Professional Documents
Culture Documents
G. SHANMUGAM
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of Texas at Arlington,
Arlington, Texas, United States
Elsevier
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ISBN: 978-0-12-822576-9
vii
viii Contents
5.5 Global significance of wind forcing on sediment 8.4 Four types of bottom currents 320
plumes 205 8.5 Thermohaline-induced geostrophic bottom
5.6 Implications for sediment transport 207 currents (i.e., contour currents) 321
5.7 Implications for provenance 210 8.6 The contourite problem 327
5.8 Synopsis 211 8.7 Wind-driven bottom currents 349
8.8 Tidal bottom currents in submarine
6. Hyperpycnal flows 213 canyons 356
8.9 Baroclinic currents (internal waves and
6.1 Definition 214 internal tides) 363
6.2 Origin 214 8.10 Sediment provenance 366
6.3 Identification 214 8.11 Reservoir quality 370
6.4 Hyperpycnites and related issues 215 8.12 Synopsis 373
6.5 Basic concepts 218
6.6 The Yellow River, China: a case study 229 9. Soft-sediment deformation
6.7 The Yangtze River, China: a case study 237 structures 377
6.8 External controls 239
6.9 Recognition of ancient hyperpycnites 241 9.1 Introduction 377
6.10 Cyclone-induced hyperpycnal turbidity 9.2 Datasets 395
currents in canyons 253 9.3 Definition 395
6.11 Configurations of density plumes 254 9.4 Origin 396
6.12 Global case studies 255 9.5 Classification 401
6.13 Challenges 262 9.6 Advances 402
6.14 Future research directions 262 9.7 Geological implications based on case
6.15 Academic discussions 263 studies 405
6.16 Synopsis 270 9.8 Synopsis 437
Professional preparation
1978: Ph.D., Geology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States
1972: M.S., Geology, Ohio University, Athens, OH, United States
1968: M.Sc., Applied Geology, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology (IIT) Bombay, India
1965: B.Sc., Geology and Chemistry, Annamalai University (AU), Tamil Nadu, India
Note: He served as a research scholar under the Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR), Government of India, at IIT Bombay during 1968–1970.
Employment
He joined Mobil Research and Development Corporation in Dallas, TX, United States as
a Research Geologist in 1978 and retired from Mobil (now ExxonMobil) as a Geological
Scientist in 2000 (Fig. 2).
Research
ix
x About the author
and Peira Cava area (French Maritime Alps, SE France). He described deep-water strata
using conventional cores and outcrops (1:20 to 1:50 scale), which include 32 deepwater
sandstone petroleum reservoirs worldwide, totaling over 10,000 m in cumulative thickness
during 1974 2011.
He also conducted field studies of coal deposits in Victoria (Australia), coniferous rain
forests in the North Island (New Zealand), limestone karst in Guilin (China), fluvial
deposits in Gujarat (India), 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami-related coastal deposits in Tamil
Nadu (India), shallow-marine deposits in Qassim area (Saudi Arabia), and estuarine
deposits in the Oriente Basin (Ecuador).
Publications
He has over 380 published works, including two volumes of Elsevier’s Handbook of
Petroleum Exploration and Production (2006 and 2012) and their Chinese editions (Fig. 3).
About the author xi
FIGURE 2 Three Mobil research laboratories in Texas, United States, where G. Shanmugam conducted
research during 1978-2000. Top image: Research includes oil generation from coal in the Gippsland Basin,
Australia (Shanmugam, 1985a) and porosity enhancement from chert dissolution beneath Neocomian unconfor-
mity in the Prudhoe Bay Field, Alaska (Shanmugam and Higguns, 1988). Middle image: Research includes the
Ouachita flysch in the USA (Shanmugam and Moiola, 1995) and basin-floor fans in the North Sea (Shanmugam
et al., 1995a). It is worth noting that this Mobil Dallas Research Laboratory was designed by a world-renowned
architect I. M. Pei, who also designed the Louvre Pyramid in Paris, France. Bottom image: Research includes bot-
tom-current reworked sands by hybrid flows in the Gulf of Mexico (Shanmugam et al., 1993a), tide-dominated
estuarine facies in the Oriente Basin, Ecuador (Shanmugam et al., 2000), and the Annot Sandstone in the Peira
Cava area, Maritime Alps, SE France, which served as the type locality for developing the "Bouma Sequence"
(Shanmugam, 2002a).
• 1968: IIT Medal for the top-ranking student in Applied Geology, Civil Engineering
Department, IIT Bombay, India (Fig. 7).
• 1995: Best paper award from NAPE (Nigerian Association of Petroleum Explorationists)
for his paper “Deepwater Exploration: Conceptual Models and their Uncertainties.”
• His paper “High-density turbidity currents: are they sandy debris flows?” published
in the Journal of Sedimentary Research in 1996, has achieved the status of the single
most cited paper in sedimentological research published in three world-renowned
periodicals - Journal of Sedimentary Research, Sedimentology, and Sedimentary Geology -
during the survey period of 1996 2003 (Source: International Association of
Sedimentologists Newsletter, August 2003).
About the author xiii
FIGURE 4 Images of core workshop conducted at Reliance Industries, India. See a core-seismic based sedi-
mentologic study of sandy debrites and tidalites in submarine canyons from the offshore Krishna-Godavari Basin,
Bay of Bengal (India) by Shanmugam, Shrivastava and Das (2009).
