Evolution of Wireless Communication Ecosystems Suat Secgin Full Chapter

Evolution of Wireless Communication
Ecosystems Suat Secgin

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/evolution-of-wireless-communication-ecosystems-sua
t-secgin/
Evolution of Wireless Communication Ecosystems
IEEE Press
445 Hoes Lane
Piscataway, NJ 08854
IEEE Press Editorial Board
Sarah Spurgeon, Editor in Chief
Jón Atli Benediktsson Behzad Razavi Jeffrey Reed
Anjan Bose Jim Lyke Diomidis Spinellis
James Duncan Hai Li Adam Drobot
Amin Moeness Brian Johnson Tom Robertazzi
Desineni Subbaram Naidu Ahmet Murat Tekalp
Evolution of Wireless Communication
Ecosystems
Dr. Suat Seçgin
The ComSoc Guides to Communications Technologies

Nim K. Cheung, Series Editor
Copyright © 2023 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise,
except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without
either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the
appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers,
MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to
the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online
at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.
Trademarks: Wiley and the Wiley logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley
& Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates in the United States and other countries and may not be used
without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make
no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents
of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness
for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or
written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your
situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Further, readers should
be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this
work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any
loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental,
consequential, or other damages.
For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please
contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the
United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in
print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products,
visit our web site at www.wiley.com.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for:

Hardback ISBN: 9781394182312
Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: © Dr Pixel/Getty Images
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India

“I dedicate this book to my mother Bedriye Seçgin, to whom I owe everything.”
vii
Contents
About the Author xv

Preface xvii
List of Abbreviations xxi
1 Basіc Concepts 1
1.1 I ntroduction 1
1.2 Main Components of Communication Systems 1
1.3 Circuit, Packet, and Cell Switching 3
1.3.1 Circuit Switching 3
1.3.2 Packet Switching 4
1.3.3 Cell Switching 5
1.4 Duplexing in Communication 6
1.5 Historical Developments of Wireless Communication Systems 7
Reference 8
2 Modulation and Demodulation 9

2.1 I ntroduction 9
2.2 What Are Modulation and Demodulation? 9
2.3 Analog Modulation Methods 10
2.3.1 Amplitude Modulation 11
2.3.2 Frequency Modulation 11
2.3.3 Phase Modulation 11
2.4 Digital Modulation Methods 13
2.4.1 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) Modulation 13
2.4.2 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Modulation 13
viii Contents
2.4.3 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Modulation 14

2.4.4 Quadrature Amplitude (QAM) Modulation 14
References 17
3 Multiplexing Methods 19
3.1 I ntroduction 19
3.2 Frequency Division Multiplexing 20
3.3 Time Division Multiplexing 22
3.4 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing 23
3.5 Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access 24
3.6 Wavelength Division Multiplexing 25
3.7 Code Division Multiplexing 26
3.8 Spatial Division Multiplexing 27
3.9 Orbital Angular Momentum Multiplexing 27
3.10 Polarization Division Multiplexing 30
References 31
4 Network Performance Metrics 33

4.1 Introduction 33
4.2 Spectral Efficiency 33
4.3 Important Network Performance Metrics 35
References 40
5 Seven Layers of ISO/OSI 41

5.1 Introduction 41
5.2 Application Layer 43
5.3 Presentation Layer 44
5.4 Session Layer 45
5.5 Transport Layer 45
5.6 Network Layer 46
5.7 Data Link Layer 48
5.8 Physical Layer 49
References 50
6 Cellular Communication and 1G Systems 51

6.2 A Brief History of Wireless Communication 51
Contents ix
6.3 ellular Communication

C 52
6.4 1G Systems 54
References 56
7 2G Systems 57
7.2 1G and 2G Comparisons 57
7.3 2G Architecture 59
7.4 Detailed Infrastructure and 2.5G 62
References 64
8 3G Systems 65
8.2 2G and 3G Comparison 65
8.3 3G Architecture 67
References 69
9 4G Systems 71
9.2 Toward 4G 72
9.3 Services and Servers 75
9.4 Architectural Structure and Novel Concepts 77
9.4.1 Architectural Structure 78
9.4.2 IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) 79
9.5 Voice over LTE (VoLTE) 82
9.6 Mobile IP 84
9.7 Multiple Access Techniques 87
9.7.1 OFDM Access 87
9.7.2 Single Carrier-FDMA 89
9.8 Multiple Input-Multiple Output (MIMO) Antenna
Systems and SDM Access 90
9.9 Voice over WiFi (VoWiFi) 92
References 94
10 5G Systems 97
10.2 5G Cell Structure 101
x Contents
10.3 opology 102

T
10.4 Millimeter Wave 106
10.5 Network Slicing 111
10.6 Massive MIMO and Beamforming 114
10.7 Carrier Aggregation (CA) and Dual Connectivity (DC) 116
References 118
11 6G Systems 119
11.1 Introduction 119
11.2 Network 122
11.3 Terahertz Communication 126
11.4 Visible Light Communication 128
11.5 Satellite Integration 131
11.6 Cloud Radio Access Network 132
11.7 Holographic MIMO Surfaces 135
11.8 Massive Cell-Free MIMO 140
11.9 Mobile Cloud Computing (MCC)–Mobile Edge Computing (MEC) 143
11.10 ML, AI, and Blockchain Usage in 6G 148
11.10.1 Machine Learning 149
11.10.2 Blockchain 152
11.11 Quantum Computing in Future Wireless Networks 155
11.12 5G Concepts in 6G (eMBB, uRLLC, and mMTC) 159
11.13 6G Use Cases 161
11.13.1 Virtual, Augmented, and Mixed Reality 161
11.13.2 Rural Areas/Depopulated Areas 163
11.13.3 Nonterrestrial Communication 164
11.13.4 Underwater Wireless Communications Systems 166
11.13.5 Super Smart Society 166
11.13.6 Holographic Telepresence 166
11.14 Comparison of 5G and 6G Network Architectures 169
References 170
12 Internet of Things (IoT) 177

12.2 IoT Vision 178
12.3 Architecture and Communication Model 181
References 189
Contents xi
13 Non-IP-Based WPAN Technologies 191

13.2 802.15 Standards 194
13.3 Radio Frequency Identification 195
13.4 Near-Field Communication 198
13.5 Infrared Data Association 198
13.6 Bluetooth 199
13.7 Zigbee 202
13.8 Z-Wave 207
13.9 Power Line Communication 209
References 210
14 IP-Based WPAN and WLAN 211

14.2 HaLow WiFi (Low-Power WiFi) 211
14.3 ISA 100.11a Wireless 212
14.4 Wireless Highway Addressable Remote Transducer
Protocol (HART) 215
14.5 Wireless Networks for Industrial Automation-Process
Automation (WIA-PA) 216
14.6 6LoWPAN 218
14.7 WPAN with IP Thread 222
References 226
15 Low-Power Wide-Area Networks 227

15.2 General Architecture 227
15.3 EC-GSM-IoT 228
15.4 Random Phase Multiple Access 230
15.5 DASH7 231
15.6 Long-Term Evolution for Machines 233
15.7 Narrowband IoT 234
15.8 Massive IoT 234
15.9 IoTivity 237
15.10 LoRa and LoRaWAN 238
15.11 Sigfox 241
References 243
xii Contents
16 IoT Edge to Cloud Protocols 245

16.2 Message Queue Telemetry Transport Protocol 248
16.3 MQTT over WebSockets 251
16.4 MQTT for Sensor Networks 251
16.5 Constrained Application Protocol 253
16.6 Embedded Binary HTTP 256
16.7 Lean Transport Protocol 257
16.8 Advanced Message Queuing Protocol 258
16.9 Data Distribution Service 260
16.10 Simple Text-Oriented Messaging Protocol 263
16.11 Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol 264
16.12 Lightweight M2M 266
16.13 Health Device Profile Protocol (Continua HDP) 268
16.14 Devices Profile for Web Services 270
16.15 Protocol Comparisons 271
References 274
17 Popular Operating Systems of IoT 277

17.2 OpenWSN 278
17.3 TinyOS 279
17.4 FreeRTOS 279
17.5 TI-RTOS 280
17.6 RIOT 281
17.7 Contiki OS 282
References 284
18 IoT Security 285

18.2 Limitations in IoT End Devices 285
18.3 Security Requirements 287
18.4 Attack Types and Points 290
References 298
Contents xiii
19 IoT Applications 301

