Contents ix
10.4 urrent Crowding and Electromigration in

C
3-Dimensional Circuits 231
10.4.1 Void Formation in the Low Current Density Region 234
10.4.2 Current Density Gradient Force in Electromigration 238
10.4.3 Current Crowding Induced Pancake-Type Void Formation
in Flip-Chip Solder Joints 242
10.5 Joule Heating and Heat Dissipation 243
10.5.1 Joule Heating and Electromigration 244
10.5.2 Joule Heating on Mean-Time-to-Failure in Electromigration 245
Problems 245
References 246
11 Thermomigration 249
11.2 Driving Force of Thermomigration 249
11.3 Analysis of Heat of Transport, Q* 250
11.4 Thermomigration Due to Heat Transfer Between Neighboring
Pairs of Powered and Unpowered Solder Joints 253
Problems 255
References 255
12 Stress-Migration 257
12.2 Chemical Potential in a Stressed Solid 258
12.3 Stoney’s Equation of Biaxial Stress in Thin Films 260
12.4 Diffusional Creep 264
12.5 Spontaneous Sn Whisker Growth at Room Temperature 267
12.5.1 Morphology 267
12.5.2 Measurement of the Driving Force to Grow a Sn Whisker 271
12.5.3 Kinetics of Sn Whisker Growth 272
12.5.4 Electromigration-Induced Sn Whisker Growth in Solder
Joints 275
12.6 Comparison of Driving Forces Among Electromigration,
Thermomigration, and Stress-Migration 277
12.6.1 Products of Force 278
Problems 279
References 280
13 Failure Analysis 281

13.2 Microstructure Change with or Without Lattice Shift 285
13.3 Statistical Analysis of Failure 287
x Contents
13.3.1 Black’s Equation of MTTF for Electromigration 287

13.3.2 Weibull Distribution Function and JMA Theory of Phase
Transformations 289
13.4 A Unified Model of MTTF for Electromigration,
Thermomigration, and Stress-Migration 290
13.4.1 Revisit Black’s Equation of MTTF for Electromigration 290
13.4.2 MTTF for Thermomigration 292
13.4.3 MTTF for Stress-Migration 292
13.4.4 The Link Among MTTF for Electromigration, Thermomigration,
and Stress-Migration 293
13.4.5 MTTF Equations for Other Irreversible Processes in Open
Systems 293
13.5 Failure Analysis in Mobile Technology 293
13.5.1 Joule Heating Enhanced Electromigration Failure of Weak-Link
in 2.5D IC Technology 294
13.5.2 Joule Heating Induced Thermomigration Failure Due to Thermal
Crosstalk in 2.5D IC Technology 298
Problems 301
References 302
14 Artificial Intelligence in Electronic Packaging Reliability 303

14.2 To Change Time-Dependent Event to Time-Independent
Event 304
14.3 To Deduce MTTF from Mean Microstructure Change to
Failure 305
14.4 Summary 306
Index 307
xi
Preface
As we enter the big data era, mobile devices are ubiquitous. Internet of
things (IoT) is everywhere, and we have man-to-man, man-to-machine, and
machine-to-machine communications. Furthermore, in the Covid-19 virus
pandemic period, the trend of distance teaching, distance medicine, home
office, and on-line meeting has increased greatly the need of advanced con-
sumer electronic products, demanding smaller form factor, larger memory,
more functions, faster and larger data collection and transmission, cheaper
cost, and superb reliability. At the same time, 5G advanced communication
technology and 3D IC devices have begun their impact to our society, and
many new artificial intelligence (AI) applications have been invented.
With the perceived slowing down of Moore’s law of miniaturization of Si
chip technology, microelectronic industry is searching for alternative ways
to sustain Moore’s law. 3D IC is most promising in achieving more-than-
Moore, wherein the up-scale of packaging technology is critical. Indeed,
new advanced packaging factories are being built worldwide. We ask what
will be the technical innovations in electronic packaging for 3D IC devices
in order to enhance performance and reliability? Or, what are the challeng-
ing issues in electronic packaging technology that are essential in the near
future development of semiconductor technology?
The goal of this book to present the science and engineering of advanced
electronic packaging technology for a deeper understanding of the essence
in development and manufacturing of the more-than-Moore technology.
Especially, what is new in this book are the subjects of Cu-to-Cu direct
bonding by using the (111) uni-directionally oriented nanotwin Cu, innova-
tive 3D IC systems in packaging integration for high performance of wide
bandwidth and low power devices, and the analysis of mean-time-to-failure
equations based on entropy production.
After the introduction chapter, the following chapters will be divided into
three parts. In Part I, the history of bonding technology will be covered in
xii Preface
Chapter 2, starting from wire-bonding, tab-automated bonding, flip chip

C-4 solder joint bonding, micro-bump bonding, Cu-to-Cu direct bonding,
and hybrid bonding. The microstructure, properties, and applications of
randomly oriented and (111) uni-directionally oriented nano-twin Cu will
be covered in Chapter 3. Then, Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 will be dedicated to
chemical reactions and kinetic processes in Cu-Sn reactions for solder joint
formation. Chapter 4 will review solid-liquid interfacial diffusion (SLID)
reactions between liquid solder and Cu. Chapter 5 will review solid-solid
reactions between solid solder and Cu. The kinetics of growth of intermetal-
lic compound (IMC), which is a stoichiometric compound and has no com-
position gradient, has been an outstanding problem in solid-solid reactions.
We introduce Wagner’s diffusivity to overcome it.
Part II consists of chapters on electric circuit integration in packaging
technology. The emphasis is on the design of low power devices and intel-
ligent integration. The technical issues related to the need for faster rates
and increased amounts of data transport in 2.5D/3D IC are discussed. It is
explained how to increase the I/O density and the bandwidth in packaging
technology.
Part III is a collection of chapters on reliability science. It begins with a
chapter on irreversible processes of atomic flow, heat flow, and charge flow
in open systems. The most important issue of Joule heating will be ana-
lyzed. The topics of electromigration, thermomigration, stress migration,
and failure analysis will be covered. Equations of mean-time-to-failure
(MTTF) will be reanalyzed on the basis of entropy production.
Finally, in Chapter 14, a brief discussion on how to use artificial intelli-
gence to accelerate reliability testing will be presented. We propose an x-ray
based graphic processing unit (X-GPU) to analyze early reliability failure
before it occurs in any newly developed 3D IC device for mass production.
The goal of AI here is to change the time-dependent and time-consuming
reliability tests to time-independent tests. The basic idea of mean
microstructure-change to failure (MMTF) will be introduced, so that we can
link MTTF to MMTF.
We appreciate the capable help of Mrs. Jody Lee and Mr. John Wu at
NCTU in preparing the book.
Hsinchu, December 2020 King-Ning Tu

Chih Chen
Hung-Ming Chen
1
Introduction
1.1 Introduction
As we enter the big data era, mobile devices are ubiquitous. On hardware,
nearly everyone has a cell phone. On software, internet of things (IOT)
reaches everywhere. We have man-to-man, man-to-machine, and machine-
to-machine communications. Furthermore, during the Covid-19 virus pan-
demic, the trend of distance teaching, distance medicine, home office, and
online meeting has increased greatly the need of advanced consumer elec-
tronic products, demanding smaller form factor, larger memory, more func-
tion, cheaper cost, faster and greater rate of data transmission, and superb
reliability. Actually, the advanced 5G communication technology and
3-dimensional integration of circuits (3D IC) have already begun their
impact to our society. No doubt the world around us is changing rapidly. In
human history, this is the second time of a fundamental revolution.
In eighteenth century, we had industrial revolution when steam engine
was invented. It developed machine power to replace human power and
animal power. The activities in civilization were changing from agriculture
to industry. We had railroad trains, ocean liners, automobiles, airplanes,
and electricity. While industrial production has transformed human society
from feudal to democratic, it was accompanied by capitalism, then commu-
nism, and then socialism. Indeed, the impact to human society was huge in
the last two to three hundred years.
In twentieth century, after the invention of transistor, very-large-scale
integration of transistor circuits, and mobile technology, we have data
power to enhance machine power. What is coming is to have artificial
intelligence (AI) revolution. We have robots, and human-less vehicles and
Electronic Packaging Science and Technology, First Edition. King-Ning Tu, Chih Chen,
and Hung-Ming Chen.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2 1 Introduction
aircrafts to serve us. Mobile technology supported by mobile internet will

