Introduction to Engineering Fluid

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Introduction to Engineering
Fluid Mechanics
Introduction
to Engineering
Fluid Mechanics

Marcel Escudier

3
 3
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To my wife Agnes, our son Stephen, and the memory of my Mother
and Grandmother
Preface

A fluid is a material substance in the form of a liquid, a gas, or a vapour. The most common
examples, to be found in both everyday life and in engineering applications, are water, air, and
steam, the latter being the vapour form of water. The flow (i.e. motion) of fluids is essential to
the functioning of a wide range of machinery, including the internal-combustion engine, the
gas turbine (which includes the turbojet, turbofan, turboshaft, and turboprop engines), wind
and hydraulic turbines, pumps, compressors, rapidly rotating discs (as in computer drives),
aircraft, spacecraft, road vehicles, and marine craft. This book is concerned primarily with
Newtonian fluids, such as water and air, for which the viscosity is independent of the flow. The
quantitative understanding of fluid flow, termed fluid dynamics, is based upon the application
of Newton’s laws of motion together with the law of mass conservation. To analyse the flow
of a gas or a vapour, for which the density changes in response to pressure changes (known
as compressible fluids), it is also necessary to take into account the laws of thermodynamics,
particularly the first law in the form of the steady-flow energy equation. The subject of fluid
mechanics encompasses both fluid statics and fluid dynamics. Fluid statics concerns the vari-
ation of pressure in a fluid at rest (as will be seen in Chapter 4, this limitation needs to be stated
more precisely), and is the basis for a simple model of the earth’s atmosphere.
This text is aimed primarily at students studying for a degree in mechanical engineering
or any other branch of engineering where fluid mechanics is a core subject. Aeronautical (or
aerospace), chemical, and civil engineering are all disciplines where fluid mechanics plays an
essential rôle. That is not to say that fluid flow is of no significance in other areas, such as
biomedical engineering. The human body involves the flow of several different fluids, some
quite ordinary such as air in the respiratory system and water-like urine in the renal system.
Other fluids, like blood in the circulatory system, and synovial fluid, which lubricates the joints,
have complex non-Newtonian properties, as do many synthetic liquids such as paint, slurries,
and pastes. A brief introduction to the rheology and flow characteristics of non-Newtonian
liquids is given in Chapters 2, 15, and 16.
As indicated in the title, this text is intended to introduce the student to the subject of
fluid mechanics. It covers those topics normally encountered in a three-year mechanical-
engineering-degree course or the first and second years of a four-year mechanical-engineering-
degree course, as well as some topics covered in greater detail in the final years. The first ten
chapters cover material suitable for a first-year course or module in fluid mechanics. Com-
pressible flow, flow through axial-flow turbomachinery blading, internal viscous fluid flow,
laminar boundary layers, and turbulent flow are covered in the remaining eight chapters. There
are many other textbooks which cover a similar range of material as this text but often from
a much more mathematical point of view. Mathematics is essential to the analysis of fluid
flow but can be kept to a level within the capability of the majority of students, as is the in-
tention here where the emphasis is on understanding the basic physics. The analysis of many
viii PREFACE