19.2 Tactile Internet 301
19.3 Waste Management 304
19.4 Healthcare 304
19.5 Smart Agriculture and Smart Water Supply 305
19.6 Web of Things (WoT) 307
References 308
Index 311
xv
About the Author
Dr. Suat Seçgin has worked in the telecommunication sector for nearly 30 years in
access systems, core networks, IT, and customer management. After completing
his Electrical and Electronics Engineering undergraduate education, Dr. Seçgin
received his master’s degree in Computer Engineering on mobile networks and
data access strategies. Subsequently, he earned his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering
in data science and decision support systems.
He has publications in peer-reviewed and indexed journals on customer analyt-
ics in the telecommunications industry, and this is his second book on telecom-
munication systems.
xvii
Preface
Since Alexander Graham Bell’s first “hello” (1876), communication systems have
witnessed revolutionary developments. These communication systems, which
used to work entirely in circuit-switching and wired transmission environments,
are now turning into wireless systems, especially in access techniques, apart from
the main backbone. Initially, copper wire circuits were used in communication,
while fiber optic cables began in the 1990s. Today, fiber services are put into use in
the home. In parallel with these developments in wired communication systems,
wireless communication systems continue to develop rapidly. With the develop-
ments in multiplexing and modulation techniques, the bandwidth provided to
each user is progressing at an increasing speed.
With the introduction of the Internet into our lives in the 1990s, Information
Technologies and Communication Technologies began to converge. After this
point, we started talking about Information Communication Technologies. Today,
we live in scenarios where everything is connected to the vast Internet cloud with
4G, 5G, and 6G wireless communication systems. However, it is still in the fic-
tional stage. Communication systems, previously used as discrete structures, are
almost becoming living organisms thanks to this substantial interconnected com-
munication infrastructure. It would be much more appropriate to call this cyber
organism structure “Wireless Communication Ecosystem,” which extends from
wireless sensor networks operating at the most extreme points to the edges. This
is a gigantic ecosystem that extends from big data, artificial intelligence, block-
chain, and machine learning to quantum communication on the one hand. The
book is designed to explain the main elements of this ecosystem. If we liken this
ecosystem to a human body, each body organ is introduced in the book.
Before going into the details of these systems, modulation and multiplexing
techniques are also explained to understand the communication generations and
to visualize the big picture in our minds. In addition to increasing the efficiency
of the frequency spectrum, users were introduced to high-frequency and high-
bandwidth by using multiplexing techniques together. Systems that used to work
xviii Preface
with classical circuit switching have evolved into packet switching-based systems
that provide flexible and scalable solutions.
With the convergence of communication and information systems, information
and communications technology (ICT) systems were developed that radically
changed our daily lives and created super-intelligent societies. The support of
software systems has led to paradigm shifts in network metrics such as manage-
ment, security, configuration, scaling, resilience, and more.
Starting with 1G systems, we will talk about communication systems at tera-
hertz levels that have developed due to spectrum-efficient modulation techniques
and advances in electronic circuits. In addition, users can receive services at high
bandwidths using three-dimensional multiplexing techniques.
Wireless communication systems, which continue to progress without slowing
down, have evolved into the fifth-generation communication systems as of the
2020s. Communication speeds up to 20 GHz with 5G, and thanks to these speeds,
the concepts of ultrareliable low-latency communication (uRLLC), enhanced
mobile broadband (eMBB), and massive machine-type communication (mMTC)
entered our lives. The transition occurred from the Internet of Things (IoT) to the
Internet of Everything (IoE). Communication systems, applications, and services
have become more intelligent using topics such as artificial intelligence, block-
chain, and big data in the software field. Smart homes, smart cities, innovative
health systems, and autonomous vehicles are now inseparable parts of our lives.
In the years when the book was written (2021/2022), 5G applications entered
our lives, and the sixth-generation communication systems, which will be put
into use starting from the 2030s, became talked about and fictionalized. Along
with 6G, concepts such as 3D networks, intelligent networks, quantum communi-
cation, blockchain technologies, deep learning, and programmable surfaces are
designed together with communication infrastructures.
The book’s primary purpose is to describe the big picture of wireless communi-
cation generations and applications running on this communication medium.
The book describes the infrastructure of 4G, 5G, and 6G systems, this all-connected
communication ecosystem, the subcomponents of this ecosystem, and the rela-
tionship among them.
Since IoT systems are an integral part of wireless communication infrastructure
in parallel with 4G, 5G, and 6G systems, access techniques, protocols, and security
issues for these systems are also explained in detail in our book. In addition to
these access techniques, the methods used in M2M and IoT connections at the
endpoints are given. Security is also a significant challenge in this ecosystem
where everything is connected with everything. Vital security breaches, especially
for terminals/users at the endpoint, are also described in the book.
In the first part, the basic concepts of communication systems are explained.
In the following, the events seen in the capillaries of the communication echo
Preface xix
system are described by explaining the switching techniques, modulation, and

multiplexing techniques. Thus, it is aimed at understanding the applications run-
ning at higher levels. With this aspect, the book has been designed to guide the
reader who wants to advance in each subject. The book, which has a pervasive
literature review for each section, is also an essential resource for researchers.
Dr. Suat Seçgin

Electrical & Electronics Engineer (BSc)
Computer Engineer (MSc & PhD)
xxi
List of Abbreviations
3GPP Third-Generation Partnership Project

6LoWPAN IPv6 over low-power WPANs
A-CSCF Access Session Border Controller
ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
AM Amplitude Modulation
AMPS Advanced Mobile Phone System
AMQP Advanced Message Queuing Protocol
ANN Artificial Neural Network
ASK Amplitude Shift Keying
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
AuC Authentication Center
BBU Baseband Unit
BER Bit Error Rate
BGP Border Gateway Protocol
BICN Bearer-Independent Core Network
BSC Base Station Controller
BSS Base Station Subsystem
BTS Base Transceiver Station
CA Carrier Aggregation
CDM Code Division Multiplexing
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
CDR Call Detail Record
CINR Carrier to Interference + Noise Ratio
CIR Channel Impulse Responses
CNN Convolutional Neural Network
CoAP Constrained Application Protocol
CPC Continuous Packet Connectivity
C-RAN Cloud/Centralized Radio Access Network
CSCP Call Session Control Function
xxii List of Abbreviations
DAS Distributed Antenna System

DC Dual Connectivity
DDoS Distributed Denial of Service
DDS Data Distribution Service
DNS Domain Name System
DPWS Devices Profile for Web Services
D-RAN Distributed Radio Access Network
DSCP Differentiated Service Code Point
DTLS Datagram Transport Layer Security
EDGE Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution
EIR Equipment Identity Register
eMBB Enhanced Mobile Broadband
EPC Evolved Packet Core
EV-DO Evolution-Data Optimized
FDD Frequency Division Duplexing
FDM Frequency Division Multiplexing
FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access
FM Frequency Modulation
FSK Frequency Shift Keying
FTAM File Transfer, Access, and Management
FTP File Transfer Protocol
GAN Generative Adversarial Network
GEO Geosynchronous Equatorial Orbit
GERAN GSM Edge Radio Access Network
GGSN Gateway GPRS Support Node
GMSC Gateway Mobile Switching Center
GPOS General Purpose Operating System
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
GSM Global System for Mobile Communication
HART Wireless Highway Addressable Remote Transducer
Protocol (HART)
HLR Home Location Register
HMIMOS Holographic MIMO Surfaces
HSDPA High-Speed Downlink Packet Access
HSPA High-Speed Packet Access
HSUPA High-Speed Uplink Packet Access
IFFT Inverse Fast Fourier Transformation
IMEI International Mobile Equipment Identity Number
IMS IP Multimedia Subsystem
IMSI International Mobile Subscriber Identity Number
IM-SSF IP Multimedia Services Switching Function
List of Abbreviations xxiii
IMT-2000 International Mobile Telecommunication Standard-2000

IN Intelligent Network
IP Internet Protocol
IrDA Infrared Data Association
ISDN Integrated Service Digital Network
ISI Intersymbol Interference
ISM Industrial, Scientific, and Medical
ISO International Organization for Standardization
ITU International Telecommunication Union
IWSN Industrial Wireless Sensor Network
LEO Low Earth Orbit
LiFi Light Fidelity
LLC Logical Link Control
LOS Line of Sight
LPWAN Low-Power Wide-Area Networks
LTE Long-Term Evolution
LTE-M Long-Term Evolution for Machines
LTP Lean Transport Protocol
M2M Machine to Machine
MAC Media Access Control
MAEC Multi-Access Edge Computing
MCC Mobile Cloud Computing
MCS Mobile Switching Center
MEC Mobile Edge Computing
MEO Medium Earth Orbit
MGW Media Gateway
MIMO Multiple Input Multiple Output
MIOT Massive IoT
MLP Multilayer Perceptrons
MME Mobile Management Entity
MMS Multimedia Messaging Service
mMTC Massive Machine-Type Communication
mmWave Milimeter Wave
MOM Message-Oriented Middleware
MQTT Message Queue Telemetry Transport Protocol
MSISDN Mobile Subscriber Integrated Services Digital Network Number
NAMPS Narrowband Advanced Mobile Phone
NB-IoT Narrowband IoT
NFC Near Field Communication
NFV Network Function Virtualization
NGN Next-Generation Networks
xxiv List of Abbreviations
NMT Nordic Mobile Telephone

NOMA Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access
NSS Network Subsystem
OAMM Orbital Angular Momentum Multiplexing
OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
OSA-GW Open Service Access Gateway
OSI Open System Interconnection
OTT Over the Top
OWC Optical Wireless Communication
PAN Personal Area Network
PAPR Peak to Average Power Ratio
PCRF Policy and Charging Rule Functions
P-CSCF Proxy Call Session Control Function
PCU Packet Control Unit
PDM Polarization Division Multiplexing
PDN Public Data Network
PDU Protocol Data Unit
PER Packet Error Rate
PGW PDN Gateway
PLC Power Line Communication
PLMN Public Land Mobile Network
PM Phase Modulation
POTS Plain Old Telephone System
PSK Phase Shift Keying
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
qDC Quantum-assisted Data Center
qEdge Quantum-assisted Edge Network
QKD Quantum Key Distribution
QML Quantum Machine Learning
QoE Quality of Experience
QoS Quality of Service
qRAN Quantum-assisted RAN
qSIN Quantum Space Information Network
qWAI Quantum-assisted Wireless Artificial Intelligence
RAN Radio Access Network
RAT Radio Access Technology
REST Representational State Transfer
RF Radio Frequency
RFID Radio Frequency Identification
RIS Reconfigurable Intelligent Surfaces
List of Abbreviations xxv
RNC Radio Network Controller

RNN Recurrent Neural Networks
RPMA Random Phase Multiple Access
RRH Remote Radio Head
RRU Remote Radio Unit
RTOS Real-Time Operating System
RTP Real-Time Transport Protocol
SCE Service Creation Environment
SCP Service Control Point
SC-PTM Single Cell-Point to Multipoint
SDM Spatial Division Multiplexing
SDN Software Defined Network
SE Spectral Efficiency
SGSN Serving GPRS Support Node
S-GW Serving Gateway
SIC Successive Interference Cancellation
SIM Subscriber Identity Module
SINR Signal Interference + Noise Ratio
SIP Session Initiation Protocol
SLA Service-Level Agreement
SMS Short Message Service
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SNR Signal to Noise Ratio
SOAP Simple Object Access Protocol
SON Self-Organizing Network
SS7 Signaling System Number 7
STOMP Simple Text-Oriented Messaging Protocol
TACS Total Access Communication System
TAS Telephony Application Server
TCP Transmission Control Protocol
TDD Time Division Duplexing
TDM Time Division Multiplexing
TDMA Time Division Multiple Access
TFTP Trivial File Transfer Protocol
TSCH Time Slotted Channel Hopping
UCA Uniform Circular Array
UCDC Unconventional Data Communication
UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication Standard
uRLLC Ultra-Reliable Low Latency Communication
UTRAN UMTS Radio Access Network
VLC Visible Light Communication
xxvi List of Abbreviations
VLR Visitor Location Register

VoLTE Voice over LTE
VoWiFi Voice over WiFi
VPN Virtual Private Network
WAP Wireless Application Protocol
WCDMA Wideband Code Division Multiple Access
WDM Wavelength Division Multiplexing
WIA-PA Wireless Network for Industrial Automation-Process Automation
WiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
WPAN Wireless Personal Area Network
WSDL Web Service Description Language
WSN Wireless Sensor Network
WWAN Wireless Wide Area Network
XMPP Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol
1
Basіc Concepts
1.1 Introduction
The input of a communication system is a sound, image, or text file to be transmit-

ted to the other end. The output is naturally this original information signal,
which goes through many processes (modulation, coding, multiplexing, etc.) until
it reaches the end. This section explains the layers through which the information
passes from where it enters the system to where it leaves.
1.2 Main Components of Communication Systems
The main components of an end-to-end communication system are the transmit-

ter, transmission medium, and receiver (Figure 1.1). Any factor that negatively
affects the operation of the system is called noise.
●● Information source: The first step in sending a message is to convert it into an
electronic form suitable for transmission. For voice messages, a microphone is
used to convert the sound into an electronic audio signal. For TV, the camera
converts the light information in the scene into a video signal. In computer sys-
tems, the message is typed on the keyboard and converted into binary codes that
can be stored in memory or transmitted in serial. Transducers convert physical
properties (temperature, pressure, light intensity, etc.) into electrical signals.
●● Transmitter: The transmitter is a collection of electronic components and circuits
designed to convert the electrical signal into a signal suitable for transmission
over a given communication medium. Transmitters consist of oscillators, ampli-
fiers, tuned circuits and filters, modulators, mixers, frequency synthesizers, and
Evolution of Wireless Communication Ecosystems, First Edition. Suat Seçgin.