have a long way to go in the near future. Accompanying the rapid pro-
gress, however, Moore’s law of miniaturization in Si chip technology is
near ending, so people wonder whether the rapid progress can be
sustained.
If we look back to the last 10–20 years, semiconductor industry has had
some interesting events. Namely, Japan has lost the leadership in semicon-
ductor technology. The large European countries such as England, France,
and Russia have no presence in microelectronics. On the other hand, Taiwan
and Korea have gained the leadership due to the success of Taiwan
Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation (TSMC) and Samsung. Today,
China has identified semiconductor device development and manufactur-
ing to be a national goal and will spend a large sum of money to achieve it.
One of the key reasons behind the trade war between United States and
China is due to the competition in advanced semiconductor technology and
in manufacturing of consumer electronic products. At the same time, 5G
communication technology and AI applications are with us and they exert
an unlimited impact and change to our society.
There were many reasons of Japan’s failure, such as the critical change in
currency exchange rate between yuan and dollar, and also the heavy pun-
ishments of Fujitsu by United States. However, Japan has recently joined
TSMC to form an advanced electronic packaging factory in Japan to main-
tain its impact. The weaker and weaker presence of England and France is
because of the insufficient financial support on semiconductor technology
due to socialism. They tended to support rather uniformly the popular
needs of society, but did not concentrate on supporting semiconductor tech-
nology. Today, to build a Si-based transistor factory will take 3–5 billion US
dollars, so fewer and fewer countries can afford it. Russia is simply poor.
Samsung in Korea has had the government’s focused support to do so.
TSMC in Taiwan is unique that it takes orders from all over the world to
make VLSI devices, so it knows the major trend of the technology. Thus, it
can spend the money it earned to keep improving the technology with inno-
vation. For example, the technique of immersion lithography has enabled
TSMC to lead the manufacturing of nanoscale semiconductor devices for
the past five generations. Now, we are having the 5 nm node of nanotech-
nology, and 3 nm and 2 nm nodes are coming.
Some experts in China commented that China might take 10 years to
catch up. No reason was given why it will take so long! On the other hand,
China has been very successful in high-speed train and satellite technology.
When China can make transistors as cheap as those made in United States,
it is a sign that China has caught up. A plausible reason is given below.
1.2 Impact of Moore’s Law on Si Technolog 3
A Chinese classic philosopher, Wang Yang-Ming, said “Knowing is hard,

but practice is easy.” Semiconductor technology is completely opposite that
“Knowing is easy, but practice is hard.” Take an example of teaching a child
to play violin or piano; we can find the best teacher to teach the child all the
technique and tricks of how to play well. Even a very talented child, he/she
still has to take 10–20 years of practice to be good. It is the “experience”
that is needed to do well. Indeed, “experience” cannot be taught quickly
and cannot be copied or cannot be steal. Furthermore, in semiconductor
manufacturing, the experience is not just of one person, it is of an entire
industry.
1.2 Impact of Moore’s Law on Si Technology
Moore’s law states that the transistor density per chip area is doubling every
18–24 months without the increase of production cost. Figure 1.1 depicts
the achievements of 2D IC of Si technology according to Moore’s law. From
1970 to 1985, the density has increased from 1K to 1M per chip, which is an
increase of 1000 times. From 1985 to 2005, the increase was from 1M to 1G,
which is another increase of 1000 times. It is the most successful event of
sustainability for about 40 years of any human activity.
4G
1010 2G
Memory 1G
512M
109 Microprocessor 256M
64M
108 16M 128M
4M
107 1M
Transistors per die
256k
106
64k
16k
105 4k
1k
104
103
102
101
100
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year
Figure 1.1 A sketch of the achievements of 2D IC of Si technology according to

Moore’s law.
4 1 Introduction
There are 110 Si chips in

the module of a mainframe
Computer in 2002.
IBM J. of R&D.,
November, 2002.
If we replace the 110 chips

by 1 chip, we can make the
mobile phone now!
Size about 10 cm
Also replace key-board by
Physical size reduction finger-touch.
Figure 1.2 An image of part of the device structure of the mainframe computer
in 2002. The size of the module is about 10 × 10 cm.
The law has had two significant impacts. First, the price of one transistor is
now cheaper than the printing of one alphabet on a newspaper, which is a
significant consequence of the Moore’s law that circuit density can be doubled
without the increase of production cost. Hence, we can have very low cost use
of transistors. Second, it enables the reduction of physical size of a computer
so that handheld and mobile devices can be made. Figure 1.2 shows part of a
mainframe computer in 2002. The module size is about 10 × 10 cm, and
between two of the ceramic plates in the module, there are 10 × 11 = 110 pieces
of Si chips. According to Moore’s law shown in Figure 1.1, the circuit density
per chip in 2002 is about 256 M. If we can integrate the central processing unit
(CPU) and the memory on the 110 chips into a single chip, we can build a
mobile device or a mobile computer by using a single chip! No doubt, we also
need to reduce the packaging structure, as well as to replace a keyboard by the
finger-touching technique. It is worth mentioning that in Figure 1.2, while we
do not see the chips but we see the electronic packaging structure, wherein the
bright solder joints are everywhere. It shows how important is solder joint
technology in electronic device manufacturing. This is because solder joint is
still the best way to join two Cu wires, even two nanowires of Cu.
1.3 5G Technology and AI Applications
Those advances mentioned in the above have changed internet to mobile

internet. Internet means computer-to-computer communication. Mobile
internet means mobile computer (cell phone)-to-mobile computer commu-
nication. At this moment, the rapid advances in 5G and AI require Moore’s
1.3 5G Technology and AI Application 5
law to keep going ahead for at the least another 10–20 years, but Moore’s law
is ending.
In human civilization, the technique of communication has advanced
step-by-step slowly from language, written words, printing, telephone and
telegraph, television, internet, and now to mobile internet. Today, the
advanced communication technology behind mobile internet is defined
as 5G, with a standard of certain required performance. Figure 1.3 shows
the drawing of a flower, which has six petals. There are two sets of petals:
the inner brighter ones and the outer darker ones. The latter represents 5G
technology and the former represents 4G technology. Each petal defines a
specific technical requirement, as shown in Table 1.1. For example, on
User experienced data rate (Gbps) Connections density (104/km2)

0.1 to 1 Gbps 1 1 million connections/km2
100
0.1
10
0.01 1
0.001
0.1
Traffic volume density(Tbps/km2) End-to-end latency (ms)
Tens of Tbps/km2 100 10 1 0.1 1000 100 10 1 ms level
1
0.1
1 10
100
10
Peak data rate (Gbps) Mobility (km/h)
Tens of Gbps 1000 500 km/h
100
Figure 1.3 The petals of flower, which shows the required functions in 4G and 5G
communication technology.
Table 1.1 5G technical requirements.
●● Primary requirements:
End-to-end latency (mille sec)
Peak data rate (mobility, km/h)
Traffic volume density (tens of Tbps/km2)
Density of base stations (104/km2)
Internet of everything
Energy efficiency
●● Secondary requirements:
Security and reliability
Low cost
6 1 Introduction
point-to-point latency of signals, it was 10 ms in 4G and about 1 ms in 5G. If

we can advance the required performance beyond the petals of 5G, it
will be 6G.
In 2014, it was already predicted that around 2020, the 5G technology will
be widely available. However, the company, Huawei in China, announced
that its 5G technology is ready in 2019, ahead of everyone. It became a criti-
cal issue in the trade war between China and United States. The latter has
put Huawei on its entity list or ban list. The hardware in 5G consists of satel-
lites, servers, optical fiber lines, base stations, cell phones, and terminal sen-
sors, and the software consists of various mobile internets, such as Android
of Google. Huawei is especially good at making base stations.
Data and signals can be transmitted via satellites in sky, but satellites can
be shot down easily in the beginning of a war. It can be transmitted via opti-
cal fibers underground and across oceans. The making of optical fiber
requires the doping of rare-earth elements, so the strategic importance of
rare-earth elements can be appreciated. Also it can be transmitted via base
stations on land surface, so the construction of a large number of base sta-
tions is of national security concern. It is worth mentioning that Taiwan has
successfully used its network of base stations to detect and control the
motion and contact of people with Covid virus.
In the late nineties, dot-com was developed but soon burst because cell
phones were not available. After cell phone becomes popular, Apple,
Microsoft, Amazon, etc. are now the biggest companies in the world, no more
GE, IBM, and Exxon, because of the wide applications of mobile technology.
About the global standard of requirements in 5G technology, see Table 1.1,
the first is point-to-point latency of signals, which is only a few milli second.
Latency means the total time spent to send out a signal and to receive it
back. In a chain of moving cars, if the first car stops suddenly, the second
car must stop within the time of latency, otherwise an accident would occur.
If we consider a human-less vehicle, the LiDAR (not radar) on top of the car
should be able to detect a sudden appearance of a pedestrian or a car, so that
it can stop to avoid an accident.
Moreover, LiDAR and radar are line-of-sight techniques. Yet, we need
to have a network of vehicle-to-everything in order to have non-line-of-
sight awareness to know what is behind a stationary or a moving object.
Also it should have an ultrafast rate of transport of data in order to show
clearly the change of images of the surrounding of a car moving at high
speed. Besides, it can download or upload instantly news or weather
reports. To download a movie will now take only three seconds in 5G
technology. For the success of 5G, it must have a very large number of
base stations, so that information can be received and transmitted
1.4 3D IC Packaging Technolog 7
continuously from place to place. It is no need to explain other standard