flow situations rests upon a small number of basic equations which encapsulate the underly-
ing physics. Between these fundamental equations and the final results, which can be applied
directly to the solution of engineering problems, can be quite extensive mathematical manip-
ulation and it is all too easy to lose sight of the final aim. A basic understanding of vectors is
required but not of vector analysis. Tensor notation and analysis is also not required and the
use of calculus is kept to a minimum.
The approach to certain topics may be unfamiliar to some lecturers. A prime example is di-
mensional analysis, which we suggest is approached using the mathematically simple method
of sequential elimination of dimensions (Ipsen’s method). The author believes that this tech-
nique has clear pedagogical advantages over the more widely used Rayleigh’s exponent method,
which can easily leave the student with the mistaken (and potentially dangerous) idea that any
physical process can be represented by a simple power-law formula. The importance of dimen-
sions and dimensional analysis is stressed throughout the book. The author has also found that
the development of the linear momentum equation described in Chapter 9 is more straightfor-
ward to present to students than it is via Reynolds transport theorem. The approach adopted
here shows very clearly the relationship with the familiar F = ma form of Newton’s second
law of motion and avoids the need to introduce an entirely new concept which is ultimately
only a stepping stone to the end result. The treatment of compressible flow is also subtly dif-
ferent from most texts in that, for the most part, equations are developed in integral rather
than differential form. The analysis of turbomachinery is limited to flow through the blading
of axial-flow machines and relies heavily on Chapters 3, 10, and 11.
‘Why do we need a fluid mechanics textbook containing lots of equations and algebra, given
that computer software packages, such as FLUENT and PHOENICS, are now available which
can perform very accurate calculations for a wide range of flow situations?’ To answer this
question we need first to consider what is meant by accurate in this context. The description of
any physical process or situation has to be in terms of equations. In the case of fluid mechanics,
the full set of governing equations is extremely complex (non-linear, partial differential equa-
tions called the Navier-Stokes equations) and to solve practical problems we deal either with
simplified, or approximate, equations. Typical assumptions are that all fluid properties remain
constant, that viscosity (the essential property which identifies any material as being a fluid)
plays no role, that the flow is steady (i.e. there are no changes with time at any given location
within the fluid), or that fluid and flow properties vary only in the direction of flow (so-called
one-dimensional flow). The derivation of the Navier-Stokes equations, and the accompanying
continuity equation, is the subject of Chapter 15. Exact analytical solution of these equations
is possible only for a handful of highly simplified, idealised situations, often far removed from
the real world of engineering. Although these solutions are certainly mathematically accur-
ate, due to the simplifications on which the equations are based they cannot be said to be an
accurate representation of physical reality. Even numerical solutions, however numerically ac-
curate, are often based upon simplified versions of the Navier-Stokes equations. In the case
of turbulent flow, the topic of Chapter 18, calculations of practical interest are based upon
approximate equations which attempt to model the correlations which arise when the Navier-
Stokes equations are time averaged. It is remarkable that valuable information about practical
engineering problems can be obtained from considerations of simplified equations, such as the
 PREFACE ix

one-dimensional equations, at minimal cost in terms of both time and money. What is essen-
tial, however, is a good physical understanding of basic fluid mechanics and a knowledge of
what any computer software should be based upon. It is the aim of this text to provide just that.
Already in this brief Preface the names Navier, Newton, Rayleigh, Reynolds, and Stokes
have appeared. In Appendix 1 we provide basic biographical information about each of the
scientists and engineers whose names appear in this book and indicate their contributions to
fluid mechanics.
Acknowledgements

The author gratefully acknowledges the influence of several outstanding teachers, both as a
student at Imperial College London and subsequently as a Research Associate at the Massachu-
setts Institute of Technology. My interest in, and enjoyment of, fluid mechanics was sparked
when I was an undergraduate by the inspiring teaching of Robert Taylor. Brian Spalding, my
PhD supervisor, and Brian Launder are not only internationally recognised for their research
contributions but were also excellent communicators and teachers from whom I benefitted
as a postgraduate student. As a research associate at MIT I attended lectures and seminars
by Ascher H. Shapiro, James A. Fay, Ronald F. Probstein, and Erik Mollo-Christensen, all in-
spiring teachers. Finally, my friend Fernando Tavares de Pinho has given freely of his time to
answer with insight many questions which have arisen in the course of writing this book.

Marcel Escudier
Cheshire, August 2016
Contents

Notation xxi

1 Introduction 1

1.1 What are fluids and what is fluid mechanics? 7

1.2 Fluid mechanics in nature 9
1.3 External flows 11
1.4 Internal flows 13
1.5 SUMMARY 16

2 Fluids and fluid properties 17

2.1 Fluids and solids 17

2.2 Fluid density ρ 20
2.3 Atoms, molecules, and moles 22
2.4 Perfect-gas law 22
2.5 Continuum hypothesis and molecular mean free path 24
2.6 Equation of state for liquids 28
2.7 Specific volume v, relative density σ , and specific weight w 29
2.8 Dynamic viscosity (viscosity) μ 30
2.9 Kinematic viscosity ν 35
2.10 Non-Newtonian liquids 35
2.11 Bulk modulus of elasticity K and compressibility 37
2.12 Speed of sound c 39
2.13 Vapour pressure pV , boiling, and cavitation 40
2.14 Surface tension σ and contact angle θ 42
2.15 SUMMARY 45
2.16 SELF-ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS 46
xiv CONTENTS