© 2023 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2 1 Basіc Concepts
Telecommunication system
Transmission medium
Information source Transmitter Receiver Information source
Noise
Figure 1.1 Block schema of a communication system.
other circuits. The original signal is usually modulated with a higher frequency
carrier sine wave produced by the transmitter and amplified by power amplifi-
ers. Thus, the information signal is rendered transmittable in the transmis-
sion medium.
●● Communication channel: The communication channel is the medium in
which the electronic signal is sent from one place to another. Many media types
are used in communication systems, including wire conductors, fiber optic
cable, and free space. Of these, electrical conductors can be a pair of wires that
carry an audio signal from the microphone to the headphone. It could be a coax-
ial cable similar to that used to have signals. Or it could be a twisted-pair cable
used in a local area network (LAN). The communication medium may also be a
fiber optic cable or “light pipe” that carries the message on a light wave. These
are used today to carry out long-distance calls and all Internet communications.
The information is converted into a digital form that will be used to turn a laser
diode on and off at high speeds. Alternatively, audio or video analog signals can
be used to vary the amplitude of the light. When space is media, the resulting
system is known as radio. Radio, also known as wireless, is the general term
applied to any form of wireless communication from one point to another.
Radio makes use of the electromagnetic spectrum. Information signals are con-
verted into electric and magnetic fields that propagate almost instantly in space
over long distances.
●● Receiver: The receiver is a collection of electronic components and circuits
that accepts the message transmitted through the channel and converts it back
into a form that can be understood. Receivers include amplifiers, oscillators,
mixers, tuned circuits and filters, and a demodulator or detector that retrieves
the original information signal from the modulated carrier. The output is the
initial signal that is then read or displayed. It can be an audio signal sent to a
speaker, a video signal fed to an LCD screen for display, or binary data received
by a computer and then printed or displayed on a video monitor.
1.3 Circuit, Packet, and Cell Switchin 3
●● Transceiver: Most electronic communications are two-way. Therefore, both

parties must have a transmitter and a receiver. As a result, most communica-
tions equipment contains both sending and receiving circuits. These units are
often called transceivers. All transmitter and receiver circuits are packaged in a
single enclosure and often share some common circuitry, such as the power
supply. Telephones, walkie-talkies, mobile phones, and computer modems are
examples of transceivers.
●● Attenuation: Regardless of the transmission medium, signal attenuation or
degradation is inevitable. The attenuation is proportional to the square of the
distance between the transmitter and receiver. Media is also frequency selective
because a particular medium acts as a low-pass filter for a transmitted signal.
Thus, digital pulses will be distorted, and the signal amplitude will significantly
reduce over long distances. Therefore, a significant amount of signal amplifica-
tion is required at both the transmitter and receiver for successful transmission.
Any medium also slows signal propagation to a slower-than-light speed.
●● Noise: Noise is mentioned here because it is one of the most important prob-
lems of all electronic communication. Its effect is experienced in the receiving
part of any communication system. Therefore, we consider noise in Chapter 9
as a more appropriate time. While some noise can be filtered out, the general
way to minimize noise is to use components that contribute less noise and lower
their temperature. The measure of noise is usually expressed in terms of the
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), which is the signal power divided by the noise
power and can be expressed numerically or in decibels (dB). A very high SNR is
preferred for the best performance.
1.3 Circuit, Packet, and Cell Switching
A circuit, packet, or cell switching technique is used on the communication line

established to communicate two terminals at two opposite endpoints.
1.3.1 Circuit Switching

Circuit switching is the first method used in communication systems. When you
somehow pull a cable (or establish a wireless link) between the two opposite ends
that will communicate, we establish a circuit between the two terminals. A one-
to-one connection between the terminals in the matrix structure and connected to
the switching center (switchboard) with a circuit is established between the
terminals that require connection by the switching center. Thus, a circuit is
established (switched) that can only be used by those two terminals at the com-
munication time. Since packet-switched communication is widely used in today’s
4 1 Basіc Concepts
Switchboard/central
Figure 1.2 Circuit switching.
communication, virtual circuits specific to end terminals can be established by

defining virtual paths on packet-based circuits (Figure 1.2).
In circuit switching, a link is established between both terminals, which is used
only by these terminals. As long as the link connection is used, other terminals can-
not use this line. As we mentioned earlier, only two terminals can use the virtual
circuits established on the packet-switched circuits (for example, an IP network).
A virtual private network (VPN) can be given as an application example. Unlike
packet-switched circuits, the capacities of unused circuits cannot be transferred to
currently used circuits. In this sense, circuit switching is insufficient for the efficient
use of transmission lines.
1.3.2 Packet Switching

We have mentioned that in the circuit switching technique, a “dedicated” circuit
is installed on the terminals at the opposite ends, which is used only by these two
terminals at the time of communication. The circuit switching technique is insuf-
ficient due to limited bandwidths and increasing communication speed needs.
Even if the connected terminals do not exchange information over the circuit,
other terminals cannot use this circuit. The packet switching technique divides the
data to be transmitted into packets. Each of these packets contains the address of
the sender (IP) and the receiver’s addresses. These packets are left to the transmis-
sion medium and delivered to their destination via packet switching devices
(switch, router, etc.). Thus, a transmission medium can be used by hundreds of
terminals (millions if we consider the Internet environment) instead of being
divided into only two terminals (Figure 1.3).
We can compare the packet switching circuit to highways where hundreds of
vehicles (packages) are present simultaneously. Each vehicle proceeds on the
1.3 Circuit, Packet, and Cell Switchin 5
T1->T4
Packet Packet switch Packet switch
Terminal 3
Terminal 1
Packet switch Packet switch Packet switch

Packet switch
T2->T3
Packet Terminal 4
Terminal 2 Packet switch Packet switch
Figure 1.3 Packet switching.
same road (backbone) and reaches its destination by entering secondary roads
when necessary. The critical limitation is the slowdowns due to increased vehicle
(package) traffic. In this case, traffic engineering methods come into play and
make essential optimizations on the network to prevent jams.
1.3.3 Cell Switching

We can describe cell-switched systems as a mixture of the circuit and packet-
switched systems. What is decisive here is that the packet lengths are divided into
tiny packets of 53 bytes in size. A circuit is then virtually allocated between
opposing terminals (physically on a single line). These small packets are
exchanged extremely quickly over these dedicated virtual circuits (Figure 1.4).
1 1 1 1
2 2
2 2 2 4 1 2 3 3 1 4
2
3 3 3 ATM switch
53 byte packets
4 4 4 4
Figure 1.4 Cell switching.

6 1 Basіc Concepts
Virtual circuits not transmitting packets for a certain period are closed and
re-established when necessary.
1.4 Duplexing in Communication
In communication systems, information can be exchanged in three different ways

between two mutual communication terminals. In simplex communication
(Figure 1.5a), the transmitter is broadcasting continuously. Classical radio broad-
casting can be given as an example of this type of communication.
On the other hand, simultaneous telephone conversations are a good example
of full-duplex communication (Figure 1.5b). In this type of communication, the
terminals perform both the receiving and transmitting functions at the same time.
Finally, the type of communication in which one of the terminals acts as a
receiver and the other as a transmitter at a given time interval is called half-duplex
communication (Figure 1.5c). While one terminal transmits information, the
other is in a listening state, and these roles change according to the need during
the conversation. Conversations made from police radio devices can be given as
an example of this type of communication.
In wireless communication systems, one channel should be reserved for upload/
transmit and one for download (receive) for the terminal in connection with the
base station. Two doubling techniques create this simultaneous transmission
(a)
Send Receive
(b)
Send/receive Send/receive
(c)
Send/receive Send/receive
Figure 1.5 Duplexing methods. (a) Simplex; (b) full-duplex; (c) half-duplex.
1.5 Historical Developments of Wireless Communication System 7
environment: frequency division duplexing (FDD) and time division duplexing

(TDM). In the FDD mechanism, two-way communication is carried out by defin-
ing different frequency ranges (carriers) for each of the transmit/receive channels.
In the TDM mechanism, two-way communication is provided by sending at a
given moment of t1 and receiving at a consecutive moment of t2 [1].
1.5 Historical Developments of Wireless

Communication Systems
Starting with 1G systems (1980), we will talk about communication systems at

tera hertz levels with spectrum efficient modulation techniques and advances in
electronic circuits. Additionally, users can receive services at high bandwidths
using three-dimensional multiplexing techniques.
Wireless mobile communication systems, which started with only voice calls
(1G) in the 1980s, were introduced into our lives with the 2G short message ser-
vice (SMS) in the 1990s. In both generations, communication was carried out
using circuit switching techniques. On the other hand, the third-generation (3G)
systems have been a turning point. With this generation, packet-switched (data)
services have been used in the wireless communication ecosystem. With 3G, mul-
timedia content started to be used among users in the 2000s. With 4G, communi-
cation was carried out entirely with packet switching; thus, users could operate
24/7 Internet access. Although machine-to-machine communication exists, we
have now met the Internet of things (IoT) concept with 4G (Figure 1.6).
2030
2020
2010
2000
1990
1980
Internet of Things URLLC eMBB mMTC

Internet of everything
Voice Call Internet
1G 2G 3G 4G 5G 6G
Figure 1.6 Evolution of wireless communication systems.