requirements in Table 1.1, they should be clear. For example, any device
being used under the hood of a car should have a high reliability because
of heat. Then, low cost is important for the use of internet of everything
in our home and office.
No doubt, 5G technology will enhance AI applications. At the end of this
book, in Chapter 14, we shall discuss the need of using AI to accelerate the
study of reliability, so that we may change it from a time-dependent event to
a time-independent event. Another area for the use of AI will be the bio-
medical and health applications. For example, Chinese medicine has been
based on big data for many years, and the technique of acupuncture could
be improved with modern microelectronic devices. The link between micro-
electronics and biomedical applications will be the most important advanced
technology in the future.
1.4 3D IC Packaging Technology
As the trend of miniaturization in Si technology slows down, microelec-

tronics industry has been looking for ways to keep the downsizing momen-
tum going, meaning to go to more-than-Moore! [1–3] The critical feature
size in Si devices has already reached nanoscale, below 10 nm. Hence, it is
harder and harder to make transistor circuits on a Si chip smaller and
smaller without a large cost increase. At present, the most promising way to
extend Moore’s law is to go from 2D IC to 3D IC. Actually, the paradigm
change has occurred more than 10 years ago, but 3D IC is not in mass pro-
duction, because of cost and reliability.
In semiconductor manufacturing, because the product quantity is
extremely large, so high yield and high reliability are critically important.
Low yield will increase cost, and poor reliability will lead to recall; one
example is the battery failure of cell phones. For any consumer electronic
product in mass production, the concern of reliability is critical, especially
the electronic packaging in 3D IC for advanced consumer electronic prod-
ucts, which are widely used now for distance teaching and home office.
In this introductory chapter, we explain what is electronic packaging?
Also, what are the science and engineering in it, especially those relate to
reliability? If we want to add more functions to hand-held devices, the
operations of memory, logic, and special functions must be increased. At
the same time, power as well as battery capacity must be increased too. A
larger size battery will squeeze the volume of the rest of the device, which
makes the heating problem worse. To remove heat, we must have a
8 1 Introduction
temperature gradient. If we consider a temperature difference of 1 °C

across a microstructure of 10 μm in diameter, the temperature gradient is
1000 °C/cm, which will induce thermomigration. In turn, Joule heating
will enhance electromigration, and thermo-stress will induce stress-
migration. While these are time-dependent events, they are of major relia-
bility concern.
Figure 1.4 is a scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of the cross-
section of a 2.5D IC test device. It has only two pieces of Si chips stacking on
a polymer board. Electrically, they are interconnected by three sets of solder
joints. At the bottom or on the outside of the polymer board is the set of the
largest solder balls of diameter up to 760 μm, which is called the ball-grid-
array (BGA). These balls allow the test device to be connected to the circuits
on a printed circuit board. Within the polymer board, there are Cu wirings,
as well as Cu plated-through-holes, which are not shown in the image. On
top of the polymer board, there is the second set of flip chip solder balls of
diameter about 100 μm, the so-called C-4 (controlled collapse chip connec-
tion) solder balls, connecting the board to the first Si chip, which is the
“interposer.” In this test device, there is no transistor on the interposer,
which is passive and serves only as a substrate without introducing thermal
stress to the active Si chip on the top. Often this test device is called 2.5D IC
due to the fact that the interposer has no transistors. If the interposer has
transistors, it becomes 3D IC.
2nd level Si
1st level Si
500 μm
Figure 1.4 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of the cross-section of a

3D IC test device. It has only two pieces of Si chips stacking on a polymer board.
1.4 3D IC Packaging Technolog 9
In the interposer, there are arrays of vertical through-Si-vias (TSV) plated

with Cu, making connections to the third arrays of solder joints of diameter
about 10–20 μm, the so-called micro-bumps or μ-bumps, which join the
interposer to the top Si chip. The top Si chip is an active device chip, so it has
transistors. The thickness of the device in Figure 1.4 is about that of a US
penny. The thinness of the device is a critical requirement due to the limit
of form factor of mobile consumer electronic products. Consequently, the
thickness of Si chips is thin too. The thickness of the Si interposer is about
50 μm, which is much thinner than that of a convention Si chip of 200 μm in
thickness. The thin interposer has caused the warpage problem, as well as
the heat conduction issue, to be discussed in the later chapters. The diame-
ter of the TSV in the interposer is about 5 μm, so the aspect ratio of the
TSV is 10.
In the above example, besides the active Si chip, the rest, which includes
the interposer, can be regarded as electronic packaging. The packaging ena-
bles the Si chip to function, as well as to allow us, to interact with the out-
side world. In the packaging, it is worth mentioning that between two sets
of solder joints of different sizes, there should be a redistribution layer
(RDL) structure for circuit fan-out. It increases the number of input–output
(I/O) contacts of a circuit in going from a low density of solder joints to a
high density of solder joints. The higher the density of I/O, the better the
resolution of frequency of a digital electromagnetic wave, because each I/O
is designed to transmit a small width of the wave.
At the moment, there are two critically important challenges in electronic
packaging technology. The first is the need of denser and denser I/O, which
means the diameter of micro-bump and the pitch between them has to be
reduced. As to be shown in Chapter 3, hybrid-bonds consist of Cu-to-Cu
bonds together with dielectric-to-dielectric bonds are being developed. The
second is Joule heating and heat dissipation, which will be discussed in
Chapter 9.
About the increase of I/O, from BGA to C-4 joints, there is a RDL of Cu
wires in the upper part of the polymer board. From C-4 joints to μ-bumps,
there is an RDL of Cu wires at the lower part of the interposer chip. This
second RDL is invisible in the figure, but it is new in 3D IC because it does
not exist in 2D IC devices, where typically there are only two levels of solder
joints. The failure of the new RDL is of concern.
Figure 1.5a and b show synchrotron radiation tomographic images of a
3D IC and part of a 2.5D IC device, respectively. The latter has a length
about 4 mm, and a thickness and a height of about 0.5 mm. Due to the weak
absorption of X-ray, the two Si chips and the polymer substrate become
invisible. We can see the vertical TSV pillars. Also, the solder balls and the
10 1 Introduction
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.5 (a) Synchrotron radiation tomographic images of a similar device as

shown in Figure 1.1. Due to the weak absorption of X-ray, the two Si chips and the
polymer substrate become invisible. But the solder balls and the Cu wires are
shown clearly. (b) Synchrotron radiation tomographic image of a 2.5D IC device,
having a length about 4 mm, and a thickness and a height of about 0.5 mm. The
vertical TSV pillars can be seen.
Cu wires are shown clearly. In Figure 1.5a, by using a pair of the BGA balls
as the cathode and the anode and by passing 50 mA at 100 °C, following the
arrows which indicate the conduction path, we can study time-dependent
failures caused by electromigration and Joule heating, to be discussed in
Chapter 10.
Why do we emphasize electromigration and Joule heating? This is
because electronic devices are current–voltage (I-V) devices, so the
applied electric current goes in and out of the devices in an open system.
It causes Joule heating and electromigration, which are of key reliability
concern. Figure 1.6 is a schematic diagram of the cross-section of a typi-
cal 3D IC device. The structure, in essence, is the same as that shown in
Figure 1.4, except that on the right-hand side, there is a stack of memory
chips on a logic chip as the CPU. If we replace the stack by an optical or
1.5 Reliability Science and Engineerin 11
μ-Bumps μ-Bumps
20 μm Digital IC CPU 10 μm
Flip-chip solder joints 2.5D Silicon

100 μm interposer
BGA
laminate
Figure 1.6 Schematic diagram of the cross-section of a typical 3D IC device.
compound semiconductor or MEMS chip, it becomes heterogeneous

integration.
In comparing the structure of 3D IC to that of 2D IC, the difference is the
stacking of multilayer of chips and the interconnects using TSV and μ-bumps.
On processing TSV, the thinner the chip, the easier the drilling of vias. On
making μ-bumps, its melting point should be lower than that of C-4 joints, so
that the latter will not melt upon the melting of the former. Thus, the basic
challenges are that the wafer is thinner and the processing temperature
is lower.
From the viewpoint of packaging technology, we may say that the essence
or the major challenge in 3D IC is to scale down the dimension of packaging
structures so that it can match those in the chip technology. There is no
Moore’s law in packaging technology, so it has room to shrink.
What are the key functions of electronic packaging? The cell phone held
in our hands is a movable electronic packaging product or a mobile com-
puter, which enables us to compute and to communicate with the world
around us. The set of chips in the cell phone can be arranged horizontally,
side by side, but it takes space. Or they can be arranged vertically, one on
top of the other, this is called 3D IC, and it reduces the form factor and
takes less space. However, heat dissipation in 3D IC is harder because the
packing is denser. When over-heat occurs, it induces reliability problems.
Over all, the product should be electrically, mechanically, chemically, and
thermally stable.
1.5 Reliability Science and Engineering
An electronic device in operation is an open system because electrical

charges flow in and out of the device. While the number of charges in
transport is conserved, entropy production is not. The waste heat in entropy
12 1 Introduction
production is Joule heating on the basis of irreversible processes. [4, 5]