• He was interviewed by the SUN TV, Chennai, India (televised on December 30th, 2003)
on his controversial research papers on turbidite sedimentation and their implications
for petroleum reservoirs (Fig. 8).
• He is an Emeritus Member of SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology); member since 1970.
• 2010 11: Scientific Advisor: Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and
Development (RIPED) of PetroChina, Beijing, China.
• 2018: He is the recipient of FeTNA 2018 “Tamil American Pioneer Award” for his
extraordinary professional achievements in academia. FeTNA: Federation of Tamil
Sangams of North America. Award Date: June 30, 2018. Frisco, Texas (Fig. 9). http://
tap.fetna.org/category/2018/.
• 2018: He is the recipient of the University of Tennessee College of Arts & Sciences 2018
Professional Achievement Award. Award Date: September 21, 2018. Knoxville,
Tennessee (Fig. 10). https://artsci.utk.edu/dialogue/honor-college-alumni/.
• 2019 21: He was nominated for the SEPM 2020 William F. Twenhofel Medal, which is
the top award given every year for contributions in sedimentary geology.
xiv About the author
Philanthropy
In celebrating the 90th anniversary of AU, my alma mater, in 2020, Dr. K. Muthuraman,
Dean of Faculty of Fine Arts and the Convener of Souvenir Committee, invited me to write
a brief article on my reminiscence about the AU. Upon receiving this letter, my instinctual
response was one of exuberance. The very first thought came to my mind was the late
Professor T.N. Muthuswami Iyer (Fig. 11). He was popularly known as “TNM.” He was an
internationally known mineralogist and a pioneer in the study of “Madras charnockites” in
the early 1950s. He was the first Head of the Department of Geology at AU since its found-
ing in 1953 and also during my B.Sc. years (1962 65). TNM was solely responsible for my
successful career as a global petroleum geologist. I would like to share his motivational story
with colleagues and students on this historic and auspicious occasion (Shanmugam, 2020).
Science teacher
I was born in 1944 in a town called Sirkazhi, which is located 23 km south of AU near
Chidambaram in Tamil Nadu, India (Fig. 1). I attended AU as a train student, commuting
everyday from Sirkazhi to Chidambaram. Although my parents, K. Ganapathy Mudaliar
and G. Sambooranam Ammal, were not educated, they were keen on my education. They
About the author xvii
knew that my education was the only escape out of their poverty. Our family consisted of
my parents, myself, and my four younger sisters, namely Dhanalaxmi, Saraswathi,
Chandra, and Savithri (deceased). My parents’ primary concern was dowries associated
with my sisters’ forthcoming weddings. This financial background is important to this story.
I earned my B.Sc. degree in geology with a first class (equivalent to “A” grade in the
United States). It is worth noting that my degree was signed by Sir C.P. Ramaswami Iyer,
then Vice Chancellor of AU. In the summer of 1965, I secured a position as a science teacher
at Krishnamoorthy Arunachala Mudaliar High School, located a few kilometers from my
home. My parents were ecstatic because for the first time they will have a monthly income
from my salary. Normally, my story would have ended as a science teacher, but the story
took a drastic turn and has continued as a petroleum geologist because of TNM.
Motivations by TNM
curriculum, I received my first field training from Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC)
in the Great Rann of Kutch in the Thar Desert under Dr. S.K. Biswas and laboratory training
in the Ahmadabad office (Gujarat). IIT Bombay not only prepared me for my sedimentology
and petroleum geology career but also led me to pursue graduate studies in the United
States.
Throughout my studies at IIT Bombay, I kept TNM informed of my progress. Finally, I
informed him about my plans to go to the United States in all of 1970. At this point in time,
TNM had retired from AU and settled in Madras. In his response, he wrote me a letter in
August 1970. After 50 years, I still have his letter in my possession (Fig. 12). Because of poor
resolution of the scanned copy of letter, I have transcribed the letter content below:
“Raja Annamalaipuram-Madras: 10-8-70
My Dear Shanmugam,
Very happy to see your kind letter. I am sure you will have a very successful and bright
career in Ohio University. It is very good of you to think of me. Few people have this
affection and regard.
I have permanently shifted to Madras. I am staying with my son Naganathan, who is
Area Manager-ALITALIA. If you have to book your passage to Ohio he will do everything
for you. His office address. . .
xx About the author
Indeed, his son did book my passage to America by ALITALIA Airlines. Of course,
I did go to his house in Madras and did meet him in person before my departure to the
United States. He was very proud of my achievements. He would have been even more
thrilled to witness my achievements since then, including the arrangements of weddings
of all my three sisters. He is in Heaven and smiling down on me, I am sure!
Nature photographer
Shanmugam has published numerous photographs of outcrops and cores showing unique
geological features on the covers of international geological journals (Fig. 13, 14 and 15).
About the author xxi
FIGURE 13 (A) Pulpit Rock, Norway; (B) Basin-plain turbidites Zumaya, Spain.
FIGURE 14 (A) Karst topography, China; (B) Granitix monolith, near Chennai, India.
xxii About the author
FIGURE 15 (A) Ganges River Haridwar, India; (B) Coropaxi Volcano, Ecuador.
Reference
Shanmugam, G., 2020. Professor T.N. Muthuswami Iyer and his momentous motivations at Annamalai University
(1965): A personal story of transformation from a local science teacher to a global petroleum geologist.
Souvenir, 90th anniversary of Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India, 7 p.
