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Craig Hirst
Richard Tresidder

Marketing
in Food,
Hospitality,
Tourism
and Events
A Critical
Approach
Second Edition
Marketing in Tourism,
Hospitality, Events and
Food
A Critical Approach
Second Edition

Craig Hirst and Richard Tresidder

(G) Goodfellow Publishers Ltd

 (G) Published by Goodfellow Publishers Limited,
Woodeaton, Oxford, OX3 9TJ
http://www.goodfellowpublishers.com

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data: a catalogue record for

this title is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: on file.
ISBN: 978-1-910158-32-6
Copyright © Richard Tresidder and Craig Hirst, 2012, 2016
All rights reserved. The text of this publication, or any part thereof,
may not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, storage in an
information retrieval system, or otherwise, without prior permission of the
publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited.
Further details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may
be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, of Saffron
House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.

All trademarks used herein are the property of their repective owners,
The use of trademarks or brand names in this text does not imply any
affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners.

Design and typesetting by P.K. McBride, www.macbride.org.uk

Cover design by Cylinder

 Contents

Contents
About the authors vi
Acknowledgements vii

1 Introduction 1
Why this book is needed 2
How to use this book 4
Structure and outline of chapters 5
Conclusion 9

2 THEF Marketing and the Exchange of Value 11

Marketing and the exchange of value 12
The basic idea of exchange 13
Constructing the marketing offer to produce or reduce value 20
Kotler’s framework and its relationship to the marketing mix 24
Market segmentation and targeting 25
Conclusion: the production and supply of value 28

3 Marketing as Interaction and Service 31

From goods logic to a logic of service 32
Service and interaction 33
Consumer resources and consumption practices 35
Co-creation and co-production 37
The consumption cycle 40
Conclusion 54

4 Marketing and THEF Consumption as a Socio-Cultural Process 57

The symbolic nature of THEF products and the goals consumers pursue 58
THEF consumption and community interaction 62
How consumers extend the cultural and symbolic values of experiences 66
iv Marketing in Tourism, Hospitality, Events and Food

Co-creating meanings in the THEF marketplace 69

Conclusion 75

5 Putting the Experiences into Experiences Marketing 77

Experiences marketing and the sacred 82
Time and space 84
The myth of hospitality and food as sacred 86
Hedonism and THEF marketing 88
Imagination 94
Myths and myth making in experiences marketing 102
Embedding the practice and myths of hospitality and food 105
Conclusion 107

6 Consumer Resources and THEF Experiences 109

An outline of the theory of resources 110
Financial resources 111
The resource of time 113
Space as a resource 115
Supporting material resources 117
Social resources 117
Social resources integral to episodes and experiences of consumption 122
Service delivery personnel as social resources 123
Consumers as resources for consumers 124
Knowledge and skill as consumer resource 126
Conclusion 127

7 Marketing and Identity 131

The restructuring of society and the consumer 132
Taste and consumption 134
Cultural capital 135
Habitus as market segment 139
Consumption as identity 146
Conclusion 147

8 The Semiotics of THEF Marketing 149

Semiotics and the significance of signs 150
 Contents v

The semiotics of tourism and events 157

The semiotics of food and hospitality 161
Semiotics and power 165
Conclusion 168

9 Interpreting Marketing 171

The epistemology and ontology of marketing 173
The interactive consumer 176
Interpretation and marketing 178
The axiology of marketing: Values 179
Conclusion 180

10 Ethics, Sustainable Marketing and the Green Consumer 183

The greening of experiences marketing 184
Defining sustainability 187
Sustainable approaches to tourism 195
Conclusion 199

11 Conclusion 201
A journey into critical marketing 201
A Manifesto for THEF Marketing:
The five precepts of critical marketing 205
Conclusion 208

References 209

Index 227
vi Marketing in Tourism, Hospitality, Events and Food

About the authors

Dr Craig Hirst is Senior Lecturer in Food Marketing at the Sheffield

Business School, Sheffield Hallam University. He is interested in the
socio-cultural aspects of food marketing and consumer behaviour,
and particularly how meaning is attributed in the marketplace.
Dr Richard Tresidder is a Lecturer in Marketing at Keele University.
Richard Holds a Doctorate in the semiotics of tourism and is par-
ticularly interested in the socio-anthropology of tourism, hospitality,
events and food and how these experiences are represented in market-
ing texts.
 vii

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Emmie for all support and understanding

during the production of this book.
RT
Faye, Ralph and Felix, thanks for allowing me the time to work on
this project. Once again your patience has been immeasurable.
CH
Additionally we would like to thank Tim and Sally at Goodfellow
Publishers for their continued support in producing this second
edition.
 1 Introduction

On the theme of marketing in

tourism, hospitality, events and food

„„ Introduction
The first edition of this book was motivated by a lecture series pre-
sented by the two authors at the Sheffield Business School. These
lectures aimed to provide a critical framework for students to apply
their previous marketing knowledge to the marketing of tourism, hos-
pitality, events and food (THEF). During this time, although there was
a large body of critical and conceptual marketing literature being pro-
duced outside of the sector, there wasn’t a definitive text that reflected
these debates and brought together a critical framework in which to
surround the study of marketing of THEF experiences that could be
recommended to students; we therefore took the opportunity to write
one ourselves. This second edition continues our quest to introduce a
critical consumer-orientated approach to the study of marketing and
practice in our sectors, and as a result updates the ideas and exam-
ples introduced in the original. The book also adopts a new structure
through the addition of three new chapters (2,3 and 4) which, with the
inclusion of Chapter 5, introduce and position its critical approach.
2 Marketing in Tourism, Hospitality, Events and Food

„„ Why this book is needed

The study of tourism, hospitality, events and food (THEF) has a long
tradition of academic development, which has mixed together man-
agement theory and concepts with theories from the social sciences.
This multi-disciplinary approach is reflected in the majority of THEF
university courses and has given rise to many special interest groups
that have produced knowledge in these areas. This has created a critical
approach to the contemporary study and analysis of THEF. However,
the theoretical development of marketing in the subject area has not
kept pace, and has largely developed around marketing practice and
general marketing concepts and theory, rather than developing a criti-
cal understanding of the marketing process within these sectors more
specifically. The sectors covered by this book form both a significant
element of the service economy and a critically important role in the
lives of consumers. Consumers use tourism, hospitality, events and
food as markers of their lives; they save hard to escape for a couple of
weeks and justify working hard to engage in what is fundamentally a
significant component of their lived experience. While we introduce a
diversity of ideas about marketing in this second addition, and hope
to stimulate a debate about the nature of marketing and consumption
in our sectors in general, the ideas in this publication are not to be
considered as a replacement for traditional approaches. Therefore this
work should be seen and treated as a complementary text, to be used
alongside the more management-orientated texts that constitute the
recommended reading on most courses in our field. Ultimately the
purpose of this book is to provide critical insight into many of the
perspectives and theories that inform aspects of marketing practice
such as segmentation, targeting and positioning, and specifically the
role of THEF marketing in creating meaning and value for consumers.