For electrical conduction, Onsager’s Eq. (1.1) below shows that entropy
production is the product of the conjugated flux of j (current density =
coulomb/cm2-sec) and the conjugated driving force of E (electric field
E = jρ, where ρ is resistivity). Derivation of the Onsager equation will be
given in Chapter 9.
TdS
jE j2 (1.1)
Vdt
where T is the temperature, V is the volume of sample, dS/dt is the entropy

production rate, and j2ρ is the Joule heating per unit volume per unit time.
Typically, the power from Joule heating is written as P = I2R = j2ρV, where
I is the applied current and R is the resistance of the sample. Thus, j2ρ is
power density or Joule heating per unit volume per unit time of the sample,
in units of Watt/cm3, and I2R is Joule heating per unit time for the entire
sample, in units of Watt. Clearly, this is the reason why we need low-power
devices or low entropy production devices.
While the cost of production of 3D IC can be reduced when it is in mass
production, the problem of reliability due to over-heating has to be solved
fundamentally by a smart system design or by design-for-reliability (DfR)
and by a critical selection in materials integration. To put it simply, we need
to design low-power devices, and also we need to understand heat produc-
tion (Joule heating) in irreversible processes and heat dissipation in the
device structure. [6] Hence, the science and engineering of electronic pack-
aging come into focus.
Entropy production is the most relevant understanding of failure induced
by electromigration, thermomigration, and stress-migration in irreversible
processes. [7] Statistical analysis of failure requires the knowing of mean-
time-to-failure (MTTF). An example is Black’s equation of MTTF for elctro-
migration. In Chapter 13, we shall present a unified model of MTTF for
electromigration, thermomigration, and stress-migration on the basis of
entropy production.
Figure 1.7 shows an example of electromigration-induced damage in
Cu interconnects. The high current density in the interconnect has
induced a flow of atoms along the electron flow direction, going from the
cathode to the anode, leading to vacancy accumulation and void forma-
tion in the cathode region. Resistance of the interconnect increases grad-
ually until an opening in the circuit occurs, where the resistance increases
dramatically.
1.6 The Future of Electronic Packaging Technolog 13
(a)
Cu/dielectric cap
interface
Current crowding
1 μm
(b)
Current crowding
Cu/dielectric cap
interface
Figure 1.7 An example of electromigration electromigration-induced failure of

void formation in Cu interconnects. (a) Electrons drifted from the bottom Cu line to
the top Cu line. (b) Electrons drifted from the top Cu line to the bottom Cu line.
1.6 The Future of Electronic Packaging Technology
In the near future, the R&D of packaging technology for 3D IC devices will
be the focus. The role of electronic packaging in Si-based microelectronic
technology is getting more and more important. In turn, reliability will be
of major concern. The introduction of AI to facilitate the applications to
new 3D IC devices and the reduction of the time-consuming reliability
tests will demand our concentrated effort. In the long run, the applications
of electronic packaging technology to biomedical devices will be important.
For example, as people lives longer, diabetes is common in old age. To
14 1 Introduction
determine oxygen content and sugar content in our blood, we use invasive
method to obtain a drop of blood from our finger for measurement. It is very
unpleasant! If we can invent a noninvasive method, for example by wearing
a mobile device around our finger or arm, it will greatly reduce the unpleas-
ant feeling in our daily live if we have diabetes. Even better, if we can
implant a small device in our body to perform the blood testing function, we
will need to understand the interfacial interaction between biological and
nonbiological materials. In other words, we will need to study bio-
compactable materials, as well as the chemical reactions in body fluid at
body temperature. Furthermore, we may need to join a biomaterial to a
non-biomaterial. To do so, we may need a low-temperature solder or binder
which can decompose slowly in the body. However, the melting point of the
common Pb-free solder, the eutectic SnAg, is over 200 °C, to be discussed in
Chapter 4 on solder joint reactions. We may need a new solder whose wet-
ting temperature is around 100 °C, which is above the working temperature
and near the body temperature, for biomedical devices. While these issues
are beyond the scope of this book, we note that the future of electronic
packaging technology has a long way to go.
1.7 Outline of the Book
The following chapters will be divided into three parts. In Part I, we cover
briefly the history of bonding technology in Chapter 2, starting from wire-
bonding, tab-automated bonding (TAB), flip chip C-4 solder joint bonding,
micro-bump bonding, Cu-to-Cu direct bonding, and hybrid bonding. In
Chapter 3, we shall cover the structure, properties, and applications of ran-
domly oriented and (111) unidirectionally oriented nano-twin Cu. Then,
Chapters 4 and 5 will be dedicated to chemical reactions and kinetic pro-
cesses in solder joint formation. Chapter 4 will review solid–liquid interfa-
cial diffusion (SLID) reactions between liquid solder and Cu. Chapter 5 will
review solid–solid reactions between solid solder and Cu upon annealing.
The kinetics of growth of IMC, which is a stoichiometric compound with-
out composition gradient, has been an outstanding problem in the kinetic
analysis of layered interfacial reactions. We introduce Wagner’s diffusivity
to overcome it.
Part II consists of three chapters related to electric circuitry in electronic
packaging. The emphasis is about the design of low-power devices and high
intelligent integration. The technical issues of the need of faster rate and
larger amount of data transport are discussed. How to increase the I/O den-
sity and the bandwidth in packaging technology are explained.
Reference 15
Part III is a collection of chapters on reliability science. It begins with a

chapter on irreversible processes of atomic flow, heat flow, and charge flow
in interconnects. The topics of electromigration, thermomigration, stress
migration, and failure analysis will be covered. The topic of men-time-to-
failure (MTTF) will be reviewed on the basis of entropy production.
In the last chapter, Chapter 14, a discussion on how to use AI to accelerate
the solving of reliability problems will be explored. We propose an X-ray-
based graphic processing unit (X-GPU) to analyze reliability failure distri-
bution in any newly developed 3D IC device for mass production. The goal
is to change the time-dependent and time-consuming reliability tests to
time-independent tests.
References
1 Chen, K.-N. and Tu, K.N. (2015). Materials challenges in three-dimensional

integrated circuits. MRS Bulletin 40: 219–222.
2 Iyer, S. (2015). Three-dimensional integration: an industry perspective. MRS
Bulletin 40: 225–232.
3 Chen, C., Yu, D., and Chen, K.-N. (2015). Vertical interconnects of
microbumps in 3D integration. MRS Bulletin 40: 257–263.
4 Prigogine, I. (1967). Introduction to Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes,
3e. New York: Wiley-Interscience.
5 Tu, K.N. (2011). Chapter 10 on “Irreversible processes in interconnect and
packaging technology”. In: Electronic Thin-Film Reliability (ed. K.N. Tu).
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
6 Tu, K.N., Liu, Y., and Li, M. (2017). Effect of Joule heating and current
crowding on electromigration in mobile technology. Applied Physics Reviews
4: 011101.
7 Tu, K.N. and Gusak, A.M. (2019). A unified model of mean-time-to-failure
for electromigration, thermomigration, and stress-migration based on
entropy production. Journal of Applied Physics 126: 075109.
17
Part I
19
Cu-to-Cu and Other Bonding Technologies

in Electronic Packaging
2.1 Introduction
Manufacturing of semiconductor devices can be divided into three portions:

the front-end-of-line (FEOL), the back-end-of-line (BEOL), and the packag-
ing. The FEOL deals with manufacturing of transistors, capacitors, and
resistors. The BEOL refers to the fabrication processes after the deposition
of the first metal layer, and there are more than 10 metal layers deposited by
the dual-damascene technique for Cu interconnects in high-end devices.
For the present 7 nm node, the first metal layer is Cu. The purpose for the
BEOL is to connect the individual transistors, capacitors, and resistors. The
final stage in semiconductor device packaging is to connect a chip or multi-
ple chips to metal lead-frames by wire bonding, to polyimide tapes by tape
automatic bonding, to organic/ceramic substrates by solder joints, or to Si
interposor or another chip by Cu-to-Cu bonds in the state-of-the-art 3D
integration of circuits (IC). Figure 2.1 shows the schematic drawing for the
first-level packaging on lead-frame. The lead-frames or the substrates with
the chips are jointed to a print circuit board (PCB), which is called second-
level packaging. And then the PCB with chips are jointed to a mother board
(third level packaging) if necessary in order to complete the packaging pro-
cess. The packaging in movable hand-held consumer products is about the
same. The purposes for packaging are to provide signal passage, power dis-
tribution, heat dissipation, and physical chip protection and prevention of
corrosion.
Generally speaking, first-level packaging can be classified into five gen-
erations, including wire bonding, tape-automated bonding, flip-chip tech-
nology (C4), micro bumps, and Cu-to-Cu bonding.
Electronic Packaging Science and Technology, First Edition. King-Ning Tu, Chih Chen,
and Hung-Ming Chen.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
20 2 Cu-to-Cu and Other Bonding Technologies in Electronic Packaging
Packaging procedure with lead-frame
Wafer Lead-frame
IC chip
Die
saw Die
attachment
Die attachment
Connection wire Encapsulation
Wire
Encapsulation
bonding
2nd level Surface mount or

packaging Print circuit board pin through hole
Figure 2.1 General process of packaging procedure with lead-frame.
2.2 Wire Bonding
After the separation of chips or dies from a wafer, they are attached to the
central lead-frame plates. A lead-frame is an alloy frame consisting of pad-
dles and packaging leads, as shown in Figure 2.2. A silicon die is attached on
the paddle, and the electrical leads are connected to the die with wire bonds.
Figure 2.2 Photo for lead-frames.