Preface
This book is a follow-up to my earlier two notion, based on study of ancient rock
books on deep-water processes and deposits record, that hyperpycnal flows transport
published by Elsevier (Shanmugam, 2006a, sand into the deep sea (Mulder et al., 2003;
2012a). The two previous volumes were Mutti, 2019). For example, Mutti (2019)
aimed primarily at petroleum geoscientists, states that “Field observations suggest that
whereas this one is of a broader scope. There hypopycnal plumes can generate thin-
are many empirical reasons for my undertak- bedded sand/mud couplets, here termed
ing this assignment: plumites, that are virtually ubiquitous in
turbidite systems. This close association is
1. Literature gap: There are no books in the
the best and most direct evidence of the
market dedicated solely to downslope
relationship between turbidite and fluvial
and alongslope processes.
sedimentation. Plumes propagate in seawa-
2. Publishing opportunity: Research-based
ter as dilute surface flows and, depending
invitation by Louisa Munro,
upon their original volume, sediment con-
Acquisitions Editor, Elsevier Limited,
centration and basin size, may mantle the
Oxford, United Kingdom, based on my
basin floor with their fine-grained deposits
2019 Encyclopedia chapter titled Slides,
from shelfal to deep basin plain regions.
Slumps, Debris Flows, Turbidity Currents,
They may trigger major hyperpycnal flows
Hyperpycnal Flows, and Bottom Currents
and deposit thick sand beds in basinal
(Shanmugam, 2019a) published in the
regions, but most commonly form thin
Elsevier’s Encyclopedia of Ocean
beds displaying a spectrum of highly diag-
Sciences (third edition, edited by Kirk
nostic facies. Much care must be taken not
Cochran, J., Bokuniewicz, H., and Yager,
to mistake these facies for the distal or
P.), to write a new book expanding the
overbank sediments of turbidity currents.
content for a broader readership.
Most of the fine details of plumites are cer-
3. Global readership: The need for such a
tainly better observed in cores; most cores
book has been revealed by the readers’
should be therefore re-analyzed in the light
response worldwide, who have
of these new data.” The problem is that no
frequently read/downloaded the above
one could distinguish hyperpycnal flows
Encyclopedia chapter from my online
from turbidity currents in terms of fluid
ResearchGate webpage.
rheology, flow state, and sediment concen-
4. Interpretation of hyperpycnites in deep-water
tration. In addition, there are 16 types of
basinal settings based on outcrop studies.
hyperpycnal flows (Shanmugam, 2018b).
Perhaps the compelling reason for writ- Mutti (2019) did not explain which one of
ing this book in 2019 is because of the the 16 types had caused the sand/mud
ongoing academic discussions on hyper- couplets in hyperpycnites in deep-water
pycnal flows (Shanmugam, 2019c). The cur- basinal settings. Satellite images of modern
rent trend is to promote an unsubstantiated systems do not support such views of sand
xxiii
xxiv Preface
transport across the shelf into the deep sea seismites (Shanmugam, 2016c), SSDS
(Chapter 5: Density plumes: types, deflec- (Shanmugam, 2017a), and hyperpycnites
tions, and external controls and Chapter 6: (Shanmugam, 2018b);
Hyperpycnal flows). Also, available books 4. participating in 38 academic debates,
on deep-water sedimentation do not both written and oral, during the past 36
address the link between satellite images years (1983 2019) (see Chapter 6:
and sediment transport with implications Hyperpycnal flows).
for deep-sea sedimentation, which is
However, ultimately the objective of any
addressed in Chapter 5, Density plumes:
book is to offer a convincing story. This is
types, deflections, and external controls.
difficult in dealing with deep-water pro-
In interpreting ancient sedimentary
cesses and deposits. This is because of the
record of deep-water origin, it is much
prevailing plethora of conflicting concepts
more meaningful to understand a process
and models. In this situation, it is impera-
and its deposits from modern settings and
tive to take a fresh look at available data.
from laboratory experiments and then
Therefore the emphasis of this book is to
apply that knowledge in the field. Mutti’s
gather a multitude of empirical data uni-
(2019) approach of interpreting ancient
versally. I have used a total of 540 case
deposits in outcrops without knowing the
studies or datasets. Images of important
fluid mechanics of hyperpycnal flows is
examples are included. Whether one agrees
misguided. This basic flaw is often over-
or disagrees with my views on a given
looked in publications on deep-water sedi-
issue (e.g., high-density turbidity currents
mentation. This book is a cautionary
or hyperpycnal flows), at least, both sides
account of this problem associated with
of an issue will have an opportunity to
deconstructing depositional origin of
examine the same data. Although I offer
ancient rock record by reverse engineering.
my views on various issues, the reader will
In addition to the above reasons, my pre-
have the ultimate say on any given issue.
vious contributions on the subject matter
Hopefully, this case study driven
facilitate an ideal scenario for writing this
approach will yield a more harmonious
book. For example, my contributions
outcome on controversies dealing with
include the following:
deep-water processes and deposits.