Due to the critical nature of this text, this book doesn’t simply draw
inspiration and ideas from the academic debates that surround and
inform contemporary marketing theory and practice, it also plumbs a
wide range of other academic disciplines for insight and understand-
ing. So while traditional and emerging theories of marketing feature
heavily in the arguments developed in this book, the areas of consumer
 Introduction 3

research, sociology, social theory, anthropology, and cultural studies,

also play a major part. This multi-disciplinary approach enables the
marketer to adopt a holistic understanding of their role and practice,
1
linking together business studies and the social sciences; the result is
to create an inclusive, creative and rigorous approach to the field of
study. The ability to understand the world we live in, in respect of
the wants, needs, desires and aspirations of the consumer, and their
relationship to tourism, hospitality, events and food, is fundamental
to being a successful practitioner in these sectors. That is to say, the
adoption of a reflexive approach to marketing which is informed by
a critical understanding of the marketing process and the nature of
customers and consumption will provide the THEF marketer with a
set of theoretical and conceptual tools that will enhance their practice
and operational effectiveness.

The dominant approach to marketing that you see duplicated in

nearly all generic marketing texts and marketing programmes serve
to reproduce the marketing paradigm that is embedded in notions of
economic and psychological exchange. There is much value in these
texts and this general approach as they ground our understanding
of marketing on the whole, as well as provide industry-relevant data
and case studies. In addition, and perhaps most importantly, they also
focus attention on the key function of value, which is central to the
marketing process and practice in general. This being the case, as you
will see as you delve into this book, these approaches have limitations,
and we feel that they work to obscure what is really in play and at
stake in THEF marketplace transactions. There are a few exceptions to
this exchange approach of course. Of particular note, is:

1 The work of Consumer Culture Theory (CCT) researchers (see

Arnould & Thompson, 2005; Thompson, Arnould & Gielsr, 2013)
who collectively acknowledge that marketing and consumption
are located within a broader framework of socio-cultural prac-
tices; and

2 The work developing from the Service Dominant Logic (SDL)

school of thought (e.g. Vargo & Lusch, 2004), which amongst
4 Marketing in Tourism, Hospitality, Events and Food

other things acknowledges that markets and value are co-created

through the interactions between various marketplace actors.

However these alternative approaches are in the minority and often

sit on the margins of the discipline; infrequently taught in marketing
and THEF programmes. Accordingly, in recognition of this, this book
aligns with the philosophy and themes identified by the CCT and SDL
traditions, and their ideas are explored throughout this text. As you
may come to appreciate in reading through the chapters, the benefits
of adopting a more socially and culturally aware approach, alongside
ideas that consumers are active agents in the marketing process enables
the marketer to understand that other factors and agents come into
play in creating the meaning, value and experiences that are central to
the consumption of their products.

„„ How to use this book

This book provides a critical analysis of the marketing process and as
such should be used alongside more traditionally orientated market-
ing texts. The theory developed here does not supersede the work of
these traditional theories and approaches, but complements them by
offering a number of alternative perspectives which collectively pro-
vide greater understanding of the marketing process. Additionally, the
book provides insight into the particular and unique nature of tourism,
hospitality, events and food marketing in the form of experience mar-
keting. This is of particular importance, as the consumption of THEF
is extraordinarily rich in social, cultural and individual significance. In
order to effectively market, or promote, such experiences it is impor-
tant to understand how this significance is both embedded and created
in contemporary consumer society. As such, there are certain themes
that run throughout the book that inform the agenda for the critical
marketing of THEF and understanding its consumption, these include:
„„ Value creation
„„ Culture and the production of socio-cultural meaning
„„ Consumer motivations and value
 Introduction 5

„„ Market place meanings and values

„„ Market place resources and practices
1
„„ Ethics and morality

„„ Structure and outline of chapters

This book provides a critical introduction to customer-based market-
ing within the sector, and the structure and content of the chapters
will take you on an academic journey that builds towards a manifesto
for the effective marketing of tourism, hospitality, events and food. As
such the remainder of the book is organised as follows:

Chapter 2 (THEF Marketing and the Exchange of Value) locates the

concept of THEF marketing within current mainstream marketing
theory and practice. Although this book offers an alternative or com-
plementary approach to contemporary marketing practice, it is impor-
tant to recognise that much of the literature has been motivated or has
emerged from these central and traditional marketing debates. In this
respect this chapter, documents and explains the central concepts and
processes integral to traditional theories of THEF marketing, which are
premised upon the idea that marketing is transaction orientated and
built around exchange relationships. It is important that we under-
stand this dominant approach and philosophy of marketing, if only
to use it has a backdrop to compare and contrast the other approaches
that we introduce and explore later in this text.

Chapter 3 (Marketing as Interaction and Service) introduces a philoso-

phy and approach to THEF marketing that significantly challenges the
assumptions and logic of the exchange perspective and offers a broad-
ened view of the marketing process. Fundamentally it shows that
consumers are recast as active players in value creation rather than
being mere targets of marketing activity, and documents the ways
in which they engage in complex forms of consumption to co-create
personalised forms of value. As a result of this switch in thinking,
this chapter argues that marketing practitioners are being de-centred
from their privileged role as value creators, to a role that is more in
6 Marketing in Tourism, Hospitality, Events and Food

tune with being facilitators of value creation processes. In explaining

this conceptual shift, this chapter outlines many of the constructs and
assumptions that support this turn in thinking. In particular it exam-
ines the constructs of co-creation and multi-dimensional consumer
value, and shows how important the concept of interaction is to value
creation. We close by arguing that while the exchange perspective
provides an important foundation for thinking about THEF market-
ing, in essence it obscures the true relationship between consumers
and producers, and in order to improve practice, marketers must
understand the important and varied roles that consumers play in the
marketing process.

Chapter 4 (Marketing and THEF Consumption as a Socio-Cultural

Process) introduces the reader to the socio-cultural perspective of
marketing and demonstrates how important meanings and values are
to THEF marketing and consumption, and how these underlie a range
of consumer goals and projects. This chapter also explores the ways in
which the meanings of products and experiences are co-created and
produced between the actions and activities of a range of actors in
the THEF marketplace. In addition, in our review of this approach we
draw further attention to the creative and productive roles of consum-
ers by examining how they achieve their own peculiar and unique
goals through their interactions with the symbolic properties of the
THEF marketplace.