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in the flower garden. Boys were paired with boys and girls with girls;
there were usually four children at the garden, each day, rain or
shine, if not to work, at least to note conditions and report to their
teachers.
Some of the girls resented slightly the comrades selected for them,
but no real insult was perpetrated by the assignments made.
The teachers took turns in sharing the responsibility for
management, except when wishing advice on cutting and giving
flowers, then all the pupils went to Miss Phelps.
Fifty pupils took part in the venture. It solved several social school
problems and created a fine spirit of fraternalism among children of
varied social standings.
When young people reach the high school age, the period in which
all the changes of adolescence are most actively going on, they
sometimes develop a tendency to form clubs and secret societies
which is often disastrous to school discipline. When the clique evil is
fully developed, snobbishness and false standards run rife.
There must be democracy in the school if the best results are to be
obtained, and the clique spirit may work great havoc, especially in a
small high school where a well-defined group or clique is necessarily
very conspicuous.
CASE 133 (HIGH SCHOOL)
A high school of about 150 pupils in a Sororities

prosperous little western town became
afflicted with the clique disease. Margaret Hancock, the daughter of
one of the town’s most prominent citizens and rather a spoiled child
at home, returned from a winter spent in a southern city, where she
had gone to a large high school and had been admitted to one of the
numerous sororities there. She came back thoroughly imbued with
the ideals of the southern high school, which was in the wealthy,
aristocratic part of the city and attended by girls who expected to
become debutantes in a few years and make “society” their career.
This southern high school was a large one and the clique spirit was
not so harmful because there were several such groups to offset each
other and the pupils were, on the whole, of the same social class.
Back in her home town again, Margaret succeeded in organizing a
sorority before the first month of the school year had passed. She
included in her secret society the girls whom she thought the “nicest”
in the school. These girls were the ones who most nearly approached
the prospective belles of the southern high school in type—the girls
with the most money and the prettiest clothes, the ones whose
parents were frequent visitors in Margaret’s home. This clique or
sorority included about twenty pupils in its membership and,
needless to say, in a school of that size was quite out of place.
It was not long before the boys followed the example set by the
girls and formed a secret club of limited membership, and then how
the two organizations did lord it over the rest of the school!
Boys who had come in from the country and worked for their
board in order to get a high school education were looked down upon
and made to feel ashamed of their rural origin and their manner of
life. Girls whose clothes were not so fine or so numerous as those of
Margaret’s friends were hurt to the quick by the sneers of their
classmates and by being left out when invitations to little dances and
home parties were being given out.
The two clubs soon managed things so that all the class officers
were from among their members and all school functions were under
their management. The school became not a democracy, but an
aristocracy of the narrowest variety.
There were so many club functions and good times that school
work suffered and these affairs had to be talked over so extensively,
by those who had and had not been present alike, that there was
more trouble than ever before about whispering and note-writing.
Several of the pupils who had been neglected and left entirely out
of the social whirl lost interest in school altogether and dropped out.
It was thus that the clique spirit upset the morale of the whole
school and lowered the quality of the work many degrees.
CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT
The wise teacher will emphasize the school spirit, or even class
spirit, in dealing with situations involving the clique evil. Try to make
the snobbish ones forget their exclusiveness in their interest in
athletics or other contests in which the best man or team wins and in
which the whole school is the party to gain or lose by the outcome.
As a last resort, the parents of the ringleaders in the cliques should
be appealed to, to make their offspring see the folly and the falseness
of the standards they are setting up, for snobbish children have
generally been more or less encouraged in their snobbish tendencies
at home.
COMMENTS
Children of all grades do their best work when they have interest
and enthusiasm for the work and the school. School spirit can be
carried to extremes, but in moderation it should be encouraged. The
clique evil needs careful, tactful treatment, for the suppression of
school societies sometimes leads to the formation of secret
organizations imbued with all the mystery and solemnity of the
adults’ lodge, which are much harder to eradicate than the open,
above-board kind, and seem to be many times more attractive to the
adolescent mind.
Adolescence is the sensitive age, the age when small slights cut
deepest and pride is most easily wounded, as well as the period when
secrets and mystery are most alluring. It is positively cruel for the
young people of a school to make their classmates suffer as they have
the power to do, by organizing good times and meetings from which
the majority of the school are excluded.
The clique evil is much more likely to develop into serious
proportions in a small school of a few hundred than in a large one of
a thousand or more.
Children, as well as adults, choose for friends persons of the same
or similar tastes, but in a small school the grouping of these kindred
spirits into an exclusive organization is particularly bad, because
there are usually not enough other pupils with the spirit and
initiative to form rival organizations; there is usually one clique only,
which excludes the majority of the school from its ranks, instead of
several which offset each other.
ILLUSTRATION
The clique spirit is met with in many other places besides the
school-room.
The manager of a stocking factory found Stocking Factory
one group of girls among his operatives
making the days and nights miserable for the others in his employ.
They made loud and unpleasant remarks about other girls in the
dressing-room, were rude at all times to those not of their group,
and, by intimidation, forced the foreman to give them the advantage
when there was one to be given.
Things finally came to such a pass that no girl whom the clique
disliked could be induced to work in the factory, so unpleasant did
the clique make it for her.
The manager studied the situation long and earnestly when he
realized how serious it was, and finally hit upon the scheme of
providing a gymnasium for his women operatives. He hired a trained
social worker, who was also a gymnasium teacher. She developed
team work and the spirit of good sportsmanship in the course of a
year’s work in gymnastic classes and athletics, but it was largely the
influence of her own personality and the soundness of her teaching
and example that worked the change.
The clique spirit vanished as the result of her efforts. The manager
of the factory had realized the loss he was suffering in the lessened
efficiency of his workers; this loss was remedied only after the
company had expended much money.
Miss Reynolds, teacher of the senior year School Clubs

high school, had long foreseen the trend of
the social impulse in the Lewiston School. Such notices on the
blackboard of the assembly room as “Meeting of the Adelphian
Society this afternoon,” and “L. A. C. business meeting tonight,”
stood as evidence that the club idea was growing into prominence.
When the subject was brought up at faculty meeting, Miss
Reynolds voiced her opinion as follows:
“This club idea is only a natural one with children. They get their
incentives from the social organization at home. Mother belongs to
the Mothers’ club or literary society; Father belongs to the
Manufacturers’ Association or Industrial League. It seems to me the
only solution is to provide as many opportunities as possible for
outlets for this social instinct. It is our place to encourage the
formation of societies along literary, social and athletic lines.”
Heated discussion followed. A vote was taken on the motion: “We
will encourage the formation of literary, social and athletic clubs,”
with the result that it was carried.
But it was soon markedly noticeable that the clubs drew finer
social distinctions until the whole atmosphere of the school was
undermined by a spirit of snobbishness, ill-feelings and entire lack of
coöperation between pupil and teacher.
Allow no organizations to be formed without the approval of the

faculty. When officially recognized, see that the society elects an
advisory board which shall consist of two teachers, two or more
pupils, who shall be the officers of the society, and the principal of
the school, who shall act as honorary member. This board is to act as
a “court of appeal” in the decision of questions which concern the
activities of the organization. It is in no sense to be a dictatorial
power.
COMMENTS
Miss Reynolds had the right idea when she encouraged the
formation of school organizations, but she failed to realize that the
activities of such societies should be tactfully supervised by teacher
and principal, under the direction of leaders who have the interests
of the society at heart and who will lend their good judgment to its
best development; such an organization may be depended upon as a
standard of conduct on all questions which affect the name of the
school. Unguided organizations are the source of many of the evil
tendencies in school life.
ILLUSTRATION (HIGH SCHOOL)
When Mr. McDaniels, the physical Athletic