1. documenting the volumetric importance Although this volume is intended for a
of sandy mass-transport deposits and wide range of knowledge levels, including
bottom-current reworked sands in students, teachers, and researchers of
deep-water petroleum reservoirs gravity-driven sedimentary phenomena,
worldwide; and practitioners in the petroleum indus-
2. dispelling the popular myth that most try, it is written mostly with the student in
deep-water sands are turbidities mind. Therefore I have (1) adopted bulleted
(Shanmugam, 2006a, 2012a, 2019a); or numbered text format, (2) included copi-
3. debunking the myths of facies models ous number of color images of modern and
on high-density turbidities (Shanmugam, ancient examples in an atlas format, (3)
1996a,b, 2000), tsunamites (Shanmugam, offered solutions to lingering nomencla-
2006b), landslides (Shanmugam, 2015a), tural and conceptual problems, (4)
submarine fans (Shanmugam, 2016a), explained the practical implications of
contourites (Shanmugam, 2016b, 2017b), downslope and alongslope processes from
Preface xxv
a petroleum reservoir viewpoint, and (5) the orthodoxy versus empirical evidence
included an illustrated appendix on con- behind the “Bouma Sequence” by
cepts, glossary, and methodology and a Shanmugam (2020a). Thank you for your
video on experimental sandy debris flows. interest on this topic.
This book contains 540 case studies, 344 fig-
ures, 28 tables, and a Bibliography with
1,612 published works, which include 106 G. Shanmugam, Ph.D.
self-citations as first author and two video Email: shanshanmugam@aol.com
lectures, one on the beauty of the rocks August 21, 2020
by Mutti (2020) and the other on
Acknowledgments
xxvii
xxviii Acknowledgments
Iaakov Karcz. A flume study resulted in the Louvre Pyramid for the Musée du
my first paper on flume experiments Louvre in Paris, France.
published in the Proceedings of the 1992 2000: Mobil Technology
American Society of Civil Engineers Company, Dallas, Texas.
(ASCE), Journal of the Hydraulics Division
(Karcz and Shanmugam, 1974).
• I am thankful to my two fellow students Mobil Oil Corporation was extremely
G.L. Benedict and the late S.C. Ruppel for generous in granting me permission to
their help during my PhD research at the publish over 100 journal articles and 80
University of Tennessee (1974 78). Our abstracts. Several of the petroleum-related
publications include Shanmugam and case studies used in this book were for-
Benedict (1978) on fine-grained carbonate mally reviewed and approved for external
debris flows, Shanmugam and Benedict publication by Mobil management and
(1983) on Manganese distribution in partners (1978 2000). Those case studies
carbonate fractions, and Walker et al. that were published in peer-reviewed jour-
(1984) on a model for carbonate to nals and those that were presented at
terrigenous clastic sequences. national and international conferences are
the primary source of data on core and out-
crop, sandbody geometry, wireline logs,
seismic profiles, and measured porosity
Mobil research on mass transport, and permeability values used in this book.
gravity flows, and bottom currents I extend my sincere gratitude to Mobil
(1978 2000) Technology managers (1978 2000): the late
E.L. Jones, the late N.J. Guinzy, J.J. Wise,
My tenure with Mobil Oil Company M.P. Ramage, M.G. Bloomquist, E.C.
(1978 2000) is the primary source of data for Griffiths, S.J. Moncrieff, R.P. Nixon, the late
this book. However, my research at Mobil A.J. Koch, R.J. Moiola, D.M. Summers, S.E.
also included oil from coal in Australia and Sommer, M.A. Northam, G.K. Baker, and J.
New Zealand (Shanmugam, 1985c), porosity E. Krueger. I am thankful to Mobil Vice
enhancement beneath erosional unconformi- President P.E. Luttrell for her constant sup-
ties in the Prudhoe Bay reservoir, Alaska port of my studies on deep-water systems
(Shanmugam and Higgins, 1988), tide- and her enthusiasm for organizing deep-
dominated estuaries in Ecuador water sandstone workshops for Mobil affili-
(Shanmugam et al., 2000), among others. ates and partners. My special thanks to R.J.
• During my employment with Mobil Moiola, who guided my career in Mobil as
(1978 2000), I worked in three Mobil my manager, mentor, colleague, coauthor,
research facilities (Fig. 2 under "About and friend. I am grateful to D.W. Kirkland
the Author" section): who has been an inspiration throughout
1978 83: Mobil Field Research my career in Mobil. I thank Mobil collea-
Laboratory, Duncanville, Texas. gues J.E. Damuth, J.G. McPherson, S.B.
1983 92: Mobil Dallas Research Famakinwa, J.B. Wagner, R.D. Kreisa, J.W.
Laboratory, Farmers Branch, Texas. It Snedden, the late M.H. Link, P. Weimer, S.
is worth noting that this building was Gabay, J.F. Sarg, J.M. Armentrout, J.
designed by a world-renowned Helwig, J.K. Sales, and J.S. Wickham for
architect I.M. Pei who also designed stimulating discussions.
Acknowledgments xxix
I am grateful to L.J. Aucrermann, B.K. description of sediments and sedimentary
Bowlin, S. Limerick, J. Zeng, and D. Prose rocks during 1974 2011 period:
who assisted me under the Mobil intern pro- • United Kingdom: C.E. Shepard, C.F.
gram on deep-water systems. My special Stephens, P.H. Naylor, K.P. Dean, S.-J.
thanks to M.K. Lindsey, who drafted most of Kelland, J. Mathews, F. Longworth, A.
my illustrations, for his creativity and Turner, M. Slatford, G.W.J. Beamish,
patience. Mark Lindsey depicted my geo- S.M. Mitchell, and J.E. Damuth;
logic perspectives of hybrid flows beautifully • Norway: L.R. Lehtonen, T. Straume, S.
for my 1993 AAPG Bulletin article, which is E. Syevertsen, R.J. Hodgkinson, and R.
reproduced on this book cover. I thank A.F. J. Fife;
Long, N.D. Pine, J. Livermon, R. Gilcrese, C. • Nigeria: W.E. Hermance, B.J. Welton, J.