3 Units of measurement, dimensions, and dimensional

analysis 47

3.1 Units of measurement 47

3.2 The International System of Units (SI) 49
3.3 Dimensions 50
3.4 Combining dimensions and combining units 51
3.5 The principle of dimensional consistency (or homogeneity) 53
3.6 Dimensional versus non-dimensional representation 55
3.7 Buckingham’s  (pi) theorem 57
3.8 Sequential elimination of dimensions (Ipsen’s method) 58
3.9 Rayleigh’s exponent method 64
3.10 Inspection method 66
3.11 Role of units in dimensional analysis 66
3.12 Special non-dimensional groups 68
3.13 Non-dimensional groups as force ratios 74
3.14 Similarity and scaling 75
3.15 Scaling complications 79
3.16 Other Reynolds-number considerations 81
3.17 SUMMARY 82
3.18 SELF-ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS 83

4 Pressure variation in a fluid at rest (hydrostatics) 87

4.1 Pressure at a point: Pascal’s law 87

4.2 Pressure variation in a fluid at rest; the hydrostatic equation 89
4.3 Pressure variation in a constant-density fluid at rest 91
4.4 Basic pressure measurement 93
4.5 Mercury barometer 93
4.6 Piezometer tube 95
4.7 U-tube manometer 96
4.8 Effect of surface tension 100
4.9 Inclined-tube manometer 101
4.10 Multiple fluid layers 105
4.11 Variable-density fluid; stability 107
4.12 Deep oceans 108
4.13 Earth’s atmosphere 108
 CONTENTS xv

4.14 Pressure variation in an accelerating fluid 116

4.15 SUMMARY 118
4.16 SELF-ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS 119

5 Hydrostatic force exerted on a submerged surface 124

5.1 Resultant force on a body due to uniform surface pressure 124

5.2 Vertical component of the hydrostatic force acting on a submerged
surface 126
5.3 Archimedes’ principle and buoyancy force on a submerged body 133
5.4 Hydrostatic force acting on a submerged vertical flat plate 137
5.5 Hydrostatic force acting on a submerged curved surface 143
5.6 Stability of a fully-submerged body 147
5.7 Stability of a freely floating body and metacentric height 148
5.8 SUMMARY 154
5.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS 154

6 Kinematic description of fluids in motion

and approximations 161

6.1 Fluid particles 161

6.2 Steady-flow assumption 162
6.3 Pathlines, streamlines, streamsurfaces, and streamtubes 162
6.4 No-slip condition and the boundary layer 163
6.5 Single-phase flow 164
6.6 Isothermal, incompressible, and adiabatic flow 164
6.7 One-dimensional flow 165
6.8 One-dimensional continuity equation (mass-conservation equation) 166
6.9 Average flow velocity V 170
6.10 Flow of a constant-density fluid 171
6.11 SUMMARY 172
6.12 SELF-ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS 172

7 Bernoulli’s equation 174

7.1 Net force on an elemental slice of fluid flowing through a streamtube 174
7.2 Acceleration of a fluid slice 176
7.3 Euler’s equation 178
xvi CONTENTS

7.4 Bernoulli’s equation 178

7.5 Interpretations of Bernoulli’s equation 180
7.6 Pressure loss versus pressure difference 184
7.7 SUMMARY 185
7.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS 186

8 Engineering applications of Bernoulli’s equation 187

8.1 Wind-tunnel contraction 187

8.2 Venturi-tube flowmeter 188
8.3 Venturi-tube design and the coefficient of discharge CD 190
8.4 Other Venturi-tube applications 193
8.5 Orifice-plate flowmeter 195
8.6 Other differential-pressure inline flowmeters 198
8.7 Formula One racing car 198
8.8 Pitot tube 201
8.9 Pitot-static tube 203
8.10 Liquid draining from a tank 204
8.11 Cavitation in liquid flows 209
8.12 SUMMARY 211
8.13 SELF-ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS 212