Chapter 5 (Putting the Experiences into Experience Marketing) explores

how experience marketing must differ from the norm. It achieves this
by examining how tourism, events, hospitality and food fulfil such a
significant role in contemporary society, culture and the economy in
general. This chapter also explores the sociological and cultural foun-
dations of the experiences provided by these sectors, and how con-
sumers relate to, and engage with them as part of their everyday lived
experience. Concepts that are central to THEF experiences are defined
and described and we argue that in relation to these, their marketing
requires special attention. Just as tourism, hospitality, events and food
reflect social and cultural movements, so should its marketing.
 Introduction 7

Chapter 6 (Consumer Resources and THEF Experiences) acknowl-

edges both the service dominant and cultural perspectives of market-
ing, which together recognise that marketplace meanings, value and
1
experiences are created through the consumption process rather than
through the actions of the marketer per se. This deviates from the
dominant view that expresses that value and meaning is exchanged
through transactions, and at the point and moment of purchase.
Accordingly the focus of understanding consumers from the point
of being discrete market segments that display a set of characteristics
which together will constitute their consumption preferences and pat-
terns, switches to one in which we analyse the consumer resources
that are brought to bear and integrated with market place resources
in the creation and production of valuable and meaningful THEF
experiences. This is essential knowledge in the THEF sectors, where
consumers are seen to engage in protracted and complex interactions
and relationships with the marketplace.

Chapter 7 (Marketing and Identity) examines how consumption pat-

terns are used by consumers to define their position within society and
to locate them in relation to differentiated social groups. The choices
consumers make about the products they consume are central to this
process, as the food we eat, the destinations we visit, the events we
attend and how we consume them become social markers of who we
are, or want to be. The significance of this is manifold as our tastes
and consumption practices locate us within consumption groups or
tribes, and conversely exclude us from others. Understanding group
membership and the dynamics integral to these, provide an alterna-
tive means of segmenting or targeting potential markets, thereby
offering a more nuanced approach to this critical marketing function.
This compliments more traditional approaches such as demographic,
socio-economic and psychographic traditions.

Chapter 8 (The Semiotics of THEF Marketing) demonstrates how

THEF marketing draws upon a range of signs, images and themes to
convey and produce products that resonate meaningfully with the
consumer. This process creates a language of experience that can be
defined as a semiotic convention or approach. By examining various
8 Marketing in Tourism, Hospitality, Events and Food

aspects of marketing across our sectors it is possible to identify

a semiotic language that is utilised by marketers and the various
conventions and meaning systems that they draw upon. As marketers
it is important that we understand these conventions and semiotics
more generally, as by doing so we will be able to tailor and construct
products and marketing materials that consumers find more appealing
and valuable. The chapter closes with an examination of the power
implications of meaning-based approaches to marketing practice.

Chapter 9 (Interpreting Marketing) charts how individuals interpret

and make sense of marketing and the marketplace more generally. It
recognises how the life-world and personal biographies of individual
consumers and their experiences and consumption inform how they
find meaning within marketing. By understanding how consumers
approach the interpretation process, marketers will be able to shape
and construct more meaningful and relevant marketing strategies that
resonate more effectively with their audiences.

Chapter 10 (Ethics, Sustainable Marketing and The Green Consumer)

analyses how the politics of sustainability and the green agenda
influence and impact the marketing of THEF. There is a growing
acknowledgment within THEF marketing that it is mutually beneficial
to work towards a sustainable agenda. The ethics of the production,
dissemination and consumption of THEF experiences is becoming
increasingly questioned across a number of dimensions. These include
concerns about cultural, social and environmental sustainability. There
is a long traditional of sustainable tourism experiences that range from
trekking in undeveloped areas, to visiting Centre Parcs, while food
production has developed clear links with the ‘Fairtrade’, organic and
slow food movements. Organisations such as Marriott Hotels have
invested heavily in their green credentials and large events such as
Glastonbury Music Festival have their foundations in raising money
for charities. As such the notion of sustainability has become one of the
central themes to experiences marketing and has seen the emergence
of the green consumer. The theme of sustainability within experiences
marketing can thus be seen to fulfill a number of objectives that can be
broadly divided into three elements.
 Introduction 9

„„ The first is where sustainability is used as a means of product

differentiation, which seeks to add value to the brand. The aim
of this approach is to reinforce the market’s perception of the
1
organisation in the hope of influencing buyer choice and market
place behaviour; in other words it adds an economic value to the
company’s or organisation’s products and bottom line.

„„ The second is related to meeting consumer requirements for

sustainability. Many consumers demand sustainable products
and solutions for their consumption, and will actively seek out
products that meet these demands, while purposely avoiding
those that don’t. In this respect sustainability has an experiential
dimension that adds meaning and value to a consumer’s life and
THEF organisations ignore these concerns at their peril.

„„ Finally, is the view that organisations pursue these agendas as

ends in themselves; simply for altruistic reasons and a belief that
it is the right thing to do. This perspective thus aligns with the
philosophy that we wish to promote through this text, which is
that THEF marketing should be an inclusive practice that takes
consideration of a broad range of stakeholder interests and
sustainability concerns.

In summarising this publication, Chapter 11 (Conclusion) presents

a manifesto for the development of a critical customer-orientated
approach to the marketing of tourism, hospitality, events and food,
which offers an inclusive and holistic framework through which to
analyse and appreciate contemporary marketing practice within the
field, and across the sectors more generally.

„„ Conclusion
Although this book is broken into chapters and many of the debates
are interwoven with each other, the book has been constructed to
enable the reader to dip into the specific subject themes developed
within each chapter. If you read it in its entirety, the book will take
you on a journey that will introduce the major critical themes that
10 Marketing in Tourism, Hospitality, Events and Food

have emerged within the field of marketing over the past decade or
so. Although, this work presents an approach that is often critical of
traditional approaches, it must be re-iterated that these remain and
will always remain the cornerstone of management practice. Although
this may be the case, it is important that as students, academics and
practitioners we question and analyse our approaches, if only to reflect
on our practice.
 2 THEF Marketing
and the Exchange
of Value

„„ Introduction
The following four chapters locate the concept of THEF marketing
within current marketing debates. Although this book offers an alter-
native or complementary approach to contemporary marketing theory
and practice it is important to recognise that much of the literature
has been motivated or has emerged from these debates. Numerous
perspectives of marketing exist, and these frame the way in which
we think about the nature of marketing and ultimately provide the
logic and frameworks that govern practice. Each of these perspectives
offers different ideas about the nature of markets and marketing, as
well as the roles of marketers and consumers. In this respect it is our
contention that a broadened view of marketing that is informed by an
understanding of each of these perspectives will strengthen practice
and afford a more nuanced and penetrating analytical framework
through which to interpret the marketplace. As such, these four chap-
ters set out to explore and define these perspectives, starting with the
view that THEF marketing is based around exchange relationships.
12 Marketing in Tourism, Hospitality, Events and Food

„„ Marketing and the exchange of value

Since its birth as a discipline, marketing has arguably been grounded
in what is known as the exchange paradigm, or more lately what has
been coined goods dominant logic (Vargo and Lusch, 2004, 2008). Up
until recently this has been the case for both theory and practice. From
the point of view of the literature, this is the most common perspective
and the one that most marketing frameworks and theories originate
from. The underlying feature of this perspective, which distinguishes
it from those that will be discussed in the next few chapters, is how it
conceives of the roles and differences between marketers and custom-
ers. Following the general logic of economic theory and how this pre-
sents the differences between producers and consumers, the exchange
perspective holds that customers seek out and purchase products
to experience the value that is built and stored in them, for either
immediate or future use. In this respect marketers are instrumental in
producing, communicating and delivering the value that is perceived
and ultimately consumed. To complete the exchange, the customer
supplies money to the company and/or advocacy about the product
or brand in return. Broadly speaking, this view simply holds that
marketing operates at the intersection of production and consumption
and serves the marketplace by mediating supply and demand.