Branson, and A. Gonzales for drafting; S.A. O. Olaifa, and U. Ewherido;
Kizer and D.L. Miller for photography; N. • Equatorial Guinea: S.B. Famakinwa, W.
Houghton for petrography, B.J. Phillips, T.A. E. Hermance, and R.J. Hodgkinson;
Allison, F.B. Roof, and C.M. Wall for assis- • Gabon: T.D. Spalding, S.B. Famakinwa,
tance in the field and in laboratory work. I and E. Delbos;
am indebted to Iaakov Karcz who intro- • France: R.J. Moiola and R.B. Bloch;
duced me to flume experiments. I • Brazil: S.H. Gabay, A.E. Cunningham,
thank John Sales for developing experimen- W.B. Gardiner, D.O. Hurtubise, Celso
tal small-scale duplex structure in soft plas- Guirro, Paola Fontanelli, and the late
ter that was used in explaining the origin of Luiz Caddah;
sigmoidal deformation. I thank H.T. Mullins • Gulf of Mexico: G. Zimbrick, T.D.
for providing samples of calciclastic sandy Spalding, J. Fouts, J.M. Armentrout, K.
contourites from the northern Straits of Schindler, J. Caravella, T. Scott, R.D.
Florida. Kreisa, and D.H. Rofheart;
• California: C.A. Clayton and R.D.
Kreisa;
• For the first time, to understand • Arkansas and Oklahoma: R.J. Moiola, H.
mechanics of sandy debris flows and Jamieson, R. Edington, C. Knutson, D.
their deposits, a Mobil-funded Prose, T. Stolan, and M. Barrett;
experimental flume study was carried • Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory in
out at St. Anthony Falls Laboratory New York: J.E. Damuth and S.
(SAFL), University of Minnesota O’Connell for helping with the
(1996 98) under the direction of Prof. description of DSDP Leg 96 cores
G. Parker. Results were published in (Mississippi Fan);
two major articles (Shanmugam, • Ocean Drilling Program’s (ODP) Gulf
2000a,b; Marr et al., 2001). I am Coast Repository in College Station,
grateful to G. Parker, J.G. Marr, and P. Texas: J.E. Damuth for assistance with
A. Harff for impressive experimental core description at the Ida Green
runs of sandy debris flows and related Cruise cores (Gulf of Mexico);
discussions. • China: Examination of karst
• I am thankful to the following colleagues topography near Guilin and Li River
from Mobil Research and Development in understanding karst dissolution
Corporation, other companies, and and breccia formation (Shanmugam,
universities who were involved in the 2017d);
xxx Acknowledgments
• Ecuador: M. Poffenberger, and J. Toro I must thank Prof. Emiliano Mutti for
Alava on tide-dominated estuarine organizing a special field trip to the Eocene
facies; Hecho Group in the South-Central
• Australia: R.J. Gaulton on the Yallourn Pyrenees (Spain) in March 1981, as a con-
and Morwell open cut coal mines; sultant, for two Mobil geologists (R.J.
• New Zealand (North Island): R.A. Cook Moiola and G. Shanmugam). Every night at
and K. Robinson on modern Kauri dinner time, after a long, fruitful, and gru-
rain forests; eling day in the field, we would embark on
• Alaska: G. Zimbrick on fluvio-deltaic lively and often heated debates on deep-
facies of the Prudhoe Bay oil field; water sedimentation that would last until
• Azerbaijan: Government and academic the wee hours of the morning. These
personnel. debates were the root cause of my passion
for investigating the very foundation of the
I am deeply indebted to R.J. Moiola for his turbidite paradigm and submarine fans. As
support and collaboration with all my stud- a consequence, my first two critical papers
ies of submarine fans throughout my career on submarine fans were: (1) “Is the turbi-
with Mobil (1978 2000). My field experience, dite facies association scheme valid for
gained from studies of ancient submarine interpreting ancient submarine fan environ-
fans with R.J. Moiola (Spain, Italy, the ments?” (Shanmugam et al., 1985a) and (2)
Ouachita Mountains, and the Annot “Submarine fan models: problems and
Sandstone, SE France), with Garrett Briggs solutions” (Shanmugam and Moiola, 1985a,
(the Ouachita Mountains), with Kenneth b). Despite our professional feud, Emiliano
Walker (the Southern Appalachians, my PhD and I have exchanged cordial emails to this
work at the University of Tennessee, day. Mutti’s most recent communication
Knoxville, United States), and on modern was on November 17, 2019, by which he
submarine fans with J.E. Damuth at Lamont- sent me his recent reprint on Plumites
Doherty Earth Observatory (Mississippi Fan, (Mutti, 2019).
DSDP Leg 96 cores), has greatly enhanced I am grateful to J.E. Warme for organizing
my understanding of modern and ancient field trips to study deep-water deposits in
submarine fans. the San Diego area (La Jolla) in February
My sincere gratitude to the late Prof. 1980 for Mobil sedimentologists (R.J. Moiola
George Devries Klein, Emeritus Professor and G. Shanmugam). I also thank the late T.
at University of Illinois at Urbana- H. Nilsen for organizing a special field trip
Champaign, who served as the Editor of to study deep-water “turbidites” in
Earth-Science Reviews and who handled California in October 1992, as a consultant,
my first review article on submarine fans for a Mobil geologist (G. Shanmugam).
for the journal (Shanmugam and Moiola,
1988). His publications have been a great
source of inspiration for my research on
deep-water sedimentation. Tributes to Consultant research (2000 present)
Klein were published in a “Special Issue
dedicated to George Devries Klein by the 1. India (Reliance-core): S.K. Shrivastava, B.