director of the Edgeville High School, Associations
advised the boys that their games would be better organized and they
would be more certain of help from the faculty if they formed an
athletic association, they decided immediately to organize.
Accordingly, a meeting was called for the afternoon, of all the boys
who were interested in athletics. As might be imagined, there were
very few absent. Mr. McDaniels offered to help them conduct the
meeting. After the boys had elected president, vicepresident,
secretary and treasurer, inasmuch as Mr. Chadwick (the principal)
was much interested in the formation of athletic organizations, Mr.
McDaniels proposed that he be chosen as honorary member of the
association. The boys rose to the occasion and elected Mr. Chadwick
to this position.
“Now it has been my experience that questions come up for
decision which call for mature judgment. I suggest that you elect an
advisory board to be made up of your officers, two members of the
faculty and Mr. Chadwick.”
Knowing that Mr. McDaniels had their interests in mind, the boys
immediately responded to his suggestion.
The result was that a coöperative body of pupils and teachers was
organized to the great advantage of all interests concerned.
3. Altruism
A man may be thoroughly acquainted with the highest moral laws and yet have a
very weak character.—Hughes.
If the above statement is true, and we believe it to be so, then the
futility of trying to make people good merely by teaching them
principles of goodness, is immediately apparent. Some more effective
means of training must be found and those means undoubtedly
should be experience and habit. Especially is this true of little
children. To them principles and laws are mere words; experience is
everything. With adults the precept is more effective, not because
they are so different from children, but because they already have
had experiences by means of which they are able to interpret and
apply the principle, or proverb, or law. Principles, proverbs, laws, are
only deductions from experiences.
If real morality is the outgrowth of experience, it follows of
necessity, that the best and surest and indeed the only way to teach
anything more than the outward form, is to give to pupils
opportunities for performing moral acts. There must be self-
guidance, there must be a yielding of one’s own desires to the rights
of others, there must be coöperation, teamwork.
The kindergarten, better than any other branch of our school
system, has realized the necessity for this type of social training.
There the aim is to have children learn, through give-and-take
relations with associates, what sort of conduct will best promote the
happiness of all. Instead of exhortations about the obligations of
children to parents, the little ones dramatize those relations, thus
gaining just those experiences which enable them to comprehend the
obligations. So with the industries, the wild animals, the busy bees,
the birds, even the flowers and trees. One by one, the life of each is
“tried on,” so to speak, in play, and inner relations of man to man
and of man to his environment are thus discovered.
It goes without saying that these inner relations, upon an
understanding of which all true morality is based, cannot be
discovered all at once. Years of “trying on” of racial experiences and
relations are necessary, and even then the comprehension of
obligation will be just as narrow as experience has been. Meanwhile
the inexperience of the child must be supplemented by the larger
knowledge of the adult. The right outward form of action must be
stimulated by approval, expectation, suggestion, substitution of
better forms for the child’s crude, impulsive act, and coöperation on
the teacher’s part in such activities as will lead toward higher forms
of altruistic action than the child is able yet to fully comprehend. The
teacher must never lose sight of the fact that moral insight depends
upon a process of growth; nor must he be discouraged if the moral
horizon of his pupils is extremely limited. It is as wide as experience
has been. The remedy for narrowness is to supply the experience that
will furnish the wider outlook.
(1) Infancy and early childhood. Many Appealing to
parents and teachers make the sad mistake Reason
of beginning the rational training of their children before the period
of rational thought has arrived. An amusing example of common
sense and the lack of it occurred one day in a family which consisted
of a mother, who had imbibed some ill-digested, sentimental ideas of
rational training, her eight-year-old son, and her three-year-old
daughter.
CASE 135
The child was playing with a cat upon the rug, and finding great
delight in its piteous meows when she pulled its tail. The mother
remonstrated at each outcry in about this fashion:
“Margy, dear, don’t pull poor kitty’s tail like that! Don’t you know
it hurts poor kitty? How would you like to have mamma pull your
hair? I wouldn’t do it now. Try to make kitty happy.”
“Why don’t you pull her hair, and show her what it’s like?”
inquired Donald, who was reading in the window-seat.
“I want her to learn to think such things out for herself,” the
mother replied with a wise air. “I want her to put herself in kitty’s
place.”
“Huh—she’ll never do it unless you make her. Let me show her,
will you?”
“No, indeed, Donald. I’m afraid your method wouldn’t be very
gentle.”
“Well, I bet the cat doesn’t think she’s very gentle, either,” and
Donald went back to his story.
“Margy must learn to do her own thinking, of course. I remember
when you were a baby, Donald—Margy, child! Mercy, what a howl.
Pussy! Margy, can’t you see you hurt poor pussy? Hurt it, dear—just
hear it cry! Makes it feel all badly, as Margy does when she’s ill. Just
hear poor kitty cry!”
Margy was “hearing poor kitty cry” with new delight at each
piteous meow, which she took to be dear kitty’s means of
entertaining her—having never been taught to associate the sound
with pain of any kind. Just then the door bell rang, and the mother
had to leave.
“Donald, dear, you look after Margy while I’m gone,” she said, as
she closed the door.
Before allowing a three-year-old child to handle a cat at all, give

explicit lessons on how to handle it properly. Teach the child the
meaning of the words “Don’t hurt” by inhibiting the movement of her
hands before she has done the mischief. (See lesson on “Don’t
Touch” in “Easy Lessons for Teaching Obedience in the Home,” Book
I, p. 46—Beery.)
Give an imitative lesson. Holding the cat yourself, gently stroke its
fur, showing Margy the proper way of handling the cat. Then take
Margy’s hand and gently pass it over the fur in the same way.
See to it that the child does not have the cat at all except when
some older person is there to control her action, until such time as
she has learned the meaning of the command, “Don’t hurt,” and will
obey it. In other words, do not allow the wrong habit to become
established before the right way is comprehended.
COMMENTS
Margy’s mother was assuming an understanding in matters

concerning which there had been no adequate experience on Margy’s
part. Protected continually from pain herself, how could she
understand the meaning of the word! To her the cat was just another
musical instrument. Best of all, it was one upon which she could
play. Donald’s method, though not recommended here for general
acceptance, was at least effective.
ILLUSTRATION I
Donald was an obedient child, and closed Donald Takes a
his book promptly. He also, with some Hand
satisfaction in the duty assigned him, sat himself down on the rug
near his baby sister, and his attitude of watchful waiting might have
struck an observer as purposeful and determined.
Margy held pussy firmly by the loose fur at the back of the neck.
She stroked her until she was fairly quiet again, then quickly gave the
long tail another hard pull.
Quick as thought, Donald reached over and pulled his sister’s hair
vigorously. She howled lustily, and the cat ran away. Donald let her
cry for a little while, then gave her back the recaptured cat and sat
again near her. Before long the pulling occurred again, and again
Donald pulled as lustily at Margy’s curls.
“Do you see what it’s like? Do you like to have your hair pulled?
Are you going to quit it?” he inquired. Margy adored Donald, and it
did not occur to her to resent his means of enforcing his lesson.
“Want the cat back? You can have her if you won’t pull her tail.
Will you let her tail alone?” he asked again. Margy said she would,
and Donald again captured the cat and put it into her arms. This
time Margy did not pull its tail. She stroked it, still holding it tightly
by the fur; but she had learned that pulling a cat’s tail had sad
consequences when Donald was near. She never repeated the act
when her brother was within reach, although she did it when alone
or with her mother.
Pulling hair is not a good form of punishment, but Donald’s
method was based on sound principles, of which of course he was
utterly unconscious. A baby should not be asked to make judgments,
but he should be taught that pleasant consequences follow some acts
and painful ones follow others. This is nature’s method of teaching
human beings, and no one can improve on it as a method of last
resort for the young human animal.
ILLUSTRATION 2
“Look what I’ve found,” Harry Jennings cried to his friend, Captain
Stanhope. The captain was sitting on a park bench reading his
morning paper, and Harry had been running races with Gyp up and
down the gravel walk. He came up to the bench, now, with a handful
of souvenir post cards in his hands.
“Some one has been addressing them Applying
here in the park, and then went off and left “Golden Rule”
them on the bench,” he continued. “See, they’re addressed to people
all over the country, and not a stamp on one of them!”
“I have seven cents in change,” said the captain, pulling out his
worn little purse. “That will send seven of them, but there are a
dozen.”
Harry brought out a dime from his trousers pocket, and looked at
it thoughtfully. It would just pay his admission to the community ball
game that afternoon, and if he used half of it to send off a stranger’s
postcards, he must stay at home, for this was the last of his week’s
allowance. Still, there was the captain, the knight of a dozen
campaigns, looking at him. Harry knew that he allowed himself but
one cigar a week, for his pension was subject to heavy drains; and yet
he contributed his seven cents without hesitation. Surely, to share
the doing of a good turn with the captain would be worth staying
home from the ball game.
“Here’s a dime, and I’ll send the rest,” he told the captain. “Shall I
take them to the postoffice?”
The captain used the most subtly effective of all appeals to a child
to do right—he assumed a willingness to be generous on Harry’s part,
and offered him a comrade’s share in the deed. Not for worlds would
Harry have appeared stingy and selfish and little, before the captain.
And having set for himself a certain standard of generosity, it will not
be hard for Harry to be generous when his next opportunity comes,
even if there be no Captain Stanhope near to stimulate him.
CASE 136 (EIGHTH GRADE)
“Here, you little rascal, finish up in that Faithful Work

corner!” called out old John Smith, the
janitor, to Oldham, who was helping him sweep the basement. Old
John had rheumatism, and the school board allowed him to employ a
boy at twenty-five cents a night, to help him with the sweeping.
Oldham had secured the job, and hoped to earn a new suit before
spring.
“I am finishing up in this corner,” he answered, indignantly. “I’m
not done yet, but I’m getting it clean.”
“See that you do, then,” and old John turned painfully to his own
work. His eyes were growing dim, and because he could not see he
thought he might insure thorough work by severity. Soon Oldham
came to him for more directions.
“Go into the furnace-room and sweep up in there,” old John told
him.
Oldham saw that the furnace-room was very dark, indeed. “He’ll
never know whether I’ve done the corners in here or not,” he told
himself. And still smarting a little with resentment at old John’s
undeserved gruffness, he slighted his work and finished in short
order.
Pursue a plan exactly the opposite of John Smith’s. First, approve