In effect, the key issue in play here is the concept of value, broadly
defined (see Chapter 3 for a thorough examination), and how it is
experienced. Accordingly, this perspective of marketing embraces the
view that marketing centres on the production and exchange of value,
and it is the differences between who is active in its production and
consumption that is central to its logic. To summarise, in the words of
Schau, Muñiz Jr., & Arnould (2009, p.30):

“Modern marketing logic, as derived from economics, advance[s]

a view of the firm and the customer as separate and discrete; the
customer is exogenous to the firm and is the passive recipient of
the firm’s active value creation efforts.”
As such, the exchange perspective is the closest approximation to the
essence of marketing as defined by both the CIM (Chartered Institute of
 THEF Marketing and the Exchange of Value 13

Marketing) and AMA (American Marketing Association) and mostly

underlies the definitions found in most general marketing text books.
This perspective thus structures most thinking around the marketing
process whereby marketers are tasked with:

1 Analysing and segmenting markets to identify opportunities for 2

value creation;

2 Profiling customers based upon need states and personal char-

acteristics and their potential to provide reciprocal value;

3 Efficiently allocating marketing resources in a competitive mar-

keting context to position their products and meet the identified
needs of their potential customers; and

4 Engaging in review activity to determine the success of their

efforts and activity as well as the value that they have created
for both themselves and their audience.

Accordingly the exchange perspective places the marketer in the privi-

leged role of value creator and experience manager, and we will now
examine this thinking to offer a more detailed view of this marketing
tradition and its implications for practice

„„ The basic idea of exchange

As inferred above, the central idea of exchange is that two or more
parties come together in a transaction-orientated relationship to
derive some form of sought value from the other entity. This suggests
that markets are mobilised and sustained by a scarcity of goods and
other resources which are deemed valuable to members of society,
and that marketing relationships are constituted on the one hand by
agents who are able and willing to produce and supply these goods or
resources, and on the other, by people or institutions who both need
or want them and are able to allocate their own resources to acquire
their benefit (Kotler, 1972) So, in a very basic sense in seeking to satisfy
hunger a person will exchange their money with a food producer for a
form of nourishment such as a sandwich. In this example the customer
may also be gaining the benefit of being able to manage the scarcity of
14 Marketing in Tourism, Hospitality, Events and Food

time over a busy working day and short lunch break by buying this
sandwich from a local convenience store or supermarket. This is an
important element of practice within THEF marketing, and the theory
underlying it accounts for many types of transactions in the sectors
covered in this book, as many associated products and activities carry
the immediate benefits that are exchanged with customers for pay-
ment and investments of time, such as: the efficient sustenance from
a snack or ready meal; the enjoyment from attending an event, or; the
psychoactive effects experienced from consuming an alcoholic drink.

„„ From restricted to complex exchange

The examples described above reflect what Bagozzi (1975) terms
restricted exchange, which is essentially the exchange of value between
two parties. This is the simplest and most basic form of exchange which
is easy to understand, and does indeed represent some incidences
of exchange in the THEF sectors, such as when an organisation is
solely responsible for all of the resources and skills that are combined
to produce and take a product to market that is then acquired by a
customer for their sole use, however the nature of exchange is often
more nuanced and fragmented. In these cases more than two parties
are involved in the exchange process, and can be seen to sit in both the
demand and supply side spheres of the relationship. These are what
Bagozzi (1975) terms complex patterns of exchange.

„„ Complex exchange and the demand side

In many market transactions, the customer who is directly involved
will not be the final recipient of the product or service that is
exchanged, and therefore the evaluator of its value. This is often the
case with the products and activities that constitute the THEF sector.
For example, when a purchasing officer representing a company (the
customer) purchases the accommodation of a travelling executive (the
consumer), or when a parent (the customer) buys an ice cream for
an infant (the consumer). In both these cases it will be the consumer
(the executive or the infant) who will directly benefit from the value
in the product or service that has been purchased from the market
 THEF Marketing and the Exchange of Value 15

on their behalf. However in making this distinction it is worth noting

that the customer may also receive some form of indirect benefit from
these transactions. In the first example for instance, the employer of
the executive may indirectly benefit from increased productivity and
performance due to the rest and recuperation that is enabled by the
accommodation whilst the executive is in the field. In the second, the
2
parent may benefit from the respite and momentary freedom from the
demands placed on their attention.

These illustrations also allow us to neatly differentiate between

customers and consumers. The above discussion demonstrates that
while sometimes the customer and consumer is the same person, often
they are not. However as also shown, even though the consumer is the
direct beneficiary of the exchanged entity and its value (effects), the
customer may also benefit from indirect effects. In the case of the parent
and infant for example, if we remove the company who produced and
sold the ice-cream from the equation for the moment, we have a classic
example of social exchange whereby the confectionery is being offered
as amongst other things a symbol of love and affection in exchange for
reciprocated affection or good behaviour. If we reinsert the company
at this point we can build another picture that further demonstrates
the complex nature of exchange. Rather than solely being purchased
for the product attributes of flavour and sweetness that provide a
combination of hedonic benefits, refreshment and sustenance for the
child, the ice-cream is being put into service for behaviour modifica-
tion by being appropriated as a treat, for incentive or reward. Thus we
see the parent receiving direct benefits and value from the purchase
of the ice-cream that may be far removed from those intended by the
producing company who offered it for exchange. These latter points
raise interesting questions about the nature of value (what it is that is
actually exchanged), in terms of its character or form, and how, when
and by whom it is produced or created, which are currently central
concerns of the marketing academy. Together these have important
implications for both marketing theory and practice going forward.
Significantly, they bring the notion of exchange as a foundational
concept of marketing into question (for example see Grönroos, 2008,
p.309). Resultantly we will return to these important issues later in the
16 Marketing in Tourism, Hospitality, Events and Food

book, however for the time being we will continue our focus on this
perspective by examining further forms of complex exchange, but this
time on the supply side of an exchange relationship.