Journal of the Indian Association of Das, M. Acharya, M. Chowdhury, M.
Sedimentologists (JIAS)” (Shanmugam, Santra, S.S. Roy, S. Gupta, A. Soman, S.
2018d). Sharma, R. Das, S. Mushnuri, A. Kumar,
Acknowledgments xxxi
and V. Yesudian for their assistance tsunami waves and who helped in digging
during core description (2004 08); trenches along the coast of Tamil Nadu to
2. India (Reliance-field and seismic): Our field study the effects of tsunami on coastal sedi-
investigation of Godavari estuary near mentation. I dedicate this paper to all those
Yanam and Antarvedi (Andhra Pradesh) who perished (over 265,000) in 15 countries
in August 2007 was assisted by S. in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.
Sharma and S.I. Arsalan, and of the In an attempt to trace the source of the
Kakinada Bay in January 2008 was genetic term “tsunamite,” I sought informa-
assisted by Sandeep Sharma, tion from many colleagues worldwide. I
Chakradhar Rao Basa, Jyoti Rout, Amit would like to thank the following who
Sinha, Sandeep Rawat, Hema Sharma, responded promptly to my email queries:
and Mahendra Thame. Sandeep Sharma G. Racki, J. Bourgeois, T. Shiki, M. Cita, B.
also assisted in our study of RMS Pratt, G. van den Bergh, K. Rodolfo, M.
amplitude maps; Simms, S. Barnett, J. Morrow, D. Stow, A.
3. India (Oil and Natural Gas Corporation): S. Hurst, D. Gorsline, and G. Klein.
Prabakaran; In publishing my paper “The tsunamite
4. India (Hardy): Ravi T. Venkatesawaran; problem” (Shanmugam, 2006b), I thank the
5. China [Research Institute of Petroleum JSR reviewers from Australia (Ron Boyd
Exploration and Development (RIPED) and Brian Jones), New Zealand (Scott
PetroChina]: Coining Zoo, Wang Land, Nichol), and the editorial crew from
Li Ying, Sonata Wu, and Xiamen Zhao Scotland (Colin North, Co-Editor), Canada
on deep-lacustrine facies (Zoo et al., (David Piper and Martin Gibling, Associate
2012). Editor), and the United States (John
Southard and Melissa Lester) for their com-
ments and help.
Tsunamite research (2004 present) I thank the late N. Swedaranyam, T.
Saraswathi (my sister), S. Thambidurai, and
My personal interest on tsunamis was S. Murugan for their assistance during my
accelerated by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsu- 2005 field study of coastal deposits of the
nami, which hit the coast of Tamil Nadu in 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami in Tamil
southeastern India on 26 December. My Nadu.
hometown (Sirkazhi), which is located In publishing my paper “Process-sedi-
about 12 km from the tsunami-devastated mentological challenges in distinguishing
coast, provided immediate shelter for tens paleo-tsunami deposits” (Shanmugam,
of thousands of tsunami victims. Color 2012b), I thank Guest Editor Arun Kumar
videos of the tsunami, shown on BBC and for inviting me to contribute this article. I
CNN Television from December 27, 2004 to wish to thank Journal Editor T. Murty for
January 5, 2005, were used for inferring his suggestions on content during early
flow transformation near the coasts (off- stages of manuscript preparation in 2009.
shore) of Thailand, India, and Sri Lanka. I My sincere thanks to two anonymous
am grateful to Brock Adam McCarty of reviewers for their detailed, critical, and
DigitalGlobe for granting permission to use helpful comments on the manuscript. I
an aerial image of Kalutara Beach in Sri am grateful to Cliff Frohlich, The
Lanka. I thank many local individuals who University of Texas at Austin, for provid-
narrated their eyewitness accounts of ing photographs of tsunami emplaced
xxxii Acknowledgments
therefore I would like to thank the Baruah, Ranjeeta Kar, Sarat Phukan, Pradip
following: Kumar Das, Manab Deka, and Tulika Dey
7. “Professor Virendra Kumar Srivastava”
1. Journal of Palaeogegraphy (JOPG)
by S.M. Casshyap and M. Raza
Prof. Zeng-Zhao Feng, Editor-in-
8. “Robert Louis Folk” by Kitty Milliken,
Chief, Beijing, China
Earle McBride, and Lynton Land
Dr. Yuan Wang, Editor, Beijing, China
9. “Robert Henry Dott, Jr. (June 2, 1929 to
Dr. Min Liu, Editor, Beijing, China
February 27, 2018)” by Marjorie A. Chan
Dr. Xiu-Fang Hu, Editor, Beijing,
and Steven G. Driese
China
2. Petroleum Exploration and Development
(PED)
Dr. Huaixian Xu, Executive Chief Photographs
Editor of Petroleum Exploration and
Development, Beijing, China I thank Tom Roorda, Roorda Aerial, Port
Dr. C. Zou, Editor, Beijing, China Angeles, Washington for aerial photo of
Jesse (Song Lichen), Deputy Director, Elwha sediment plume in the Strait of Juan
PED, Beijing, China de Fuca and Professor Emeritus R.D.
3. Journal of the Indian Association of Hatcher, Jr., Department of Earth and
Sedimentologists (JIAS) Planetary Sciences, The University of
Prof. Abhijit Basu, Indiana, United Tennessee, Knoxville, for outcrop photo of
States, Editors-in-Chief Prof. G.M. Bhat, SSDS from Israel. I thank John G.