8 1 Basіc Concepts
Wireless communication systems, which continue to progress without slowing

down, have evolved into the fifth-generation communication systems as of the
2020s. Communication speeds up to 20 GHz with 5G, and thanks to these speeds,
the concepts of ultra-reliable low latency communication (uRLLC), enhanced
mobile broadband (eMBB), and massive machine type communication (mMTC)
entered our lives. The transition phase from the IoT to the Internet of everything
occurred at this stage. Communication systems, applications, and services have
become much more intelligent using topics such as artificial intelligence, block-
chain, and big data in the software field. Smart homes, smart cities, intelligent
health systems, and autonomous vehicles are now inseparable parts of our lives.
In the years when the book was written (2021/2022), 5G applications entered
our lives, and the sixth-generation communication systems, which will be put
into use starting from the 2030s, became talked about and fictionalized. Concepts
such as 6G and 3D networks, intelligent networks, quantum communication,
blockchain technologies, deep learning, and programmable surfaces are designed
together with communication infrastructures.
With the wireless communication systems enabling high-speed connection
anytime and anywhere, the concept of IoT has started to take more place in
our lives.
Reference
1 Frenzel, L.E. (2016). Principles of Electronic Communication Systems. New York:

McGraw-Hill Education.
9
Modulation and Demodulation
2.1 Introduction
Before explaining the communication generations in the book, it is helpful to

mention the concepts that will form the basis of communication. When the reader
has an idea about modulation and demodulation, the view of the systems that will
be explained in steps will become more meaningful. Without modulation and
demodulation techniques, there would be no telecommunication systems. In this
regard, the reader should have a good understanding of these concepts before
moving on to more advanced topics.
2.2 What Are Modulation and Demodulation?
Before moving on to the details of modulation techniques, let us try to explain the
subject with an analogy. Imagine you have a piece of paper with information on it.
We aim to transmit this information over a long distance (for example, to a friend
100 m away). If we try to throw the information sheet to our friend by arm strength,
the paper will not exceed a few meters. But if we wrap (modulate) this paper in a
small piece of rock (carrier), we can easily send the data to our friend. Our friend,
who receives the data wrapped in the rock, will be able to read the information we
send by scraping the paper from the stone (demodulation) (Figure 2.1).
Moving from the preceding example, we can explain the modulation process as
sending the information signal at a lower frequency and power by superimposing
the information signal on the carrier signal at a much higher power intensity and
frequency. The electrical/electromagnetic signals in the communication environ-
ment are in sinusoidal form. We can talk about three variable sizes of this sine
sign: amplitude, frequency, and phase. We perform the modulation process when
Evolution of Wireless Communication Ecosystems, First Edition. Suat Seçgin.

© 2023 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10 2 Modulation and Demodulation
Carrier RF Oscillator
Voice
RF
Baseband Signal to be modulated Modulated signal
Amplifier/Transmitter
Modulator
Figure 2.1 Modulation process.
Carrier RF Oscillator
Voice
RF
Baseband Demodulated signal Modulated signal
Amplifier/Receiver
Demodulator
Figure 2.2 Demodulation process.
we change the amplitude, frequency, or phase of this sinusoidal signal depending

on the amplitude of the information signal we will carry. If the signal is received
from the opposite side, the information signal is obtained by reversing this process.
This process is called demodulation. Modulation and demodulation processes are
performed by devices called modems (modulator-demodulator) (Figure 2.2).
The following sections will describe three basic modulation techniques using
these parameters (i.e. amplitude, frequency, and phase).
2.3 Analog Modulation Methods
In analog modulation methods, the information signal in a sinusoidal form is

transmitted by “overlaying” the carrier’s amplitude, frequency, or phase change,
which is also in sinusoidal form. The system is defined as analog, as the informa-
tion signal is in analog (sine) form.
2.3 Analog Modulation Method 11
2.3.1 Amplitude Modulation

In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal is a function of the
information signal. In other words, the amplitude of the carrier signal is shaped
by the form of the information signal. The amplitude of the carrier signal changes
depending on the variation of the information signal. These amplitude changes
are detected in the modem located at the opposite end. The information signal is
re-obtained in its original form (Figure 2.3).
2.3.2 Frequency Modulation

In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier signal is a function of the
information signal. In other words, the frequency of the carrier signal is shaped by
the form of the information signal. The frequency of the carrier signal changes
depending on the variation of the information signal. The information signal is
recovered in its original form by detecting these frequency changes in the modem
at the opposite end (Figure 2.4).
2.3.3 Phase Modulation

In phase modulation, the phase of the carrier signal is a function of the informa-
tion signal. In other words, the phase of the carrier signal is shaped according to
the form of the information signal. The phase of the carrier signal changes
depending on the shift in the information signal. These phase changes are detected
in the modem at the opposite end, and the information signal is recovered in its
original form (Figure 2.5).
Modulated
carrier wave
Time
Envelope
(Modulating signal)
AM wave
Figure 2.3 Amplitude modulation.

Carrier signal
No signal
Signal to be modulated
FM wave
Figure 2.4 Frequency modulation (FM).
Amplitude
Message signal
Time
PM
Figure 2.5 Phase modulation.

2.4 Digital Modulation Method 13
2.4 Digital Modulation Methods
In analog modulation systems, the information signal is in analog form. On the

other hand, in digital modulation systems, the information signal is in the form
of transitions or squared amplitude changes expressing 1s and 0s. This digital
information form is obtained (especially in audio and video transmission) by
applying the analog-digital conversion of the information signal originally
produced as analog. That is, the analog information signal is converted into 1 and
0 forms by going through digital transformation. At the opposite end, the original
analog information signal is obtained by digital-analog conversion.
2.4.1 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) Modulation

As shown in Figure 2.6, there is the carrier signal amplitude at the points where
the amplitude of the information signal is positive. On the other hand, in negative
values of information signal amplitude, carrier signal amplitude decreases to
0 levels (100% modulation). In 50% modulation, 50% of the amplitude of the car-
rier signal is taken at the points where the information signal is zero (Figure 2.6).
2.4.2 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Modulation

The information signal has two distinctive amplitude values that are positive
and negative. In this case, the carrier signal carries information by entering two
Carrier signal
Digital signal to be modulated
ASK wave
Figure 2.6 Amplitude shift keying (ASK).

Carrier signal
FSK wave
Figure 2.7 Frequency shift keying (FSK).
different frequency forms. For matters of 0, the x frequency is used; for 1, the y
frequency is used (x < y) (Figure 2.7).
2.4.3 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Modulation

In the phase shift keying technique, the phase of the carrier signal also changes
whenever the amplitude of the information signal changes from positive to nega-
tive or negative to positive. As mentioned in the previous sections, these phase
changes are detected at the opposite end, and the original information signal is
obtained (Figure 2.8).
2.4.4 Quadrature Amplitude (QAM) Modulation

Understanding quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), which has become a
standard in 4G and beyond wireless communication networks, is critical to under-
standing these systems. Therefore, this modulation scheme will be explained in
more detail.
In the previous chapters, we talked about phase modulation and amplitude
modulation. QAM can be defined as the combination of these two modulation
types. In other words, in the QAM technique, information is carried in both the
amplitude and phase of the carrier signal. In this way, we get twice the bandwidth.
Based on this definition, QAM is known as quadrature carrier multiplexing [1].
In QAM, two carrier signals of the same frequency but with a phase difference
of 90° are used in their simplest form. The signal starting from the 0° phase
is called the “I,” and the other signal in the 90° phase is called the “Q” signal.
2.4 Digital Modulation Method 15
Carrier signal
Phase shifts
PSK wave
Figure 2.8 Phase shift keying (PSK).
Considering that there is a phase difference of 90° between the sine and cosine
signals, we can simultaneously transmit both carrier signals at the same frequency
from the transmission medium (Figure 2.9). As a basic concept, the method we
give in Figure 2.9 is analog QAM and is used to send color information in analog
video television broadcasts.
In-phase signal (Sine function)
Quadrature signal (Cosine function)
Figure 2.9 In-phase signal and quadrature signal component.

QAM is known as quantized/digital QAM in cellular communication and Wi-Fi

fields. With digital QAM, much higher data rates are achieved compared to ampli-
tude and phase modulations. In addition to high-speed data transmission, QAM is
also used for noise resistance, low error values, etc.
In digital QAM schemes, the number of bits transmitted simultaneously can be
increased using different phase and amplitude values. This constellation diagram
structure can mark possible message points (polar coordinates). In its simplest
form, we can transmit one bit of information simultaneously (first level QAM) [2].
When multilevel schemes are used, it becomes possible to send incremental bit
numbers. In the constellation diagram, for example, we can send 4 bits of infor-
mation simultaneously with a QAM (16-QAM) scheme with 16 levels (16 different
points in the constellation, 24 = 16). This means transmitting 16 other symbols is
possible. Similarly, 32-QAM (25), 64-QAM (26), 128-QAM (27), and 256-QAM
(28) schemes are used in practice.
Similarly, considering the 64-QAM scheme, we can mark 6 bits per symbol and
64 symbols. In terms of modulation, we can say that in the 64-QAM scheme, the carrier
signal is modulated in one of 64 different phase and amplitude states (Figure 2.10).
Q(t)
3
00 11 01 11 10 11 11 11
1
00 10 01 10 10 10 11 10
I(t)
–3 –1 1 3
–1
00 01 01 01 10 01 11 01
–3
00 00 01 00 10 00 11 00
Figure 2.10 QAM constellation diagram.

Reference 17
011
010
101 100 001

000
110
Two amplitudes and four phases adress eight states
111
101 100 001 000 010 011 110 111
Time
Figure 2.11 8-QAM signal.
We can say that there are 3 different amplitudes (Euclidean distance from each
point to the origin) and 12 different phases (the angle formed by each end) in the
16-QAM diagram. In other words, when we look at the chart, we can say that the
distances of each polar coordinate to the origin are in 1 of three different values.
Looking at the chart again, we can say that each polar coordinate is in 1 of a total
of 12 phases (angles). For example, we can say that the “1111” symbol will be sent
with a carrier with an amplitude of 2 and phase of 45°. An example of an 8-QAM
signal image is in the Figure 2.11 [3].
References
1 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) (2023). What is it? Electrical4U.