„„ Complex exchange and the supply side

In the above examples of exchange, we have focused our attention on
the producing company and their relationship to customers and con-
sumers. Our attention will now shift to examine examples of complex
exchange that exist in the production and supply side sphere, whereby
a producing company utilises the products, services or activities from
other companies to improve their performance in creating value and
satisfying their customers’ requirements. In these instances, activity is
often performed by organisations that:

1 Have a specialisation for producing and adding further value

to a product or service than would otherwise be possible by the
producing company conducting these activities alone; and

2 Are able to facilitate smoother transactions with end users and

customers to better meet their needs.

For example, travel agents act as valuable intermediaries for travel

companies when they broker complex forms of exchange with the
tourist, adding real value to the experience, and advertising agencies
perform an important role in stimulating consumer behaviour for
companies across the THEF sector.

The logic underlying these types of relationships is manifold, but

in general terms organisations are inclined to engage in these con-
figurations when they are unable to achieve their goals through their
own skills, resources or knowledge. On the other hand companies
may enter into these arrangements when there is greater potential for
creating value and/or incurring less cost from performing the value
creation function independently. Accordingly, amongst other types of
arrangements and relationships, we see THEF organisations:

1 Outsource marketing communications activity to specialist

businesses such as social media marketing and creative produc-
tion companies;
 THEF Marketing and the Exchange of Value 17

2 Contract with cleaning companies for related services such as

the maintenance and care of hotel rooms or, facilities manage-
ment companies who may supply air-conditioning and building
maintenance activities;

3 Use marketing research companies to provide insight into con- 2

sumer requirements and the structure and conduct of markets.
Kantar Worldpanel are a good example of this as they offer
real-time insight to companies in the food industry through
their consumer panels and research into buyer behavior and
category/brand performance;

4 Form relationships with manufacturers to produce ‘own label’

products for retail, such as Farmers Boy who produce meat and
dairy products for Morrisons.

Moreover, an organisation could also contract in supporting activi-

ties, such as payroll or Human Resource operations to allow them to
concentrate on the things they are good at doing, or wish to prioritise;
that is, to focus on their core competence and distinctive capabilities
(Prahalad & Hamel, 1990). In most of these cases, a reciprocal relation-
ship will be evident as the contracting company will be receiving the
provided and sought benefits in exchange for one or more bundles
of value such as payment, an extended or exclusivity contract, or the
exchange of knowledge, information and skills. In this sense, using
the lens of the exchange paradigm as a conceptual frame we can see
that producing organisations can engage in combinations of down-
stream supply, upstream distribution, as well as supporting activities
(see Porter’s ‘value chain’, 1980) in seeking to add value and exploit
their own distinctive set of skills, resources and competencies through
exchange relationships.

Bearing in mind that in this book we are predominantly focusing

on consumer marketing and therefore do not wish to get drawn into
too much discussion of business to business marketing, the above
points are worth indicating and illustrating due to their role in the
value creation process for the end user.
18 Marketing in Tourism, Hospitality, Events and Food

„„ Hybrid exchange relationships

While it is recognised that the satisfaction of needs are not always
conditional upon some form of exchange with the marketplace, such
as when a consumer acts to become self-sufficient, in contemporary
market-based societies most needs are satisfied through either total or
some form of hybridised exchange (Houston & Gassenheimer, 1987).
For example, although an individual or family may elect to grow
their own food rather than purchasing it from a supermarket, or an
independently minded traveler constructs an itinerary for a vacation
without utilising the services of a travel agent, the market must feature
somewhere to facilitate engagement in these practices, and in some
way be key to their outcomes. So in the case of the former, to grow their
own food the individual or family may be reliant on a garden centre
for the seeds required to start the process, and then further down the
chain become dependent on either the gas or electricity suppliers and
producers and retailers of the cooking appliances and dining utensils
that will be required for preparing and consuming the produce as a
meal (Houston & Gassenheimer, 1987). Equally, the knowledge and
skills required for growing food may have origins in market provided
resources such as books or a college course and so on (ibid, 1987). This
logic will also hold true in the case of the independent traveler who
will be reliant on the outfitter market for maps, guidebooks, tents,
backpacks and other related resources.

This being the case, it is prudent to note that not all exchanges
are necessarily and always market transactions. The guidebooks
or cookbooks could have been acquired as a gift (e.g. Giesler, 2006;
Sherry, 1983) for example, or they could have been exchanged through
swapping (Sherry, 1990), loaned and borrowed or, accessed through
donation as part of a ritual of voluntary disposition (Cherrier, 2009).
Interestingly, these forms of exchange that by implication, extend
the life and ultimately the value of a product are being explored as a
means to a more sustainable future. Such practices, it is argued result
in less waste, more efficient use of scare material resources, and miti-
gate against environmental degradation (e.g. Cooper, 2010).
 THEF Marketing and the Exchange of Value 19

„„ The problems for marketing within the exchange

perspective
According to Bagozzi (1975), within the exchange perspective market-
ing has two central and significant problems and these by implication
must govern practice. The first is that marketers have to understand 2
the factors that influence and bring about the need or potential for
exchange in any given market, that is “…why and under what conditions
do people and organizations engage in exchange relationships or not?”
(ibid, p.38, italics added). Second, marketers must be cognizant with
how to:

„„ Create the conditions to stimulate exchange;

„„ Resolve or satisfy those needs for exchange that presently exist; or

„„ Reverse existing needs or consumer behaviours.

Or put more simply, marketers must understand how to: create valu-
able marketing propositions to stimulate consumer behaviour; deliver
value to those who presently require it; or devalue or lessen the appeal
of certain goods, activities or market place behaviours, for social, sus-
tainable, or other market benefits.

In accepting Bagozzi’s (1975) first problem, and in order to con-

struct a suitable and relevant marketing proposition and offer, the
marketer must be tasked and focused upon the mechanics of his or
her marketplace. They must be aware of the competitive conditions
and dynamics of the market, its infrastructure, and perhaps most
importantly the behaviours and requirements of consumers (which
we return to this later in the chapter). Equally marketers also have to
understand and appreciate how changes in the macro environment
that surrounds their market, may influence each of these former ele-
ments and which in turn might present possible opportunities for cre-
ating value for consumers in ways and areas that may be unexploited
or underdeveloped.

In recognition of Bagozzi’s second and third problems, marketers

must on the one hand, know how to produce and disseminate value,
and on the other, mitigate against it. In respect of this we can usefully
20 Marketing in Tourism, Hospitality, Events and Food

draw upon the work of Kotler (1972) who has outlined the four basic
tasks and functions of marketing to illustrate how value can be created
or dissipated, these are: configuration, valuation, symbolisation and facili-
tation. We will examine each of these in turn and follow up by relating
these to more contemporary articulations of the marketing mix.