Jammu University, India, Managing McPherson for providing aerial photo-
Editor graphs of Dart River braid delta from New
Dr. Bashir Ahmad Lone, Jammu Zealand, and for photographs of alluvial
University, India, Managing Editor fans from Death Valley, California.
1
Introduction
O U T L I N E
Who knew that satellite images of sediment plumes at river mouths that reveal plume
deflections by wind forcing away from the normal course of downslope sediment trans-
port could be useful in understanding deep-water sediment transport and provenance?
I did not until recently (Shanmugam, 2019d). Surprisingly, there are no other published
accounts of this important phenomenon. This raises fundamental questions about our
current knowledge and about the orthodoxy of studying deep-water sedimentation. In
this regard, the motivation behind this book is the necessity to go back to the basics on
gravity-driven processes and re-evaluate our current understanding of deep-water sedi-
mentation. In accomplishing this objective, I have used 540 case studies or datasets
worldwide. Some of the recent developments are the primary focus of this book, which
include mass-transport deposits (MTDs, Chapter 2: Mass Transport: Slides, Slumps, and
Debris Flows), gravity flows (Chapter 3: Gravity Flows: Debris Flows, Grain Flows,
Liquefied/Fluidized Flows, Turbidity Currents, Hyperpycnal Flows, and Contour
Currents), density plumes (Chapter 5: Density Plumes: Types, Deflections, and External
Controls), hyperpycnal flows (Chapter 6: Hyperpycnal Flows), bottom currents
(Chapter 8: Bottom Currents), and sediment deformation (Chapter 9: Soft-Sediment
Deformation Structures). Despite its history of over 135 years, since the first description
of density plumes in Swiss lakes (Forel, 1885), the domain of deep-water sedimentation
and related gravity-driven processes is still an evolving field. This book is a just a
momentary stopover in a long journey.
1.2 History
The domain of deep-water sedimentation has a long tradition of timely literature since
the 1930s (Kuenen, 1937, 1951; Bouma, 1962; Bouma and Brouwer, 1964; Middleton and
Hampton, 1973; Lowe, 1982; Cook and Enos, 1977; Stanley and Kelling, 1978; Doyle and
Pilkey, 1979; Stanley and Moore, 1983; Stow and Piper, 1984; Allen, 1985; Bouma et al., 1985;
Postma et al., 1988; Pickering et al., 1989; Mutti, 1992; Piper et al., 1997; Stow and Faugères,
1998; Shanmugam, 2006a,b, 2008a,b, 2012a,b,c, 2013a,b, 2014a, 2015a,b, 2016a,b,c, 2017a,b,c,d,
2018a,b,c,d,e,f, 2019a,b,c,d, 2020b; Rebesco and Camerlenghi, 2008; Kneller et al., 2009;
Mosher et al., 2010; Mulder, 2011; Pickering and Hiscott, 2015; Gordon, 2019; de Castro et
al., 2020; Fonnesu et al., 2020; Fuhrmann et al., 2020, Hüeneke et al., 2020, among many
others). However, there are still no published books focusing solely on downslope and
alongslope processes and deposits. This book is an attempt to fill this void. By design, this
volume is aimed at gathering and displaying the complex nature of processes and deposits.
Also, by design, this book does not offer new facies models. The purpose here is to erect a
firm foundation based strictly on empirical data, without the distractions of facies models.
In short, this book is taking inventory of what we know and what we do not know.
The most important part of this book is its strength derived from 540 universal case
studies. Images of most of these case studies are included. The following is a list of case
studies used.
Extraterrestrial
• Planet Mars 3 (Chapter 2: Mass Transport: Slides, Slumps, and Debris Flows and
Chapter 9: Soft-Sediment Deformation Structures)
• Planet Jupiter’s Moon Callisto 1 (Chapter 2: Mass Transport: Slides, Slumps, and Debris Flows)
• Dwarf Planet Ceres (Occator Crater) 1 (Chapter 2: Mass Transport: Slides, Slumps, and Debris Flows)
Terrestrial
• Earth: submarine MTD sites 29 (Chapter 2: Mass Transport: Slides, Slumps, and Debris Flows)
• Earth: subaerial MTD sites 22 (Chapter 2: Mass Transport: Slides, Slumps, and Debris Flows)
• Earth: lacustrine environments 17 (Chapter 2: Mass Transport: Slides, Slumps, and Debris Flows,
Chapter 5: Density Plumes: Types, Deflections, and External
Controls, Chapter 6: Hyperpycnal Flows, and Appendix A)
• Earth: sandy debris flows (experiment) 1 (Chapter 3: Gravity Flows: Debris Flows, Grain Flows, Liquefied/
Fluidized Flows, Turbidity Currents, Hyperpycnal Flows, and
Contour Currents)
1.5 Objectives
FIGURE 1.1 Generalized distribution of processes (horizontal arrows) in various sedimentary environments.
Note debris flows are considered under both ’mass transport’ and ’gravity flows’ categories. Also note that hyper-
pycnal flows, a type of gravity lows, is shown as a separate type because of its emphasis in this book (Chapter 6).
Additional labeles on processes and related arrows are added by G. Shanmugam. Credit: Principales medios sedi-
mentarios.svg. Wikipedia.