https://www.electrical4u.com/quadrature-amplitude-modulation-qam/
(accessed 14 February 2023).
2 Beard, C., Stallings, W., and Tahiliani, M.P. (2015). Wireless Communication
Networks and Systems, Global Edition. Pearson.
3 Salvi, S. and Geetha, V. (2019). From light to Li-Fi: research challenges in
modulation, MIMO, deployment strategies and handover. International Conference
on Data Science and Engineering (ICDSE), Patna, India (26–28 September 2019),
pp. 107–19.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
to turn Mohammedan: they would give me camels, nákahs, slaves,
&c. I was at length obliged to silence them. After this came the
newspapers, out of which I made some extracts, which Abú read to
them in Arabic, and with which they were highly pleased. They
hoped the Sultán would persist in attacking the French: they said
that these districts could furnish, mount, and arm fifty thousand men;
but though they are fond of exaggeration, I think that twenty
thousand might be raised in this quarter. A man has come this day to
say, that he knows of two Christian slaves in the desert; they are
Spaniards. He wishes to know if I would buy them, or if the consul at
Suweïrah or Tangier would. After this, he asked me for some
medicines. I gave him a settler, by asking how he could come to me
a Christian, and ask for medicines, when he had taken these poor
Christians, and meant to sell them? Upon this, some words ensued;
to which the arrival of the Sheïkh put a stop. I told him to go to
Suweïrah, and asked how could he expect mercy, who shewed so
little to others? The heat very oppressive to-day. The Damánís were
right: the stolen horse did not go beyond the place they pointed out.
They have this day returned, having taken the thief, and his brother,
who had stolen three cows: they had ridden the horse to death. The
two brothers have made a pretty disclosure. They were sent by the
son of Sídí Hasan to murder Billah, a confidential servant of the
Sheïkh, who had left the service of Sídí Hasan, because the son of
the latter had violated the wife of Billah. If they could not kill Billah,
they were to seize and carry away his present wife, who is a pretty
woman; and, failing in that, they were to steal the Sheïkh’s favourite
horse, as a punishment for protecting Billah, who, with his wife,
escaped both the murder and abduction, and the Sheïkh’s horse fell
the sacrifice. For this pretty job the fellows were to have about three
shillings each. I hope the Sheikh will shoot them. At length the
Damánís have been to my rooms, and told me, that if no káfilah is to
go for some time, they will proceed with me. I like them much; they
are fine specimens of wild men, but not savages. A large party of
them came in the evening, and staid till one A.M., and only left me to
go and eat.
Saturday, June 26.—Therm. 82°. Symptoms of heat by the haze
over the mountains; spoke to the Sheïkh, and all appears to be
settled, but the main point is the money. If this is to be exorbitant, I
shall give up the thing at once. This question is to be arranged, when
Hájí Majíbí comes home. I fear I shall have a quarrel with that fellow
before I get off. The Sheïkh recommends the káfilah: I am aware it
would be the safer course, but I could not so well make notes and
observations, and should be bored to death for advice and
medicines during the whole road. If it goes soon, however, I shall join
it; if not, I shall proceed with my five or six people. Read the prayers;
most of the people here come to listen, although they could not
understand a word. The tribe of Ergebát[111] has sent a deputation to
the Sheïkh, and have this day been heard, and have explained the
cause of their attack upon the Taghakánths. The Sheïkh decided in
favour of the Ergebáts, and there is to be a reconciliation and
friendship. I must try to profit by this event, and get past the Ergebáts
before hostilities are renewed, which will be soon the case. The heat
has been oppressive to-day; I am rather glad of it, as it helps to
season me for the desert. Hope my party will not come this evening.
This is one of the great feasts amongst the Muselmáns; but it is not
kept here. The 12th of Safer is Mohammed’s birth-day. Went to rest
early, fearing my party would come.
Monday, June 27.—Therm. 86°. The heat has become very
oppressive. An express has arrived from Taghakánth, with a report
that the place has been attacked by the Ergebáts, who mustered
nine hundred men; while the Taghakánths, who were taken by
surprise, could bring together only three hundred to meet the enemy:
these, however, were sufficient to defeat their assailants, after killing
ninety of them, with a very trifling loss on their own part. This is bad
news for me, as we shall assuredly be attacked when passing the
district of the Ergebáts. The Damánís have set off in haste for their
place. Hájí Majíbí has returned; he is brought down considerably,
and came in a very humble manner to pay his respects: he is a
consummate scoundrel. Had a visit from Mas’úd, who wished to give
me a Tumbuktú quilt; but I can take no presents, and he left me in
dudgeon at my refusal. I dislike this man more and more. Things are
at last in a train; but I had a threatener this morning, having nearly
fallen two or three times, in consequence of the great heat and
excitement, and the immoderate use of tobacco. I shall try to leave
off the pipe, and begin reducing the quantity of fluid. Very weak tea
and water have been my only drink for more than three months; and
I must now leave off the tea. Attended the unpacking of the ivory:
some of the teeth are immense. Abú tells me, that I shall see some
as large rotting on dunghills; that the people about Kong live entirely
upon elephants, and are constantly employed in hunting them. The
small tusks are used for music; but from the want of means of
transport, the large ones are thrown away. Hámed has just been
here to take leave: he is a most grateful creature, and promises that
wherever I meet any people of his tribe, they will respect Ján and
Yaghá. He then said he had one more favour to ask: I had cured
him, and had given him too many things; but as he knew I could do
any thing, “I love,” said he, “the daughter of the brother of my father;
she is the prettiest woman in our tribe; I am dying for her; but she
does not love me, although I am the Sheïkh’s son, and shall be the
Sheïkh myself; give me such a charm, as shall force her to love me.”
It was in vain that I told him, I had no love-charm. He said that I had
given one to the son of the Sheïkh of Dar’ah, and that his wife had
come back to him. I had then to make up a story that I must see the
lady, and, as she is unmarried, fold the charm, while she looked on.
This he is convinced will prove effectual; and when I get to
Taghakánth I am to make him happy. I don’t know what he has
promised to do for me. My two guides remain here to make the
necessary arrangements about our start. I have been asked, if I will
fight, should we be attacked, and have had to give a specimen of my
ability to use a sword and pistols. My powder and ball, and every
thing else was approved of, and I am promised that all will be well;
but that I must make up my mind to some suffering; that they will
carry extra water for me, but one Samúm[112] may drink it all up. The
die is cast, and I must run the hazard.
Tuesday, June 28.—Mekkí died yesterday. This is the first death
since I have been here; and even this man might have been saved,
had he followed my advice. A large arrival of poor female slaves: I
was astonished at their spirits, especially when I saw the parting of
two sisters; they certainly have not the same feelings as the whites. I
am sorry to admit a point, which I have often strongly contested.
During the evening I was taken very ill, and compelled to lie down.
Wednesday, June 29.—Therm. 82°. Took calomel, Hunt’s pills,
&c., last night. Fainted away this morning, and had a great swimming
in the head, but wanted courage to bleed myself. I mean to try what
medicines and abstemiousness will do. Was very ill all day: took my
carpet to the garden, where I passed a few quiet hours; went early to
bed. The heat very oppressive.
Thursday, June 30.—Therm. 82°. Hazy and lowering. This
morning another arrival from Taghakánth. A small party from Súdán
has likewise been attacked. This last party confirms the news of the
attack on Taghakánth, and brings intelligence that many of the
Taghakánths have been killed. My room has been stormed by these
fresh arrivals. I am sick to death of them, and have been poisoned
by their stench. It is impossible to help myself, and the Sheïkh dare
not say a word to them. The courier has arrived, and brought most
satisfactory letters from Lord Glenelg, Mr. Hay, Mr. Willshire, &c. Had
a party in the evening. All were anxious to see the King’s letter.
Being much delighted, I staid up till two A.M. writing.
Friday, July 1.—Therm. 84°. The Damání crowd is off, and now
comes the settling question. I saw at once that extortion was
intended; but I cannot get Abú to act or speak with any force. They
want two months to prepare. Asked at first 2,300 dollars; after much
wrangling they came down to 1,500: this, added to the extravagant
sum demanded by the Sheïkh, is more than I can venture to give,
without the sanction of Mr. Willshire. I have written to him to know
how I am to act. That same villain, Majíbí, who has already robbed
me of 320 ducats, is at the bottom of all this. I hold a threat over
them, that I have another way open. I now learn, that a report has
got abroad of my being one of the royal family of England; that I
have plenty of money, and that the people of Sús intend making me
pay a larger sum for permission to return. We have counted too
much on the Sheïkh. This has quite upset me.
Saturday, July 2.—Therm. 84°. Lots of wounded. The trouble I
have in persuading these people that all cannot bear the same
quantity of medicine, is quite provoking. I have made up some
bread-pills to complete the number, where one would require three,
and another only two. The Damánís have dropt to one thousand
dollars, but I have refused to give an answer till I hear from Mr.
Willshire. I sent to inquire about the two Christian Spaniards, who
are in the desert. Wrote to Lord Palmerston, at Sheïkh Beïrúk’s
request, and to Lord Glenelg, Thom, and G. Dodd. Sat up till day-
light, having to dispatch my courier early. Laid down just as the sun
was rising.
Sunday, July 3.—Therm. 82°. The Sheïkh came to me as soon as
I had laid myself down. He told me that the Damánís were under an
idea that I was a person of great consequence, and have large sums
at my command; and that they have only to ask and receive. He said
that as I should be obliged to pay the one thousand dollars to get on
either way, I had better make up my mind to it; that he must admit his
own agent had played the rascal, for he had not expended the sum
he claims; but as he has received the money from the consul, there
is, I fear, little chance of getting any of it back again. Wrote to his
Royal Highness, Lord Glenelg, Mr. Hay, &c. Sent for my double-
barrelled pistols, but forgot the spectacles. Sent to Mr. Hay for some
knives and other things from Gibraltar. Read the prayers, and took to
my carpet early, as I had been up two nights.
Monday, July 4.—Therm. 84°. Symptoms of great heat. Received
a large present of Kermesú Nasárá, (fig of the Christians) and the
prickly pear, (called Tagharnúp by the Berbers); they came very
acceptably: there were also a few half-ripe pears and some apricots;
I am afraid of fruit, but ate some of the first. The Damánís are very
anxious for my answer. The Sheïkh Mohammed Múlid tells him, he
will make an oath AHAD .................. that he will conduct me in safety
to Tumbuktú and Jennah, and that he will obtain for me whatever I
want from Hámed Libbú. I like this man; but have been so often
disappointed, that I have some fear of eventually changing my
opinion. He is more frank and open, and more like the man of his
word, than any I have seen since I set my foot in Africa. Had great
fun with the Taghakánth people, giving them some imitations of
character. We are all friends. I was struck with the quiet and happy
state of the slaves lately arrived here, who say they would not accept
their liberty on condition of having to cross again the desert. This
gives me a fearful idea of it; but I will try it.