9 Linear momentum equation and hydrodynamic forces 215

9.1 Problem under consideration 215

9.2 Basic linear momentum equation 217
9.3 Fluid-structure interaction force 221
9.4 Hydrodynamic reaction force 223
9.5 SUMMARY 226
9.6 SELF-ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS 226

10 Engineering applications of the linear momentum

equation 228

10.1 Force required to restrain a convergent nozzle 228

10.2 Rocket-engine thrust 231
10.3 Turbojet-engine thrust 234
10.4 Turbofan-engine thrust 239
 CONTENTS xvii

10.5 Flow through a sudden enlargement 241

10.6 Jet pump (or ejector or injector) 245
10.7 Reaction force on a pipe bend 252
10.8 Reaction force on a pipe junction 257
10.9 Flow through a linear cascade of guidevanes 259
10.10 Free jet impinging on an inclined flat surface 263
10.11 Pelton impulse hydraulic turbine 266
10.12 SUMMARY 269
10.13 SELF-ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS 270

11 Compressible fluid flow 275

11.1 Introductory remarks 275

11.2 Thermodynamics 275
11.3 Bernoulli’s equation and other relations for compressible-gas flow 279
11.4 Subsonic flow and supersonic flow 281
11.5 Mach wave and Mach angle 281
11.6 Steady, one-dimensional, isentropic, perfect-gas flow through
a gradually convergent duct 283
11.7 Steady, one-dimensional, isentropic, perfect-gas flow through a
convergent-divergent nozzle 287
11.8 Normal shockwaves 296
11.9 Perfectly expanded, underexpanded, and overexpanded nozzle flow 307
11.10 SUMMARY 309
11.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS 309

12 Oblique shockwaves and expansion fans 311

12.1 Oblique shockwaves 311

12.2 Prandtl-Meyer expansion fan (centred expansion fan) 317
12.3 Supersonic aerofoils and shock-expansion theory 321
12.4 SUMMARY 327
12.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS 328

13 Compressible pipe flow 330

13.1 Basic equations 330

13.2 Adiabatic pipe flow with wall friction: Fanno flow 332
xviii CONTENTS

13.3 Isothermal pipe flow with wall friction 347

13.4 Frictionless pipe flow with heat addition or extraction: Rayleigh flow 353
13.5 SUMMARY 360
13.6 SELF-ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS 360

14 Flow through axial-flow-turbomachinery blading 362

14.1 Turbomachinery (general) 362

14.2 Dimensional analysis and basic non-dimensional parameters 363
14.3 Linear blade cascade: Geometry and notation 367
14.4 Incompressible flow through a linear cascade 369
14.5 Compressible flow through a linear cascade 372
14.6 Rotor-flow velocity triangles 377
14.7 Euler’s turbomachinery equation for an axial-flow rotor 378
14.8 Compressible flow through an axial turbomachine stage 381
14.9 Degree of reaction Λ 385
14.10 SUMMARY 388
14.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS 389

15 Basic equations of viscous-fluid flow 391

15.1 Equations of motion in Cartesian-coordinate form 391

15.2 Equations of motion in cylindrical-coordinate form 401
15.3 Boundary conditions 405
15.4 Non-dimensional form of the Navier-Stokes and continuity equations 405
15.5 Flow of a generalised Newtonian fluid 406
15.6 SUMMARY 409

16 Internal laminar flow 410

16.1 General remarks 410

16.2 Poiseuille flow of a Newtonian fluid, hydraulic diameter, and Poiseuille
number 412
16.3 Poiseuille flow through an axisymmetric cylindrical duct 416
16.4 Combined plane Couette and Poiseuille flow between infinite
parallel plates: Couette-Poiseuille flow 421
16.5 Taylor-Couette flow 427
16.6 Poiseuille flow of generalised Newtonian fluids between
infinite parallel plates 431
 CONTENTS xix