1.6 Organization
Research suggests that a consistent structure will become increasingly important as read-
ers search for content online. For this reason, I have organized each chapter in this book
with a consistent structure and content subheadings for each process or topic as follows:
1. definition
2. origins
3. identification
4. case studies
5. facies models
6. problems
7. synopsis
However, this organization may differ in some cases depending on availability of data
and publications.
1.8 Synopsis
This book is a one-stop knowledge source on deep-water processes and their deposits.
It is a compilation of empirical data on gravity-induced sediment movements in both
downslope and alongslope environments. A total of 540 case studies are used. Although
the primary focus is on deep-water settings, other environments covering terrestrial,
shallow-water, lacustrine, and extraterrestrial are considered. This book does not promote
genetic facies models because available data suggest that most processes are complex tran-
sitional and hybrid kinds rather than end-member types. There are no shortcut means (i.e.,
facies models) to interpreting deep-water processes. I am hopeful that this universal case
study based approach has the potential to minimize confusion and to enhance clarity on
gravity-driven processes.
2
Mass transport: slides, slumps,
and debris flows
O U T L I N E
Author: C. M. Kornbluth
Language: English
By C. M. Kornbluth
Making out his slip at the newspaper room he blandly put down next
to firm—The Griffin Press, Inc.—when he knew as well as I did that
he was a free lance and hadn't even got a definite assignment from
Griffin.
There's a line on the slip where you put down reason for consulting
files (please be specific). It's a shame to cramp Joe's style to just
one line after you pitch him an essay-type question like that. He
squeezed in, Preparation of article on year in biochemistry for Griffin
Pr. Encyc. 1952 Yrbk., and handed it with a flourish to the librarian.
The librarian, a nice old man, was polite to him, which is usually a
mistake with Joe. After he finished telling the librarian how his
microfilm files ought to be organized and how they ought to switch
from microfilm to microcard and how in spite of everything the New
York Public Library wasn't such a bad place to research, he got down
to work.
He's pretty harmless when he's working—it's one of the things that
keeps me from cutting his throat. With a noon break for apple pie
and coffee he transcribed about a hundred entries onto his cards,
mopping up the year in biochemistry nicely. He swaggered down the
library steps, feeling like Herman Melville after finishing Moby Dick.
"Don't be so smug," I told him. "You still have to write the piece. And
they still have to buy it."
"A detail," he said grandly. "Just journalism. I can do it with my eyes
shut."
Just journalism. Somehow his three months of running copy for the
A.P. before the war has made him an Ed Leahy.
"When are you going to do it with your eyes...?" I began but it wasn't
any use. He began telling me about how Gautama Buddha didn't
break with the world until he was 29 and Mohammed didn't
announce that he was a prophet until he was 30, so why couldn't he
one of these days suddenly bust loose with a new revelation or
something and set the world on its ear? What it boiled down to was
he didn't think he'd write the article tonight.
He postponed his break with the world long enough to have a ham
and cheese on rye and more coffee at an automat and then phoned
Maggie. She was available as usual. She said as usual, "Well then,
why don't you just drop by and we'll spend a quiet evening with some
records?"
As usual he thought that would be fine since he was so beat after a
hard day. As usual I told him, "You're a louse, Joe. You know all she
wants is a husband and you know it isn't going to be you, so why
don't you let go of the girl so she can find somebody who means
business?"
The usual answers rolled out automatically and we got that out of the
way.
Maybe Maggie isn't very bright but she seemed glad to see him.
She's shooting for her Doctorate in sociology at N.Y.U., she does
part-time case work for the city, she has one of those three-room
Greenwich Village apartments with dyed burlap drapes and studio
couches and home-made mobiles. She thinks writing is something
holy and Joe's careful not to tell her different.
They drank some rhine wine and seltzer while Joe talked about the
day's work as though he'd won the Nobel prize for biochemistry. He
got downright brutal about Maggie being mixed up in such an
approximate unquantitative excuse for a science as sociology and
she apologized humbly and eventually he forgave her. Big-hearted
Joe.
But he wasn't so fried that he had to start talking about a man
wanting to settle down—"not this year but maybe next. Thirty's a
dividing point that makes you stop and wonder what you really want
and what you've really got out of life, Maggie darlin'." It was as good
as telling her that she should be a good girl and continue to keep
open house for him and maybe some day ... maybe.
As I said, maybe Maggie isn't very bright. But as I also said,
Thursday was the day Joe picked to outdo himself.
"Joe," she said with this look on her face, "I got a new LP of the
Brahms Serenade Number One. It's on top of the stack. Would you
tell me what you think of it?"
So he put it on and they sat sipping rhine wine and seltzer and he
turned it over and they sat sipping rhine wine and seltzer until both
sides were played. And she kept watching him. Not adoringly.
"Well," she asked with this new look, "what did you think of it?"
He told her, of course. There was some comment on Brahms'
architectonics and his resurrection of the contrapuntal style. Because
he'd sneaked a look at the record's envelope he was able to spend a
couple of minutes on Brahms' debt to Haydn and the young
Beethoven in the fifth movement (allegro, D Major) and the gay
rondo of the—
"Joe," she said, not looking at him. "Joe," she said, "I got that record
at one hell of a discount down the street. It's a wrong pressing.
Somehow the first side is the first half of the Serenade but the
second half is Schumann's Symphonic Studies Opus Thirteen.
Somebody noticed it when they played it in a booth. But I guess you
didn't notice it."
"Get out of this one, braino," I told him.
He got up and said in a strangled voice, "And I thought you were my
friend. I suppose I'll never learn." He walked out.
I suppose he never will.
God help me, I ought to know.
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