Tuesday, July 5.—Therm. 84°. The Sheïkh Mohammed Múlid
came to make his AHAD oath, that he would protect me, and do all
in his power for me. Wrote to Mr. Willshire all particulars (of the
information I had received), and likewise told him that Mons.
Anthoine D’Abbadie intended to start from Tunis. Four slaves are
here from Kóng, who have told Abú that his cousin and school-fellow
Kutúk the warrior, is now the king of Kóng, and that his power
extends to Ashantí. An Arab from some distance came in to-day with
some savage-looking wretches: I was sitting or rather lying on the
ground writing: I sent them off in a hurry; but was afterwards told that
the Arab was a great Sheïkh, who, having heard of the arrival of a
great Christian Sheïkh, had come to pay me a visit. On his return I
told him that he ought to have taken off his slippers; he made a fair
apology: I then asked him to sit down; when he said that he had
heard of a Christian who could tell by a little magic thing, where any
place in the world lay; but that he could not believe the story, and
had therefore come to ask me about it. I humoured the man, and got
out my pocket compass, and told him to question me; when I told
him where each place was, and the number of days, which I had
already learnt, between any two or more places. He then stated, that
he had heard that I walked half the day and half the night, and was
never tired. Is that true? said he; to which when I replied in the
affirmative, he asked to inspect my feet, and after counting my toes,
he told his companions that I had only five on each foot: he then
examined the knee-pan and cried out Wáhed aëdá, ‘only one;’ then
taking me by the hand, he praised the prophet. From this, as usual,
he asked to see every thing, when I had to open boxes, &c., and
could hardly get him and his party away: he then asked for a
present; a little tobacco did here, but as he is coming again to-
morrow, (it will not be so easy to satisfy him). I learnt a good deal
from Tayyeb about Tumbuktú; he says that it contains sixteen
mosques, of which Sídí ’Alís is the largest; that it takes two hours to
go round the city, which now reaches to Kabrah; and that has a
village contiguous to it on the north; that in these countries people
walk but little: that its markets are now better than those of Jennah;
and that people come to it from all quarters. He states also that
Lamdo Lillahi[113] stands on the river, whereas the map makes it
appear twenty miles to the east. He lived till he was thirteen years
old at Tumbuktú, and has been here more than two years: he knows
more than most persons of his age; but is a great scamp. His mother
is one of Hámed Libbú’s family, and I therefore put up with many of
his rogueries. The heat has been very trying to-day.
Wednesday, July 6.—Therm. 84°. At eleven A.M. the town was
alarmed by the report that all the Sheïkh’s camels had been stolen.
All the people mounted, and set off armed: even the women went out
of the town on the road to Agadír, to see what was going on. At two
P.M. most of the people returned: the report was only partially true. A
few had been stolen, but the direction they had taken was known.
Mohammed Sierra mounted my horse, and with two others went to
get a reinforcement on the road. The reports about the great power
of the Sheïkh, are all moonshine: it is in reality nothing. During my
stay here, I have seen much of the African Arabs; they differ greatly
from the Asiatic: they are more wild in their appearance, but far more
cultivated: nearly all of them can read, and a great many can write. I
have been much pressed about giving my answer as to going on. I
must wait one week more; although I fear that the two months will
have elapsed from the time of deciding. Am very anxious for the
villain Majíbí and his party to leave me; I cannot bear the sight of that
fellow, ever since I was convinced of his roguery. Am in some
anxiety about my gold watch, as the Thillahs have stripped the last
couriers that passed through Sús. This Majíbí’s villainy is capable of
any thing. I gave him a rub this morning, and if I had only protection
here, I would give him the stick.
Thursday, July 7.—Therm. 76°. Had a large party to dinner to day,
as the Sheïkh had killed a cow. These beasts have come to feast on
the entrails, which they prefer to the meat; on being asked what we
did with them, I told them to their utter dismay, that we gave them to
the common dogs, as well-bred ones would not touch them. Had
some of the meat sent me, but it was not very palatable. I received
likewise a present of unripe pears; for these people will not permit
the fruit to ripen. At one P.M. about thirty of the tribe of Assereit
Terjmert arrived here: they are worse than any I have seen as yet:
had a row with them. The Sheïkh and all his people, who are
evidently afraid of being asked for something by all new-comers,
slink away, and leave me alone with every fresh batch of vagabonds:
I told them my mind as well as I could, and then scolded them in
English. At night the Aboudah Ich Saabi came, as it was expected,
on a conference relative to this quarrel; but as it turned out, they only
came to gorge: a cow is not killed every day. There is a report, that
two hundred horse will be here to-morrow, with what truth, time will
show. Am happy to hear that the beasts from Mogador are to go
back on Monday next.
Friday, July 8.—Therm. 82°. Felt poorly all day. Dies non.
Saturday, July 9.—Therm. 82°. All are busy to-day in preparing for
the káfilah, which is to start for Suweïrah on Monday. Feel far from
well. Went to the medicine chest: but find that the least dose
disagrees with me. Renewed rumours of wars. The Damánís are
anxious for my answer, and I am equally anxious to give one. I know
not how things will go on. Am sick of the whole affair, and feel a
presentiment that it will be a failure.
Sunday, July 10°.—Therm. 82. Read prayers. The weather is
heavy and sultry. This has proved one of the most trying days for the
constitution, as the excessive heat has been succeeded by a very
cold wind in the evening, and this followed by a most sultry night. All
the people are fully occupied in preparing for the káfilah, which is to
start to-morrow morning with ivory, gum, &c.; I find that the ivory sells
here at seventy mitcal the canter, while at Mogador it brings sixty
dollars: the quantity of it is enormous. Felt very poorly all day, and
did not go out.
Monday, July 11.—Therm. 84°. All has been bustle to-day. The
káfilah had hardly started, when the two hundred horse arrived. They
came to hold a conference about going to war with a neighbouring
tribe, as one of the Sheïkh’s friends had been killed by a Marabout of
that people: after a long consultation, it was agreed, that as the
Marabout was non compos, there could be no intention of an insult,
and thus instead of a fight we had a feast. The Damánís are
preparing to be off, as my answer is expected to-morrow. I fear I
must give all the money: it is an anxious time for me. There is a great
talk about my long stay, and some of the Shilhah[114] people are not
over civil. The Sheïkh, poor man, is desirous to pay me every
attention; but he is fearful of enforcing a proper authority over these
people. Money is his curse, and he is avarice personified. The heat
is excessive.
Tuesday, July 12.—Therm. 84°. The heat is beyond every thing
to-day; the sun literally scorches: all are gasping. The slaves are
lying about. The Arabs say, that in the Sahrá on such a day, twenty
draughts of water would not quench the thirst. It is one of the hot
winds. I have been walking for more than two hours to the
astonishment of the natives. Evening came, but no post. The heat
still tremendous. I have been drinking tea for more than an hour, and
am still thirsty. Sent out again respecting the Spanish slaves: hope to
get the poor fellows. There has been a slight quarrel between the
Sheïkh and his son; but matters are, I suppose, now made up, as the
son came to pray in his father’s room. Some ostrich marrow was
sent to me to purchase, but I will not buy it without some eggs.
Patients are beginning to be troublesome again. I feel myself
somewhat better than yesterday.
Wednesday, July 13.—Therm. 86°. Symptoms of summer. Am
looking most anxiously for the post. The Damánís have all left,
except Mohammed and Hámed, who are waiting for Mr. Willshire’s
answer. I gave them a present which cost me thirty-nine ducats: they
were highly pleased, and so was the Sheïkh. At three P.M. the
thermometer under the colonnade was at 100°, and though there is a
breeze, the sun is scorching. All are done up. As there was no post, I
was in very bad spirits, and went early to rest: hope to get a little
sleep.
Thursday, July 14.—Therm. 84°. To-day all are done up and out of
temper, with the exception of Abú. The heat is excessive; we are all
stripped to our shirts. Evening brought a cooling breeze, and this
brought back our spirits. I was obliged to lie down early, oozing at
every pore. Despite my little food, and the great heat, have picked up
most of my lost flesh. Am in great anxiety for the post; it has not
arrived to-day; if it does not come to-morrow, I shall suspect
something has gone wrong.
Friday, July 15.—Therm. 84°. Dies non. Out of health, spirits and
temper. No post.
Saturday, July 16.—Therm. 84°. Felt very poorly; kept my bed.
Getting out of all patience, as no post has arrived. Am in great
anxiety about my watch and letters from England. All this is owing to
the villain Majíbí.
Sunday, July 17.—Therm. 86°. Passed a bad night: was up early
and went out to bathe. Read the prayers. Was in hopes of the post
arriving at the usual time: disappointed. Sent Abú to the market, who
brought nothing I could eat; there was no fruit or vegetables. I cannot
manage the kuskusú. Received a present of six bunches of grapes
from a poor slave boy, to whom I had given some medicines; he had
walked out to meet the people coming to market, and had bought all
they had. Sent a present of a loaf of sugar to the beautiful Jewess by
Abú, together with three bunches of the grapes, to ask if she could
make me a pie; for which there is no name in Arabic. I cannot go to
the Leïlá myself, but have been promised something as near to
Abú’s directions as she can make it. I would have done it at home,
but Abú is a bad cook. As the grapes were very sour, I mashed up
two bunches with milk and sugar, and fancied it gooseberry-fool;
contrived, however, to make a meal of it; the only one I have had for
many days. I intended to take a ride, but the heat was greater than I
had ever felt. At two P.M. the thermometer in the sun was at 141°. It
fell one degree at a quarter-past three P.M. and did not sink below
138° till half-past five P.M. I was obliged to cover the stirrups and
kummiyahs,[115] and all metal articles, with pieces of háïk: the
stirrups were too hot to be handled. The horses and cattle are all
suffering; yet there is a strong wind from the N.W., but it is blowing
fire. Mohammed tells me that on the E. of the mountains, which shut
out this wind, it is impossible to face the hot wind. All here are
astonished at my being able to stand it; there is no fear of me; I am
living too low to take any harm. My fear is not that my stomach will
go, but my head. Still no post. All are in anxiety. A cold current of air
is passing over us. At nine P.M. the moon and stars are shooting with
a peculiar glare, such as I have often witnessed here after great
heat. At ten P.M. the heat returned, and nearly suffocated us. I dread
the night—being half destroyed by the vermin. Am very anxious for
to-morrow.
Monday, July 18.—Therm. 86°. Rose early and went out. There
was more wind than yesterday. It feels cooler, but promises to be a
hot day. Conceiving I might be mistaken, while reading “Hints on
various Sciences,” p. 166, I took three thermometers, and
suspended one six feet from the ground, but exposed to the air and
sun, at the distance of six feet from the wall, into which a pole had
been driven, from which it hung perpendicularly. At twelve this had
reached to 115° Fahrenheit. I then laid a second on a mat, exposed
to the sun; and this rose to 138°. The third I placed erect on the box
of the thermometer, which rested on the sand, and was propped up
by a piece of stick. This last rose to 126°. After they had been
exposed about a quarter of an hour, the three gave the following
results:—
Hanging. Standing. Lying. S[116]