16.7 Viscometer equations 438

16.8 SUMMARY 442
16.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS 443

17 Laminar boundary layers 445

17.1 Introductory remarks 445

17.2 Two-dimensional laminar boundary-layer equations 447
17.3 Flat-plate laminar boundary layer: Blasius’ solution 451
17.4 Wedge-flow laminar boundary layers: Falkner and Skan’s equation 461
17.5 von Kármán’s momentum-integral equation 468
17.6 Profile methods of solution 473
17.7 Aerofoil lift in subsonic flow 484
17.8 SUMMARY 487
17.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS 488

18 Turbulent flow 490

18.1 Transitional and turbulent flow 490

18.2 Reynolds decomposition, Reynolds averaging, and Reynolds stresses 491
18.3 Turbulent-kinetic-energy equation and Reynolds-stress equation 494
18.4 Turbulence scales 496
18.5 Turbulence modelling 498
18.6 Two-dimensional turbulent boundary layers and Couette flow 499
18.7 Plane turbulent Couette flow and the Law of the Wall 499
18.8 Fully-developed turbulent flow through a smooth circular pipe 506
18.9 Surface roughness 508
18.10 Fully-developed turbulent flow through a rough-surface circular pipe 509
18.11 Minor losses in pipe systems 511
18.12 Momentum-integral equation 517
18.13 Flat-plate boundary layer 518
18.14 Boundary layers with streamwise pressure gradient 525
18.15 Bluff-body drag 526
18.16 SUMMARY 531
18.17 SELF-ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS 532
xx CONTENTS

Appendix 1 Principal contributors to fluid mechanics 535

Appendix 2 Physical properties of selected gases and liquids, and other data 545
Appendix 3 Areas, centroid locations, and second moments of area
for some common shapes 553
Appendix 4 Differential equations for compressible pipe flow 556
Appendix 5 Roughness heights 562
Bibliography 563
Index 567
Notation

Each Roman, Greek, and mathematical symbol is followed by its meaning, its SI unit, and its
dimension(s).

Lower-case Roman symbols

a acceleration m/s2 L/T2

c blade chord length m L
c concentration kg/m3 M/L3
c soundspeed m/s L/T
c wetted perimeter m L
cf skin-friction coefficient – –
c0 speed of light in vacuum m/s L/T
d diameter m L
e energy J ML2 /T2
ėxx extensional strain rate in x-direction 1/s 1/T
f non-dimensional velocity – –
fx body force per unit mass acting in the x-direction m/s2 L/T2
fD Darcy friction factor – –
fF Fanning friction factor – –
fF average Fanning friction factor – –
g acceleration due to gravity m/s2 L/T2
g0 acceleration due to gravity at sea level (z = z = 0) m/s2 L/T2
h height m L
h spacing of parallel plates m L
h specific enthalpy kJ/kg L2 /T2
h0 specific stagnation enthalpy kJ/kg L2 /T2
h0,REL relative stagnation enthalpy kJ/kg L2 /T2
i angle of incidence ◦ or rad –
j number of independent dimensions – –
k number of non-dimensional groups – –
k radius of gyration m L
k specific turbulent kinetic energy m2 /s2 L2 /T2
k time-averaged specific turbulent kinetic energy m2 /s2 L2 /T2
kB Boltzmann constant J/K ML2 /T2 K
l length m L
lK Kolmogorov length scale m L
lM mixing length m L
xxii NOTATION