„„ Constructing the marketing offer to

produce or reduce value

„„ Configuration
To build or reduce value the marketer must develop an offer that is
deemed either desirable or undesirable by the consumer and then
work to competitively position this in the market. In respect of this,
a marketer is firstly tasked with developing and designing the social
object, which is the term used by Kotler to classify the product, such
as a physical good, service, idea, initiative, destination, place, person,
personality, behaviour or other marketable entity. This process and
set of activities is called configuration. Here, to be effective the mar-
keter must take account of trends in the market, and the features and
benefits that will be desirable to the customer, as well as those that
are most likely to stimulate a preferred response from the intended
audience. The social object should also be differentiated from compet-
ing products and configured in a manner that is considered to be of
superior value by consumers (Armstrong & Kotler, 2012).

In relation to this it is worth bearing in mind that the concept of

configuration more generally captures the theory and nature of a
number of useful allied concepts from the marketing literature. The
most obvious of these is the product concept from the 4Ps, but it
equally embraces the additional 3Ps of the widened services marketing
mix, and the theory underlying the SER-VUCTION model (Eiglier &
Langeard, 1975) as well as that of the Servicescape (Bitner, 1992). So in
this respect and taking into account that THEF organisations in general
can be broadly classified as companies that deliver services (Solomon
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 LARGE HOUSES FOR SMALL TENANTS.

In Australia there is a bird—the Megapodius—that builds for its

family an enormous dwelling. It is not a large bird, being about the
size of our partridge, but it seems to have very lofty ideas. If a man
built a house in the same proportion to his size, as that of this bird is
to its size, his house would be twice as large as the Great Pyramid of
Egypt. It would be very inconvenient to have such residences as
these, and they would be very difficult to keep clean, to say nothing
of the great expense of building them. A man would have to call in
the aid of hundreds of workmen, and pay them well, and years would
be required to complete such a mansion, and a great many different
instruments would be called into use. Whereas two of these birds will
build their huge dwelling in a few weeks, with no tools but their own
beaks and claws, and with no expense whatever.
The Megapodius does not believe in gay clothes, and is always
dressed in plain and sombre brown. It is an intelligent, patient,
industrious, persevering little creature, as you will see from the way it
constructs its nest.
It begins by gathering together a mass of leaves, branches, and
plants. With these it spreads out on the ground, in the place it has
selected for its nest, a thick bed of a circular form. Upon this it heaps
up earth and stones, and packs them well together, continuing to
labor perseveringly until it raises a mound from eight to fourteen feet
high. Some of these mounds measure a hundred and fifty feet round
the base, and as much as twenty-four feet up the slope. A circular
opening is left in the center of this mound, and extends from the top
to the ground.
 NEST OF THE MEGAPODIUS.
In this opening herbs and leaves are heaped up; and, on this the
Megapodius places its eggs, eight in number, arranged in a circle, at
equal distances from each other, with the points downward.
After the female has performed this task of arranging the eggs,
both of the parent birds leave the nest, for they are of no use
whatever to the young birds after they are hatched. So you see this
great labor, in which they have shown so much skill is not for
themselves, but for their children.
The leaves and herbs, enclosed in this great mass of compact
earth, become so heated after a time that fermentation commences,
and this heat hatches the eggs. How does the Megapodius know
this? And how does it know what plants will produce poisonous
vapors, so that it never brings these to its nest?
 Most birds, you know, are born naked, or covered with a soft
down, and they have to be fed for several weeks until their feathers
grow, and they can be taught to fly. But the young Megapodius, we
are told by travelers, comes out of its shell fully provided with
feathers. They say that it throws off the hot leaves that surround it,
and mounts to the top of the mound, looks about for a few minutes,
flaps its wings, and then, at once, soars up in the air, and comes
back to its nest no more. If this be true, it knows where to look for
food, and how to take care of itself as soon as it is born.
Another Australian bird, the Telegalla, also builds a large nest,
though, by no means equal in size to that of the Megapodius. The
bird is larger, too. It is about the size of a turkey, and, like that fowl,
carries itself with quite an important air. It works in the grassy fields.
It cuts down grass by the handful; or rather, I should say, by the
clawful. For, after it has gathered a small bunch of grass, it grasps it
with one claw, and hops proudly along on the other claw to the spot it
has chosen for its nest.
 TELEGALLAS MAKING THEIR NESTS.
The male and female bird work for a long time in this way, and
make a vast number of journeys to and fro, always bearing to the
nest a little bundle of grass. They heap this up, as haymakers build
up their haycocks. In fact a Telegalla’s nest is not unlike a haycock,
and is about the size of one.
 Having reared up their nest as high as they think proper, the
female carefully places her eggs in the center; and then, with her
mate, takes her departure. They do not trouble their minds any more
about either eggs or nest. They know, in some mysterious way, that
the grass they have piled up will dry, when exposed to the sun, and
that it will be heated by this process. And they know that this heat
will hatch the eggs; and that the young birds will be able to take care
of themselves as soon as they issue from the shell. So, why should
they worry themselves about the matter?
In the Cape of Good Hope, Southern Africa, there are birds, not
larger than our sparrows, that build cities to live in. They belong to
the family of Grossbeaks, and these are called Social Grossbeaks,
because they live in communities. Hundreds of birds will unite in
building an immense nest, high up the trunk of some tree. They work
away with twigs, and sticks, and grass, and feathers, and moss. And,
when the structure is completed, it looks at a little distance as if men
had built some great timber work around the tree trunk. It is in reality
a city, consisting of rows of single nests, each one inhabited by a
pair of birds.
There they lay their eggs, and hatch them, and raise their children,
and teach them how to fly, and to get their living. Hundreds of
families live thus peaceably together, and have a good time helping
and visiting each other. Policemen do not seem to be necessary in
these cities, where each bird behaves just as well as he knows how.
 NESTS OF SOCIAL GROSSBEAKS.
No doubt, after their hard work is done, they have fine fun at their
parties, and merry-makings. Whether they have “town meetings,”
and public lectures, and parades, I know not. Private lectures, and
concerts, I am sure they must have! And the liveliest jigs and waltzes
among the branches of the trees!
A traveler in Africa once brought one of these nests away with
him. It contained 340 little nests. So it had been inhabited by 340
pairs of birds, and their families. It was so heavy that several men
were necessary to remove it from the tree; and it was taken away in
a wagon.
 THE WONDERFUL ADVENTURES OF
GUTEFUNDUS.
Once upon a time—it was four hundred years ago—the great
Gutefundus, of blessed memory, made up his mind that he would go
all over the world, and do good to everybody. A great part of the
world as we know it, had not then been discovered, and there were
not so many people in those times as there are now. But still it was
something of an undertaking to go all over the world, and do good to
everybody.
Nevertheless, Gutefundus resolved to do it.
He decided, in the first place, that he would kill the great Sea
Serpent. This was a snake three or four miles long, which amused
itself by winding its coils around ships, thus crunching them up, after
which it would eat the crews at its leisure. If it were not very hungry it
would follow a ship a long time, rising out of the water occasionally,
and picking off a man or two at a time, until it had made an end of
the whole ship’s company.
Nobody ever knew where to find this snake, for it traveled all over
the ocean with incredible swiftness; and, it had such an extremely
hard and horny skin, that no dart or knife could pierce it. It was
therefore not an easy thing either to find the Sea Serpent, or to kill it.
Nevertheless Gutefundus determined to find it and kill it.
He embarked on this expedition in mid-summer, in the very best
vessel that could be made in those days, and with a crew of picked
men. Fortune favored him, and in the second month of the cruise,
the great Sea Serpent was after the ship of Gutefundus, little
dreaming that that very ship was after him.
The sailors were frightened nearly out of their wits when they first
saw the long line of this monster’s body rising and falling on the
waves, far in their rear. But the stout heart of Gutefundus knew no
fear. He took in sail, and waited for his foe. But the serpent was in no
hurry. He kept his distance for a couple of days, and then he sank
into the water and disappeared. Gutefundus feared the snake had
escaped him; but, a few days afterwards, it unexpectedly popped its
head out of the water, close to the ship’s sides, and, in an instant,
seized a sailor in its enormous jaws, and went down again with a
tremendous splash.