the boy’s willingness to coöperate with you. Expect the best work
Oldham is capable of doing, and show your appreciation of his
assistance. Tell him how glad you are to have the help of his young
eyes and willing hands.
COMMENTS
This and the following incident show the play of social reaction
upon conduct. For the approbation of a friendly, trusting man, who
showed that he believed Oldham to be a boy of honor, Oldham
cheerfully did his task honestly and well; to old John, distrustful and
discourteous, Oldham responded with the trickery he invited.
Oldham should have been more deeply grounded in principles of
honesty, of course; he should have been indifferent to a childish, ill,
old man’s acidity. But Oldham was very human in the personality of
his attitude; the world abounds in people like him.
ILLUSTRATION (EIGHTH GRADE)
As Oldham went through the outer room to put away his broom
and dustpan, Mr. Miller, the principal, entered.
“Hello!” he called out, cheerily. “So you’re A Better Method
the boy who’s helping out in a pinch, are
you? I know John Smith appreciates that, and so do I. This floor
looks as though you might have swept it—not a speck to be seen. Did
you?”
“Yes, sir.” Oldham’s checks flushed with pleasure.
“Good, sincere work. Every corner clean. Well, I must go on up. I
came down to see how John here was getting on, but since you’re
helping him I needn’t stay longer. Aren’t you about through,
yourself?”
“In a few minutes, Mr. Miller,” Oldham replied. “I have to do the
furnace-room yet.” And he turned back to do a bad job over.
(2) Adolescence. In learning the great lesson of altruistic living it is
not strange if young persons sometimes fail to see their acts in clear
perspective. Only time and more experience can furnish that
perspective. The following incident illustrates an exaggerated ideal of
altruistic service on the part of a high school boy who sacrificed his
scholarship for athletics.
Oscar Colegrove was the most popular Overdoing

boy in the Vernon High School. His Altruism
kindness and courtesy won the girls, his unusual size and strength
were admired by the younger boys, and his manliness won the love
and respect of the older boys, but he was not studious enough to gain
the approval of his teachers. He was an especial trial to Mr. Watkins,
teacher of Caesar. He had never understood English grammar—the
Latin forms meant nothing to him. When he recited, everybody was
glad when he got through.
But Oscar was a famous basketball player. Mr. Watkins had
decided to make him carry his Latin or drop out of athletics. He had
revolved in his mind the best method of making this fact known, but
had come to no definite conclusion, when fate seemed to take things
in hand.
One morning Oscar was unusually stupid in Caesar. Mr. Watkins
kept him on his feet asking him question after question and growing
more and more angry with every wrong answer. He even asked him
to translate the beginning chapter about “All Gaul,” so well known to
every student of Latin. Oscar ludicrously stumbled over the easiest
parts. Mr. Watkins was the angrier because he had thought to cause
Oscar to be ridiculed by his classmates, who only seemed to suffer
with the tortured boy. Finally, in disgust, Mr. Watkins banged the
textbook down on the table and said, in angry tones, “Oscar
Colegrove, you shall not play another game of basketball until you
can make a decent recitation in Latin.”
“You don’t mean that I can’t play tonight. (That night a game was
to be played at Vernon with a famous out-of-town team.)
“O, I know you want to show off tonight! You’re afraid somebody
else will get the honors due to you, if you drop out. You’re too selfish
to want to give up being a hero. This is your last game until this Latin
is learned.”
That night Oscar played on the team and the next day he was
absent from school.
When Mr. Watkins went to the recitation room to meet his class in
Caesar, he found not a student there. On his desk was an envelope
addressed to him; opening it mechanically, he found this note within,
signed by all but three of the class.
“The Caesar class will be adjourned until the most unselfish of its
members, Oscar Colegrove, is allowed to play basketball as well as to
go on with his studies.”
Mr. Watkins called a meeting of the school board that night and
admitted that he had not handled the case of the delinquent pupil
wisely.
“I contemplated dropping him from the team and I wanted to
show the class that I was justified by letting them see how little he
knew,” Mr. Watkins said in self-defense.
In the private conference the next day, Oscar promised to study his
Latin more faithfully and the entire class reassembled. Oscar’s
lessons were better learned thereafter and Mr. Watkins seemed to
have gained his point, but he knew too well that he would not be able
that year to fulfill his earlier prophecies of being an ideal leader of his
students.
Mr. Watkins should have delayed passing sentence until he had

calmly decided upon the best method of communicating his decision
to Oscar. He should have said to Oscar privately: “I know all of the
pupils want you to stay on the team and I do myself. I know also that
you and I are agreed that you must keep up your studies. For a week
I will assign you certain topics for review and hear you recite them
here in the office or at my home, whichever suits you better. With
this extra effort and a reasonable amount of time put on your daily
lessons, you will be able to please everyone including yourself, by
both carrying your work and playing for the school.”
COMMENTS
A really selfish boy is never a general favorite. Athletic boys are

often heroes of the entire school and are considered self-sacrificing
by all whom they represent. The question of athletics and grades
should be handled privately by the principal of the school.
ILLUSTRATION 1 (HIGH SCHOOL)
M. Zigler said in confidence to Carl Keeping Balance

Worley, one of his athletic boys who was
“falling down” in grades. “It takes a self-sacrificing boy to work
valiantly for the good of his school. I know you will get good mental
and moral as well as physical training on the ball team, because, of
course, you play a clean game. But there is a school ruling that
forbids a boy who has fallen below grade in his studies to keep a
place on an athletic team. This rule was made for the good of the
boys as you can easily see. I am sure we agree with the people who
made it. Now, we can’t make the days longer for the team; I wish we
could. The only thing to do is to make the time we have count for the
most possible.
“I propose that you and I make a daily program for your use
outside of school hours. Many college men find this a great help in
getting much done in a day. In it we will provide ample time for
school studies. This will do away with trouble for you and me as well
as for the team, for if you follow it you can make good grades and
stay on the team, too.” Together Mr. Zigler and Carl made a program
which included practice with the team as well as study periods and
plenty of time for meals and sleep. A careful following of this
program showed that with the time properly used, there was no need
of cutting short either study or recreation.
ILLUSTRATION 2 (HIGH SCHOOL)
“And I like Philip Lampey,” said Jeannette. “I don’t know him very
well, but he always has such excellent manners and he does get his
lessons. Don’t you think he’s awfully fine?”
Miss Parsons and Jeannette White were Helping a
discussing the high school seniors in a very Comrade
friendly and personal way. When Philip Lampey was mentioned the
teacher’s brow clouded.
“I’m beginning to be worried about Philip, Jeannette,” she said.
“He’s being taken up by that fast set, and he seems to like it. He’s
losing his frank way, and beginning to swagger just a little, and to be
oily instead of just courteous. I don’t think he’s very far gone. Now,
he likes you; can’t you help us out, and save Philip from going over to
that cigarette-smoking, idle crowd?”
“I don’t know, but I’ll talk it over with mother,” Jeannette
promised. “I don’t think I have very much influence, however.”
A few days later Jeannette called to Philip as they were passing to
geometry, “Oh, Philip, mother is giving me a birthday party on the
22nd and I want you to go over the senior class with me and help me
make out the guest-list, and perhaps you have some ideas about
things to do too. Can we do it after physics this afternoon?”
“We sure can,” Philip assented, much delighted to find himself
social arbiter. “I’ll be at your desk at 4:05.”
So Philip came to Jeannette’s desk, and they began on the list.
“There’s Sam Blennerman, he’s a good fellow. You’ll want him,” he
suggested, as they came to one of his new chums.
“That stuffy little snob? I should say not!” Jeannette lifted her nose
in great scorn. “The other day I heard him making fun of Earl Stubbs
because he stayed out to go to church in Lent. I think he’s
insufferable!”
“Do you? Oh, he’s not so bad when you know him, though. Well,
how about Vernon East?”
“He smells like a tobacco shop. I never saw him without one of
those nasty little rolls of his in evidence. Father would want to know
what I was coming to.”
“Sylvia Fanslow, Mark Gorham, Francis Hingham—I suppose they
all go on?” Philip held a tentative pencil in air.
“Yes. And Emil Irwin. Leave out Leonard James, of course.”
“But why? His family’s awfully good, and he’s no end of fun. Keeps
things in a roar, you know.”
“Yes, I know. I know his kind of a roar—he thinks he’s such a man
of the world. But isn’t he the boy Mr. Burcher almost expelled for
swearing on the campus?”
“Well, yes, he is. But you wouldn’t expect him to swear at your
party you know.”
“Naturally not. But I haven’t any use for a boy who has one set of
words for girls and another for boys. That’s a double standard and
mother says double standards of any kind are bad.”
Philip was suffering a revision of his ideals at the hands of this girl.
In the evenings he spent at her house, planning the party, he came to
revise them further still as a result of the tactful suggestion of
Jeannette’s mother. When the party was over, he found his taste for
the “fast crowd” had disappeared. To keep Jeannette’s good opinion
he would have pretended to believe anything, but so pliable is youth
before habit has fixed one’s attitudes, that he had really come to
believe in the same high standards that Jeannette held.
DIVISION VIII
The aim of the teacher should be to obtain reverence for law; the law of the
game, the law of competition, the law of the school, the law of the state, and
ultimately the law of his own life development, and the law of God.
—Hughes.
CASES ARISING OUT OF THE REGULATIVE
INSTINCTS
1. Differing Ideals Lead to Conflict in the Regulation of Conduct