At One 119° 126° 143°
Two 119 124 139 109°
Three 121 131 139 110
Five 120 121 126 107
At half-past five, the wind freshened again. During the whole of

this period the wind was very strong from N.W. to N.N.W., and
carried a cambric handkerchief, in which was placed a stone of one
pound, at the rate of four knots an hour. The Arabs, who took the
greatest interest in any thing that I was doing, wanted to know what I
was about, and whether it had any reference to the country. As I
always had a story ready to excite their wonder or a laugh, I told
them that I expected a letter from England, and I was endeavouring
to ascertain how fast the ship was sailing; that the little glasses were
to tell me the heat of the sun, and the handkerchief the force of the
wind; that if when the sun was so hot, the wind had a certain power; I
knew how much greater would be the power of the wind, when the
sun was less hot; and by the velocity of the wind, I could tell the rate
of the ship’s sailing; the sun and the wind being enemies to each
other. Upon this they cried out “Tayyabek Allah:” after this came the
usual finale, by my taking some fire from the sun by the burning
glass; and what astonished them more than any thing else, was that
they could do it themselves as well as I could. At five P.M. I received
my grape-pie from the Jewess; but it was a sad failure, as it was the
third day in which I had gone without a dinner. It is now evident the
post has been stopped on purpose. I am in a nest of villains, and
know not how to extricate myself. The heat continued of the most
distressing kind: at midnight the thermometer was 100°.
Tuesday, July 19.—Therm. 95°. The heat is beyond endurance.
No sleep. All are lying down and panting. The long-wished-for post
has at last arrived: and this morning every thing was settled for our
starting without fail on September 15. All travelling now is quite
impossible, as the camels are dying on the route from the north, in
consequence of the heat, which is greater than usual. Every body is
suffering, and yet they say it is cool here, compared with the
temperature on the south side of the mountains. I have nothing on,
but what decency requires. The consumption of water is immense.
Wednesday, July 20.—Therm. 95°. The heat is terrific. No sleep,
no rest. The stream that passes the Sheïkh’s garden was this
morning at 75°. Mashaba (Majíbí) and his gang left us at three P.M.
Went out a little this afternoon, as I felt poorly, and procured some
eggs from the Arabs in the tents, but many of them were rotten. I
have now had no food for a week. Would give a dollar for a draught
of beer. Thirst distressing, and am pouring with perspiration. The
walls of the house are cracking with the heat and the ground is
distressing to the feet. Wrote to Mr. Willshire. The Damánís are
preparing to start to-morrow.
Thursday, July 21.—Therm. 95°. This morning I exposed about a
quart of water in a tea-kettle, on the roof of the house, to the action
of the sun. The water was brought from a small rill that passes the
Sheïkh’s garden, and was 75° when about fifty yards from the spring.
At twelve the water in the kettle had risen to 112°; at three P.M. it was
taken away to be used as hot water; this happened a few minutes
before I got up to try its temperature. The heat decreased much
towards the evening. Have been very poorly all day, and must have
recourse to a blue pill at night.
Friday, July 22.—Therm. 82°, and has been lower. This sudden
fall of 15° has been felt severely. At no period has the glass reached
within 15° of what it was yesterday. It has made me quite ill, and
unable to go out to a fantasía in the afternoon. A káfilah is now
preparing for Suweïrah.
Saturday, July 23.—Therm. 83°. There was a heavy mist early this
morning. Thank God, the heat is lessened. The trees and fruit were
parched up by the heat of the three last days. The cattle are dying in
the roads, and the very slaves suffering. Feel very poorly; and have
now starved for a week, and been obliged to go often to the
medicine-chest. Had to send to the Jews for brandy to keep me up. I
am expecting some fruit to-morrow, and hope to get a fowl also, and
make some broth. Obliged to shut up books.
Sunday, July 24.—Therm. 85°. The weather fine and pleasant,
and the house quiet. Read the prayers. Received a present of two
fine quinces, called here ................ Their flavour is exceedingly fine;
they came from Tamazert; those that are grown here are not near
ripe; the others have a thin yellow rind, and their flavour is like that of
ripe raspberries. Being far from well, I did not leave the house. Abú
went to market, and bought some eggs, and dispatched Seulïmán to
Tamazert to buy more, together with half-a-dozen of fowls; the latter
being very dear here, about threepence each. I have agreed to
purchase a cow in partnership with Seulïmán, whose child is sick,
and wants more milk, &c., than he can get. I am to be supplied with
fresh butter every day. The cost of the animal, which has just had a
calf, is ten mitcals, about twenty-five shillings. This is a sore subject
for the Sheïkh,[117] who has had a quarrel with his women, and they
will not supply me. I really pity the man.
Monday, July 25.—Therm. 86°. Felt a little better; but as I was still
poorly, kept to the house. No incident.
Tuesday, July 26.—Therm. 78°. Day cold and cloudy. There was a
large arrival from Bamara. Felt very poorly to-day; these sudden
changes almost kill me. Got at last a fowl to-day, and ate a little.
Complained strongly to the Sheïkh.
Wednesday, July 27.—Therm. 80°. Health improving. There was
an addition to our party. Did not go out. House the best place. Had a
new dish to-day; stewed quinces and meat: it was not bad, but I had
no appetite.
Thursday, July 28.—Therm. 78°. Not so well to-day; kept to the
house. In the evening a party from Taghakánth brought intelligence
of the war still raging.
Friday, July 29.—Therm. 77°. Day fine; went out a little: am much
better, thank God.
Saturday, July 30.—Therm. 75°. The night has been cool, and
very pleasant. Went out a little this morning: towards the middle of
the day the heat returned with great power. A simúm is blowing in
the desert; we are all covered with dust, and the houses are perfectly
obscured. I tried the water again to-day: a quart was exposed from
one to three P.M. in a tea-pot, on the top of the house; it rose to 112°;
at four P.M. it had reached 125°, when it came into service, being
half-boiled, to fill up the tea-kettle. We are to have three or four
oppressive days again. Spirits very low. Took a half pint of the Jews’
brandy, having a very cholera-feel.
Sunday, July 31.—Therm. 80°. Passed a very bad night. Walked
out a little. Read the prayers, and mean to fast to-day. In the
afternoon we felt the simúm again, and the night was oppressive in
the extreme.
Monday, Aug. 1.—Therm. 86°. The whole horizon buried in a
cloud of dust. The mountains to the S. and S.E. were not visible; the
cattle exhibit a disinclination to go to their pastures. We are to have a
sweltering day, by all appearance. We are looking out for the post,
which, we suppose, was stopt yesterday by the excessive heat, and
will not now reach us before to-morrow. Felt very poorly this evening.
Tuesday, Aug. 2.—Therm. 80°. Very poorly, and kept to the
house.
Wednesday, Aug. 3.—Therm. 75°. Much cooler. There is a strong
breeze, but the dust still comes from the desert. For the three last
nights we have been annoyed with the jackalls, who have been
driven in from the Sahrá. Felt a little better to-day, and went out for
an hour. No appetite. This confinement is very sad. Received large
presents of unripe fruit. These people will leave nothing to ripen; they
are perfect hogs. A host of jackalls have made their appearance.
Gave Abú a lesson in medicine; made him number the bottles in the
chest, for fear of being too ill to go to it myself, and he should poison
me. We have some misgivings about the post, which is three days
behind its time. Persons have been dispatched to look after the
postman.
Thursday, Aug. 4.—Therm. 76°. A high wind, with dust, which
nearly blinded us all. Feel rather better to-day. Still no post, and all in
anxiety.
Friday, Aug. 5.—Therm. 76°. Weather much pleasanter. The night
cool, and not so many vermin. Received a fine present of grapes.
This evening the post came in, but brought no letters. The Sheïkh is
in a great rage about a letter, which that rascal, Majíbí, has written;
who now that he has been blown upon, is trying to make mischief.
Affairs are rather ticklish. I have a hard game to play to keep all
matters right. There is some unpleasant talk about the length of my
stay, and some not very pleasing hints to the Sheïkh about his
treatment of me. I have tried to put every thing in a correct light.
Saturday, Aug. 6.—Therm. 78°. Fine day. Feel somewhat better.
There has been another fight between the Jews about my food and
washing. I fear the Sheïkh leans to the scoundrel, whose wife is
more free-looking than Fehedia, whom he cannot seduce: the case
is to be heard to-morrow.
Sunday, Aug. 7.—Therm. 76°. Early this morning Sídí Mohammed
El Fakír arrived from Suweïrah, bringing me a letter, together with
tea, sugar, and coffee, from Mr. Willshire, and a present of fruit from
himself. By the letter I learnt that the Sheïkh had written to Mr.
Willshire for the money for the journey, which the Sheïkh said he had
paid the Damánís. I do not, nor does Mr. Willshire, like this paying
before hand. Had a large party at breakfast; there was one Múléï
’Alí, and some hogs of Berbers. Read the prayers, and prepared to
catch the Sheïkh. He promises to give me an acknowledgment, that I
shall have nothing to pay on my arrival at Tumbuktú, and that all
shall be right. There are no signs of my tent coming back. Sídí
Mohammed, who is anxious that I should not go on, brought his son,
the only really learned man here, who is to write privately to Mr.
Willshire, should any thing happen to me. I am more than ever
pleased with the Fakír, and feel great satisfaction in having a person
who can communicate, if necessary, with Suweïrah, unknown to the
Sheïkh. I am not over easy that all is quite safe: these are a
thankless people, and are now very angry that I have complained so
much of the bad treatment I have experienced. I shall make friends
with this young man, and try what can be done through him, in case
of need. Feel much better to-day.
Monday, Aug. 8.—Therm. 78°. The house is full of visitors again,
and my pest, the Sheïkh Hammó, has returned. Abú was puzzled to-
day in some questions about Hájí Majíbí. Gave him a lesson to-night;
but he is a very dull scholar: he has no idea of position,[118] nor can I
make him understand the drawing of the ka’bah. Some mischief is at
work from that rascal, Majíbí, who has gone back to Suweïrah. I will
catch him yet. Feel better to-day, and am beginning to be myself
again.
Tuesday, Aug. 9.—Therm. 78°. Up early, and out to breakfast. The
post arrived with letters from Mr. Willshire, who says that he has sent
half the money for the journey; but that no pesetas were to be
procured, and therefore the remaining half would be sent by Hájí
’Abíb, whom Mr. W. insists upon coming here to see me off—an
event which now seems doubtful. I do not like this payment of all the
money before hand, as I may be left on the road, although I have
great faith in the Damánís. I had some high words with the Sheïkh.
His people owe Mr. Willshire five thousand dollars, and would not
take a credit for the one thousand. My good opinion of the Sheïkh all
oozing away. He is a beastly miser. Wrote to Mr. W. Felt done up
again by this business.
Wednesday, Aug. 10.—Therm. 66°. The night was so cold, that I
had to get up, and put on some clothes; and this morning the glass
shews a fall of 10°. Felt this change very sensibly, and the more so
as I have been out of temper since yesterday’s row with the Sheïkh.
As there were symptoms of heat, I tried the thermometer, and found
that it stood
At 10 A.M. in the shade 80° in the sun 110°.
— 12 M. 82° 124°.
— 2 P.M. 82° 120°.
— 6 76° 85°.
— 10 in doors 75° out of doors 70°.
I feel rather uneasy about the arrangements. Heard of a party going