IT SEIZED A SAILOR IN ITS JAWS.

At that moment Gutefundus thought that, so far, he had done no

good to any body, and had been the means of leading the poor sailor
to his death.
But he did not despair. The Sea Serpent would come again, he felt
sure, and now that he knew the enemy’s tactics, he made his
preparations. The next time the Sea Serpent reared his head over
the ship’s side Gutefundus was ready for it. Barrels filled with water
were arranged all along the sides of the deck, and the moment the
great head was level with the deck, Gutefundus was in front of it;
and, in a twinkling, he rolled a barrel into the gaping mouth of the
creature. The astonished snake gulped down this unusual morsel
with some difficulty; and Gutefundus took advantage of this interval
of choking to plunge his long spear into one of the eyes of the
monster. It sank heavily into the water; and, for several days, the
ship sailed over a sea reddened with its blood.
And that was the last of the great Sea Serpent. It is a pity that the
Serpent’s body never rose to the surface, so that our hero might
have had its skin.
The next expedition of Gutefundus was to the Orkney Islands.
Wonderful trees grew in the marshes of those distant isles. They
bore eggs for fruit! At the proper season these egg-like fruits opened,
and out dropped little ducks into the water, where they immediately
began to swim about. These trees were called Bird Trees.
It was rather a singular thing that, although the learned men wrote
full accounts of these trees, and all the common people talked about
them, nobody had ever seen one of them.
Now, in Gutefundus’ country it sometimes happened that the poor
people had nothing to eat, and there would be a famine. He wisely
thought that if he could get some roots and slips of this Duck Tree,
and plant them along all the water courses, in a few years there
would be ducks enough for the very poorest family.
It was considered a very dangerous thing to take a voyage to
these savage islands, but Gutefundus decided he would do it.
And he did it. He met with some fearful adventures on the way,
but, after many weary months, he arrived at the Orkneys. And there,
sure enough, right before his eyes, was the wonderful Bird Tree! Its
long trunk stretched far out over the water. Its branches were loaded
with fruit. Some of this fruit was as close shut as an egg; but some of
it was splitting open, and the little ducks coming out. Some of the
ducks were just ready to drop into the water, and others had only a
small piece of bill stuck out of the egg. Hundreds had already fallen,
and were swimming gaily about.
 THE BIRD TREE.