By regulative instinct is meant the tendency on the part of every
normal human being to conform to custom, reason, principles, law.
It includes voluntary obedience to authority imposed upon the
individual from without, but it is more than that; it is an inward
recognition that such obedience is fitting and obligatory. It impels
even further. It leads the individual to impose upon himself laws and
standards of action even in the absence of outward authority. It is
thus a tacit recognition of moral law and of religious obligation.
Not much reflection on the teacher’s part will be needed to
convince him that if the outward authority to which the child has
been subjected at home has been arbitrary, vacillating, tyrannical, or
fitful, the child’s ideals as to what is right and what is wrong will have
become sadly jumbled long before he enters school, where the
teacher has the difficult task of straightening out the tangles. Or
again, if the standards of action, which the child more or less
unconsciously imposes upon himself, happen to conflict with the
teacher’s ideals of what right conduct on the pupil’s part should be,
then, also, is there likelihood of a clash between teacher and pupil.
Too often when this occurs the teacher is satisfied to secure
outward conformity to regulation without, at the same time,
attempting to change the inward ideal. In such a case there is the
anomalous condition of apparent obedience to a rule in which the
child does not believe. The body yields to coercion but the mind
rebels. Half the child obeys, the other half inwardly disobeys.
How disintegrating to the real moral life of a child such a double-
faced procedure must be, can best be realized by the teacher if he
imagines himself placed in a similar position where he is compelled
by principal or school board to carry on a course of action which is
either highly repugnant to himself or which he believes to be
absolutely wrong. Only half-hearted responses at best will result
from such coercion in the case of either pupil or teacher. The
question, then, of how to secure the obedience of the whole child, not
merely the physical half, becomes one of great seriousness.
Obviously it can never be accomplished by methods which
systematically arouse antagonism toward the person who
commands. The true method of control must seek to substitute a
better ideal for the crude one held by the child. Coercion may
sometimes be necessary, but the teacher should not feel that the act
of obedience is completed until the mind of the child has been
swayed to voluntary submission.
In the treatment of the regulative instincts which follows, the
chapter on Obedience, strictly speaking, should be included; because
of the great importance of the subject of obedience it has been given
a Division, by itself (Part I). While, however, the more abstract
phases of the subject are dealt with in that chapter the present
treatment aims to be more concrete. Furthermore, what immediately
follows has reference mainly to the lower grades, because there the
child’s school habits are formed, but the teacher who is on the alert
for principles that are fundamental will be quick to perceive that
whatever laws are basal in the control and discipline of children in
primary grades, are equally so for older pupils because they are laws
that apply to all humanity.
With these preliminary remarks, we pass, then, to the
consideration of methods of regulation of conduct in the primary
grades and especially in the first.
2. Importance of the First Year in Regulation of Conduct
It is safe to say that the most important school year of the child’s
life is the first year. The good taught then may blossom into noble
manhood and womanhood. The wrong taught then may influence a
young life in such a way as to make it a burden to society later on.
Each of the higher grades has a share in molding and shaping the
child, but the foundation will be laid in his first school year. It then
becomes the duty of upper grade teachers to build wisely upon that
foundation. The first grade teacher may have done her work in the
best possible way only to have the results torn down in a very few
weeks in the second grade.
Nowhere in the child’s twelve school years is a more proficient
teacher needed. She need not be deeply versed in the sciences
generally, in mathematics, or in history, but she must have other

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Library of Congress Cataloging-­in-­Publication Data

Cover image: © Andriy Onufriyenko/Getty Images

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Strive, Pondicherry, India

2 Cu-­to-­Cu and Other Bonding Technologies in Electronic

2.7 ­ ybrid Bonding 51

3 Randomly-­Oriented and (111) Uni-­directionally-­Oriented

4 Solid–Liquid Interfacial Diffusion Reaction (SLID) Between

5 Solid-­State Reactions Between Copper and Solder 105

5.5 ­ idewall Reaction to Form Porous Cu3Sn in μ-­Bumps 114

6 Essence of Integrated Circuits and Packaging Design 129

7 Performance, Power, Thermal, and Reliability 149

8 2.5D/3D System-­in-­Packaging Integration 173

8.7 3­ D IC: 3D-­Stacked Memory and Integrated Memory

Part III 191

9 Irreversible Processes in Electronic Packaging Technology 193

10.4 ­ urrent Crowding and Electromigration in

13 Failure Analysis 281

13.3.1 Black’s Equation of MTTF for Electromigration 287

14 Artificial Intelligence in Electronic Packaging Reliability 303

Chapter 2, starting from wire-­bonding, tab-­automated bonding, flip chip

Hsinchu, December 2020 King-­Ning Tu

aircrafts to serve us. Mobile technology supported by mobile internet will

A Chinese classic philosopher, Wang Yang-­Ming, said “Knowing is hard,

1.2 ­Impact of Moore’s Law on Si Technology

Figure 1.1 A sketch of the achievements of 2D IC of Si technology according to

There are 110 Si chips in

If we replace the 110 chips

1.3 ­5G Technology and AI Applications

Those advances mentioned in the above have changed internet to mobile

User experienced data rate (Gbps) Connections density (104/km2)

Table 1.1 5G technical requirements.

point-­to-­point latency of signals, it was 10 ms in 4G and about 1 ms in 5G. If

continuously from place to place. It is no need to explain other standard

1.4 ­3D IC Packaging Technology

As the trend of miniaturization in Si technology slows down, microelec-

temperature gradient. If we consider a temperature difference of 1 °C

Figure 1.4 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of the cross-­section of a

In the interposer, there are arrays of vertical through-­Si-­vias (TSV) plated

Figure 1.5 (a) Synchrotron radiation tomographic images of a similar device as

Flip-chip solder joints 2.5D Silicon

Figure 1.6 Schematic diagram of the cross-­section of a typical 3D IC device.

compound semiconductor or MEMS chip, it becomes heterogeneous

1.5 ­Reliability Science and Engineering

An electronic device in operation is an open system because electrical

production is Joule heating on the basis of irreversible processes. [4, 5]

where T is the temperature, V is the volume of sample, dS/dt is the entropy

Figure 1.7 An example of electromigration electromigration-­induced failure of

1.6 ­The Future of Electronic Packaging Technology

1.7 ­Outline of the Book

Part III is a collection of chapters on reliability science. It begins with a

1 Chen, K.-­N. and Tu, K.N. (2015). Materials challenges in three-­dimensional

Cu-­to-­Cu and Other Bonding Technologies

Manufacturing of semiconductor devices can be divided into three portions:

Packaging procedure with lead-frame

Connection wire Encapsulation

2nd level Surface mount or

Figure 2.1 General process of packaging procedure with lead-­frame.

Figure 2.2 Photo for lead-­frames.

CASE 133 (HIGH SCHOOL)

A high school of about 150 pupils in a Sororities

CASE 134 (HIGH SCHOOL)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

2 Cu-to-Cu and Other Bonding Technologies in Electronic

2.7 ybrid Bonding 51

3 Randomly-Oriented and (111) Uni-directionally-Oriented

5 Solid-State Reactions Between Copper and Solder 105

5.5 idewall Reaction to Form Porous Cu3Sn in μ-Bumps 114

8 2.5D/3D System-in-Packaging Integration 173

8.7 3 D IC: 3D-Stacked Memory and Integrated Memory

10.4 urrent Crowding and Electromigration in

Chapter 2, starting from wire-bonding, tab-automated bonding, flip chip

Hsinchu, December 2020 King-Ning Tu

A Chinese classic philosopher, Wang Yang-Ming, said “Knowing is hard,

1.2 Impact of Moore’s Law on Si Technology

1.3 5G Technology and AI Applications

point-to-point latency of signals, it was 10 ms in 4G and about 1 ms in 5G. If

1.4 3D IC Packaging Technology

Figure 1.4 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of the cross-section of a

In the interposer, there are arrays of vertical through-Si-vias (TSV) plated

Figure 1.6 Schematic diagram of the cross-section of a typical 3D IC device.

1.5 Reliability Science and Engineering

Figure 1.7 An example of electromigration electromigration-induced failure of

1.6 The Future of Electronic Packaging Technology

1.7 Outline of the Book

1 Chen, K.-N. and Tu, K.N. (2015). Materials challenges in three-dimensional

Cu-to-Cu and Other Bonding Technologies

Figure 2.1 General process of packaging procedure with lead-frame.

Figure 2.2 Photo for lead-frames.