to Tumbuktú in ten days. I have been told not to pay all the money
before hand. Am determined to speak again to the Sheïkh, even if I
am to give up the thing. All parties here are agreed as to my having
been ill treated. I fear this man is now bent on plunder. I mean to
dispatch a courier privately to Mr. Willshire to-morrow. I cannot allow
myself to be robbed with impunity. My treatment is now as bad as
ever, and if the money be once paid, I shall never get on.
Thursday, Aug. 11.—Therm. 70°. It begins to feel very cold. All the
people have taken to their Sulhams. A man was shot through the
ankle, and they came to me for some camphor, their sovereign
remedy. I told them that all mine was gone, and desired them to go
to Mes’úd. This strange fellow was born a Jew, and is now a
Muselmán. He is much looked up to. He too said that all his camphor
was gone; but was sure that I had some; for he had seen a great
many Jinns[119] about at this place, and one or two big ones at
Agader, where I go sometimes, and he was sure that they came for
my camphor; that they stole a great deal of his, and were very fond
of it, and would come a long way to get it. Finding, however, the
applicant, who was the father of the boy, to be greatly distressed for
the want of the camphor, I give him a little and some plasters.
Mes’úd told him how to tie it up, and Abú had to write a charm to
keep away the Jinns, and prevent them attacking the boy on the
road, which Mes’úd said they would be sure to do unless he took the
spell with him. Abú wrote two extra charms for the Táleb, on the
condition that he would shew me his book of magic to-morrow.
Friday, Aug. 12.—Therm. 70°. Had a great row with the Sheïkh,
who has over-shot the mark; I fear we shall quarrel yet, and the thing
fail entirely. Got the book on magic, but had to pay a mithkál for
looking at it.
Saturday, Aug. 13.—Therm. 70°. Weather cloudy and wind cold.
Towards noon, I had a great row with Sídí Salám, and threatened to
leave the house; I have frightened them a little, but made myself ill
again.
Sunday, Aug. 14.—Therm. 63°. It feels quite cold; I have taken to
clothe again. The people are preparing to go to the Múlíd at Muwah,
which takes place on Wednesday. Read the prayers. A sand wind
from the desert, which nearly blinded us: at five P.M. the glare was so
vivid as to distress the eyes; one could see the doors of the houses,
and the faces of all the people in the Sók. It had also the effect of the
mirage in giving a gigantic appearance to all persons; we could
distinguish even the tracks on the mountains, which were some
miles distant: it lasted above an hour. A Jew lad, who has been in
the habit of bringing me food, came with his schoolmaster, the
Rabbi, to take leave; he can repeat the whole of the Pentateuch,
although he is unable to read a letter: his schoolmaster told me he
had been teaching him to be a tradesman, not a scholar. The lad got
a dollar from me to pay his expenses on the road. The Sheïkh is not
yet returned.
Monday, Aug. 15.—Therm. 72°. Wind strong. A large káfilah is
starting for Suweïrah. The Sheïkh is to come back this evening. I am
sick at heart. Fasted to-day, partly out of spite to these people, and
partly by way of medicine.
Tuesday, Aug. 16.—Therm. 72°. This was rather an interesting
morning. The Arabs who are about to return to the Sahrá, came for
the Mazkát Allah. This is a kind of tithe given of the barley, only to
those people whose land will not produce any, and whose
occupation as guides to the káfilahs prevent them from tilling the
ground. It is not however the unjust tithe on the industry and capital
of the English farmer; but is a tenth of the actual increase—in the
scriptural meaning. The seed-corn is deducted, together with the
quantity requisite for the wages of the labourers, and the cost of
tillage, and gathering the produce; of which one tenth of the actual
increase is given. There was a great variety of character
(deportment), and a blessing was given to, and by each person as
he came for and went away with his share. In this manner they
obtain corn enough for nearly all their wants. A few presents were
brought for the Sheïkh, who I could see, gave grudgingly, and in
return asked very anxiously, if they wanted to buy any thing. I had a
great row with Sheïkh Hammód, and nearly came to blows. This
fellow is the greatest hog I have ever seen. I am very anxious to hear
again from Suweïrah; had Kádí ’Alí been here, I would have left the
house this morning. To-day was the ceremony of swearing faith to
the Sheïkh, and of protection to the káfilahs to and from Wad Nún.
Portions of the Koran were read; the Ahdah[120] taken, and faith
pledged, accompanied by the ceremony of stepping over a stone. I
have frightened the Sheïkh, and I hope to some purpose: but matters
are hard to arrange.
Wednesday, Aug. 17.—Therm. 74. These Arabs of the Sahrá are
certainly the men in Belzoni’s tomb, with their curls standing out, and
dresses close to their necks, and feathers in their heads; none of
them ever wear turbans. Some have a string of pearls (islik); some a
cord; but the generality are content with their thick woolly curls, that
make the head look like a mop, or the hair upon a poodle dog. They
are a slim race, but very hardy and courageous. Two large wolves
were killed this morning. We are looking out for the post. The wind is
high, but with the haze over the mountains, the fore-runner of a
return of the heat. At eleven A.M. it blew a perfect hurricane. The
Simúm[121] felt like the blast of a furnace. The thermometer rose
suddenly from eighty-five degrees to ninety-five degrees. The heat
was terribly oppressive; we all felt it, and the people were lying about
and panting, and all work was suspended. This lasted till one P.M.
and has so heated the air, that there is no moving. The Sheïkh says
there will be two or three such days: that we are lucky in not having
started; but that the weather will then become settled. This is the
approach of their second summer. I have this day had a proper
explanation. The Jew has been sent for, and ordered to purchase
every thing requisite on pain of banishment, and to bring in a weekly
bill of my expenses. The poor fellow at first thought I had been
making a complaint; but has gone away quite satisfied. There are
symptoms, I am sorry to see, of further detention. At half-past two
P.M. the hurricane returned; when the whole air was loaded with dust
that made the sun look red. The thermometer, was, in the sun, one
hundred and twenty-one degrees, and at three P.M. one hundred and
twenty-six degrees; in the shade, one hundred degrees and one
hundred and one degrees respectively; with a very trying wind,
E.S.E. This has been a thirty-drink day. The heat at night was
excessive. I am to go to the Jew’s to-morrow with the Sheïkh. A
great change has taken place: I have frightened these people in right
earnest, and I am determined to keep the vantage ground.
Thursday, Aug. 18.—Therm. 86°. Very hot outside the door. Went
to the Millah with the Sheïkh to breakfast, at the chief Jew’s,
Soleïmán. Every thing was very good, indeed, of a rather superior
kind: but what a place to live in! We went on foot, the Sheïkh
carrying a loaded pistol in one hand, and with the other on his
kummiyah.[122] After eating for two hours, the Muselmán party went
home to sleep. I remained with the sons and daughters of Israel,
who had come to the Millah, which is seldom honoured by a visit
from the Sheïkh, and still less frequently to eat there. The Jew’s wife
is one of the most beautiful creatures I have ever seen: she is much
respected, and possesses some property of her own. The Rabbi, at
my request, read the first five chapters of Genesis, and then a
portion of Exodus. I hoped to find some other books; but there were
only Sepher Kodesh.[123] Returned home, and found a great change
for the better in the establishment. The heat was excessive: the
thermometer at 101° in the colonnade. The moon looked pale and
sickly. At midnight the thermometer stood at 101°: every body was
fainting from the oppressiveness of the heat.
Friday, Aug. 19.—Therm. 89°. The heat suffocating: went out a
little to accustom myself to it. At two P.M. the thermometer was at
110° in the shade. This is the second summer here: it lasts for twenty

Evolution of Wireless Communication Ecosystems Suat Secgin Full Chapter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Evolution of Wireless Communication Ecosystems Suat Secgin Full Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Evolution of Wireless Communication

Ecosystems Suat Secgin

Dr. Suat Seçgin

The ComSoc Guides to Communications Technologies

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-­in-­Publication Data applied for:

Cover Design: Wiley

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India

About the Author xv

2 Modulation and Demodulation 9

2.4.3 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Modulation 14

4 Network Performance Metrics 33

5 Seven Layers of ISO/OSI 41

6 Cellular Communication and 1G Systems 51

6.3 ­ ellular Communication

10.3 ­ opology 102

12 Internet of Things (IoT) 177

13 Non-­IP-­Based WPAN Technologies 191

14 IP-­Based WPAN and WLAN 211

15 Low-­Power Wide-­Area Networks 227

16 IoT Edge to Cloud Protocols 245

17 Popular Operating Systems of IoT 277

18 IoT Security 285

19 IoT Applications 301

About the Author

system are described by explaining the switching techniques, modulation, and

Dr. Suat Seçgin

3GPP Third-­Generation Partnership Project

DAS Distributed Antenna System

IMT-­2000 International Mobile Telecommunication Standard-­2000

NMT Nordic Mobile Telephone

RNC Radio Network Controller

VLR Visitor Location Register

The input of a communication system is a sound, image, or text file to be transmit-

1.2 ­Main Components of Communication Systems

The main components of an end-­to-­end communication system are the transmit-

Evolution of Wireless Communication Ecosystems, First Edition. Suat Seçgin.

Information source Transmitter Receiver Information source

Figure 1.1 Block schema of a communication system.

●● Transceiver: Most electronic communications are two-­way. Therefore, both

1.3 ­Circuit, Packet, and Cell Switching

A circuit, packet, or cell switching technique is used on the communication line

1.3.1 Circuit Switching

Figure 1.2 Circuit switching.

communication, virtual circuits specific to end terminals can be established by

1.3.2 Packet Switching

Packet switch Packet switch Packet switch

Figure 1.3 Packet switching.

1.3.3 Cell Switching

Figure 1.4 Cell switching.

1.4 ­Duplexing in Communication

In communication systems, information can be exchanged in three different ways

environment: frequency division duplexing (FDD) and time division duplexing

1.5 ­Historical Developments of Wireless

Starting with 1G systems (1980), we will talk about communication systems at

Internet of Things URLLC eMBB mMTC

Figure 1.6 Evolution of wireless communication systems.

Wireless communication systems, which continue to progress without slowing

1 Frenzel, L.E. (2016). Principles of Electronic Communication Systems. New York:

Modulation and Demodulation

Before explaining the communication generations in the book, it is helpful to

2.2 ­What Are Modulation and Demodulation?

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for:

6.3 ellular Communication

10.3 opology 102

13 Non-IP-Based WPAN Technologies 191

14 IP-Based WPAN and WLAN 211

15 Low-Power Wide-Area Networks 227

3GPP Third-Generation Partnership Project

IMT-2000 International Mobile Telecommunication Standard-2000

1.2 Main Components of Communication Systems

The main components of an end-to-end communication system are the transmit-

●● Transceiver: Most electronic communications are two-way. Therefore, both

1.3 Circuit, Packet, and Cell Switching

1.4 Duplexing in Communication

1.5 Historical Developments of Wireless

2.2 What Are Modulation and Demodulation?

2.3 Analog Modulation Methods

2.4 Digital Modulation Methods

Figure 2.9 In-phase signal and quadrature signal component.

QAM is known as quantized/digital QAM in cellular communication and Wi-Fi

Figure 2.11 8-QAM signal.