The delighted Gutefundus plucked some of the fruit that had not
yet opened, and stored it away to take home to show to his
countrymen. His next proceeding was to take measures for
introducing the culture of bird-trees into his country. He concluded he
would cut off some of the smaller branches, and some little twigs,
and would put some of their native soil in tubs on the ship, and in
these he would root his slips. From these few slips bird-trees could
be spread over the country in a few years.
The task of choosing and cutting these slips he took upon himself,
and climbed the tree for that purpose. But, no sooner had he cut the
first little twig than he felt a great shudder running all through the
tree. It shook from top to bottom. The roots tore themselves loose
from the soil with such a wrench that the whole tree fell violently
forward into the water, and sank beneath the waves as if it were
made of iron. The ducks that were swimming around went down with
it, and were seen no more. Gutefundus, entangled in the branches,
would inevitably have gone down also with the tree, had he not
caught fast hold of some sedges on the shore, and, by a great effort,
got his feet free from the branches.
He, and the ship’s company knew then that this was a magic tree.
The gathered fruit they had, was therefore accursed, and they
immediately threw it all overboard. On touching the water it burst
with a great explosion. They then sailed away from the spot as
quickly as possible.
From that day to this there has never been another bird tree found
anywhere. And the poor people of Gutefundus’ country lived and
died without ever tasting tree-ducks.
His next expedition was the greatest of all the undertakings of
Gutefundus. Immense stores of gold, silver, and precious stones lay
buried in the rocks of certain caverns in the mountains. But men
could not go there to dig out the treasures, because the entrance to
these caverns was guarded by a terrible dragon. A few daring
individuals had ventured near this entrance, and, peeping in, had
seen heaps of bones. These, no doubt, were all that was left of men,
who, in some previous time had attempted to get the treasures. They
even got a sight of the dragon, and represented it as a gigantic
creature, partly beast, partly bird, and partly serpent.
These venturesome men were thankful to have escaped from the
neighborhood without going any nearer the cave; and, from that
time, no one had ever been within miles of it. But Gutefundus
resolved that these treasures should no longer lie there useless.
Mankind should have the benefit of them. Nobody believed he could
conquer this dragon. Nobody would accompany him on such a mad
enterprise. It did seem like going to certain death. Nevertheless
Gutefundus made up his mind to do it.
He set out alone. It took him three years to reach the forest that
surrounded the mountain, of which he was in search. He had passed
through strange countries, and had taken part in many a good fight,
but he arrived at the edge of the forest, a day’s journey only from the
caverns, well and in good spirits for the fight with the dragon.
 But here something befell him more wonderful than all he had
gone through in his life.
Night was approaching, and he looked about for a resting-place.
He heard the tinkling sound of a little bell, and bent his steps in that
direction. It led him some distance into the forest to a small hut,
made of dried mud. A little wooden belfry was built upon this, and the
bell was ringing at the close of day. Gutefundus, believing it to be the
dwelling of some hermit, entered it to ask for a night’s lodging. There
was no one there, and he wondered by what contrivance the bell
rang itself. While waiting for the owner to appear, he stretched
himself upon a couch of dried moss; and, being very tired, he soon
fell asleep.
When he awoke, he started up, and looked around in surprise. He
was still alone. His clothes were in rags; his feet were bare, for his
shoes had fallen to pieces on the floor; the hut had crumbled until it
was only a shattered mound; the wooden belfry lay around in broken
bits; the little bell was half buried in the dried mud, by his side, and
was nearly eaten up with rust. This reminded him of his sword, and
he looked anxiously for it. He saw it directly, on the earthen floor
close by him. It had, evidently, just fallen out of the scabbard, which,
all full of rents, was still attached to his rusty belt. The sword was as
bright as ever. He remembered now that it was the clattering it had
made in falling that had awakened him. Just then the gleam of
something white crossed his eyes. It was his beard, grown very long,
and perfectly grey. He was conscious then that his head felt cold. He
clapped his hands there, and found he was bald!
He understood the whole matter now. He had been in a magic
sleep! How many years he had slept he could not guess. Maybe two
or three hundred years. Such instances were not so very
uncommon. He recalled the names of several great men, who had
slept for a hundred years and more. Some of them were sleeping
still. It was clear that the dragon was a magician, and had led him
into the wood to put him into a magic sleep.
Gutefundus, upon this, arrived at two comfortable reflections.
Firstly, that the dragon was afraid of him, or it would not have sent
this sleep upon him; and, secondly, that it had no power over his
trusty sword, which was there by him unharmed. He took it up, felt
the edge, and found it sharp and keen.
He walked out of the wood, and sought the nearest town. His
appearance at first alarmed the people in the market place; but when
he told who he was, and on what errand he had come, and what had
befallen him, they received him with joy. They had heard all about
him, but everybody supposed he had been killed by the dragon
twenty years before.
He had slept for twenty years! He went into the hut a man in the
prime of life. He came out of it an old, bald-headed man.
But he was as courageous as ever. The dragon, it appeared, was
still alive, and no mortal man dared go near the treasures he
guarded. No one would go with Gutefundus to attack the fearful
beast. He could get no kind of armor in the town; and no suit to wear
except a blouse, and a pair of baggy trowsers. Such was the
costume of the place.
But he had his bright and trusty sword that had never yet failed
him, and he marched boldly into the wood again after the dragon.
He entered the cavern, and had proceeded unmolested for some
distance, when he heard a fearful roar, and out upon him rushed the
dragon. It stretched its beast’s body; opened its huge jaws; ran out
its hissing, serpent tongue; flapped loudly its bird’s wings; and curled
its snake tail.
 THE DRAGON OF THE CAVERN.
But Gutefundus stood his ground undaunted. He felt from the tips
of his toes to his bald crown that that serpent’s time had come. He
swung his sword on high. Up rushed the dragon; down came the
sword, whack! and cut the terrible head into two parts! The beast
was stunned, but not killed. Another stroke severed the body; and
the third cut off its tail.
 The dragon was dead, and the treasures thus became the
property of mankind.
Gutefundus contented himself with a small share of the spoils, and
passed the rest of his days quietly at home. He had been pretty
much all over the world; and, if he had not done good to everybody,
he had certainly taken some of the evil out of the earth.
I suppose none of my readers believe that these adventures
actually befell any man who ever lived upon the face of the earth.
But I have told you nothing that was not held to be true at the time
Gutefundus lived; and at a much later period too. Such wild legends
were fully credited, and not by ignorant people only. The three
pictures I have given in the story were drawn by the most learned
men of that olden time; and they had no doubt whatever of the
existence of the Dragon, the Sea Serpent, and the Bird Tree.
 SOME BIG GUNS.

Ever since the invention of gunpowder, the men who have been
devoting their attention to the science of gunnery for purposes of war
have been making their cannon larger and larger.
 A COLUMBIAD.
This is not the case with the weapons that are carried by soldiers;
for our rifles and muskets are much smaller than those used by our
ancestors. A hundred or two years ago, the great flint-lock muskets
and blunderbusses were twice as large as the rifles now used,
although they did not carry a ball half the distance, or with any thing
like the accuracy of our improved arms.
 But the cannon that used to be in fashion were but little things
compared to those of the present day.
You might put one of the old-fashioned cannon into one of our
great columbiads and fire it out of it instead of a ball.
And while the cannon have been growing larger and larger, the
defenses against cannon-shot are growing stronger and stronger.
Now our men-of-war are generally what are called “iron-clads.”
The hull is covered with immense plates of iron or steel, which it is
almost impossible to pierce with the heaviest balls or conical shot.
And the forts are so constructed that the great masses of metal that
are sometimes hurled against them in time of war seem to have but
little effect upon their massive sides. And so the competition
between the weapons of offense and the means of defense goes on.
As the cannon are made larger, the iron plates on the ships are
made thicker and stronger, and the forts are built with walls that are
more massive and more thoroughly ball-proof.
Which party will succeed in this contest it is impossible to say.
If walls and ships could be constructed that would be impervious
to the heaviest cannon balls, warfare would probably soon come to
an end, for if a nation could have such forts and such ships it would
be useless for any other nation to make attacks upon it.
And if cannon could be made that would send balls through the
sides of any iron-clad, or through the walls of any fortification, war
would probably soon cease, for no country could resist a hostile
nation thus armed.
Therefore it is almost to be hoped that one of these parties—the
manufacturers of great cannon or the builders of ships and forts will
so far surpass the other that the trials between them in time of war
will be considered useless.
But it seems very doubtful if a limit to the size and force of cannon,
and the strength of iron-clads and forts will soon be found.
 THE GREAT CANNON OF MALTA.
Although our cannon are so large, we hear stories of guns of the
kind that were very large and yet not at all modern.
It is said that the Knights of the island of Malta had a tremendous
cannon, which, when it was fired off, made everybody, even old
gunners stop their ears for fear that they would be deafened by the
terrific noise.
 And the Chinese, who certainly invented gunpowder long before
we thought of it, have a tradition that their country once possessed a
most enormous cannon. It was constructed of pieces that were
fastened together by great bands, like the hoops on our barrels and
casks.
It is said that this enormous cannon, the bore of which was so
large that you might sleep inside of it if you felt sure it was not to be
used before you came out, was never fired but once, and the
inhabitants of the locality where it stood (or still stands, for all I
know,) believe that the ball is flying yet.
It would certainly be unpleasant if any of us happened to be taking
a walk through a pleasant country, to meet this ball so suddenly that
there would be no time to turn out for it.
But one of our great American guns, that carry a five-hundred
pound ball for five or six miles, would certainly be able to knock this
Chinese cannon into a thousand splinters, if it could but once get a
fair crack at it.
I wonder what the ancients, with their battering rams, and
catapults, and javelins, and slings, and arrows, would have thought,
if an American field-battery had opened upon one of their bravest
armies.
In that case I think that even Achilles would have thought it as
necessary to take the same care of his whole body as he had before
taken of his heel—which you remember was the only part of him that
was vulnerable to the weapons of that day.