m mass kg M
m wedge-flow exponent – –
mA added mass kg M
ṁ mass flowrate kg/s M/T
n amount of substance kmol M
n number of physical quantities – –
n power-law exponent in power-law viscosity model – –
p static pressure Pa M/LT2
pG gauge pressure Pa M/LT2
pH hydrostatic pressure Pa M/LT2
pREF reference pressure Pa M/LT2
pT total pressure Pa M/LT2
pV vapour pressure Pa M/LT2
p0 stagnation pressure Pa M/LT2
p0,REL relative stagnation pressure Pa M/LT2
p average static pressure Pa M/LT2
p fluctuating component of static pressure Pa M/LT2
p intermediate static pressure Pa M/LT2
p∗ non-dimensional static pressure – –
q̇ heat transfer rate W ML2 /T3
q̇ heat transfer rate per unit length W/L ML/T3
r radial distance m L
s arc length m L
s cascade-blade spacing (or pitch) m L
s distance along a streamline m L
s specific entropy m2 /s2 · K L2 /T2 θ
s0 specific stagnation entropy m2 /s2 · K L2 /T2 θ
t elapsed time s T
t temperature ◦C θ
t̃ non-dimensional time – –
t∗ non-dimensional time – –
u specific internal energy kJ/kg L2 /T2
u velocity component in x-direction m/s L/T
u time-averaged value of velocity component u m/s L/T
u fluctuating component of velocity component u m/s L/T
u∗ non-dimensional value of velocity component u – –
u+ velocity component u normalised by uτ – –
uP velocity of plastic plug m/s L/T
u0 centreline velocity m/s L/T
uτ friction velocity m/s L/T
v specific volume m3 /kg L3 /M
v velocity component in y- or r-direction m/s L/T
v time-averaged value of velocity component v m/s L/T
 NOTATION xxiii

v fluctuating component of velocity component v m/s L/T

v+ velocity component v normalised by uτ – –
vK Kolmogorov velocity scale m/s L/T
w specific weight N/m3 M/L2 T2
w velocity component in z- or θ-direction m/s L/T
w time-averaged value of velocity component w m/s L/T
w fluctuating component of velocity component w m/s L/T
w+ velocity component w normalised by uτ – –
x distance along or parallel to a surface/streamwise distance m L
X length m L
y distance normal to a surface m L
y+ distance y normalised by uτ and ν – –
z blade height (or length) m L
z depth (i.e. distance measured vertically downwards) m L
z height (i.e. distance measured vertically upwards) m L
z geometric altitude m L
zG geopotential altitude m L
zC depth of centroid m L
zP depth of centre of pressure m L

Upper-case Roman symbols

A cross-sectional area m2 L2
A surface area m2 L2
A∗ choking (or sonic) area m2 L2
AE nozzle exit area m2 L2
AT nozzle throat area m2 L2
B barometric (or atmospheric) pressure or external pressure bar M/LT2
B log-law constant – –
Bi Bingham number – –
CD coefficient of discharge – –
CD drag coefficient – –
CF average friction factor – –
CL lift coefficient – –
CP pressure coefficient – –
CP specific heat at constant pressure m2 /s2 · K L2 /T2 θ
CV specific heat at constant volume m2 /s2 · K L2 /T2 θ
D diameter m L
D drag (or drag force) N ML/T2
D mean diameter m L
DH hydraulic diameter m L
DT nozzle throat diameter m L
D drag force per unit length of surface N/m M/T2
xxiv NOTATION

E energy released J ML2 /T2

E Young’s modulus Pa M/LT2
Eu Euler number – –
F force N ML/T2
F non-dimensional stream function – –
FB buoyancy force N ML/T2
Fθ function in Thwaites’ method – –
Fr Froude number – –
G mass velocity kg/m2 · s M/L2 T
G shear modulus (fluid) Pa M/LT2
G modulus of rigidity (solid) Pa M/LT2
H height or depth m L
H horizontal component of force N ML/T2
H boundary-layer shape factor – –
He Hedstrom number – –
H12 boundary-layer shape factor – –
I second moment of area m4 L4
IC second moment of area about an axis through the m4 L4
area’s centroid
Ixy product of inertia m4 L4
K bulk modulus of elasticity Pa M/LT2
K consistency index in power-law viscosity model Pa · sn M/LT2–n
K loss coefficient – –
K turbomachine stagnation-pressure loss coefficient – –
Kn Knudsen number – –
1/K compressibility 1/Pa LT2 /M
L length m L
L lift (or lift force) N ML/T2
L∗ choking length m L
M Mach number – –
M molar mass kg/kmol –
M momentum kg · m/s ML/T
M molecular weight kg/kmol –
MREL relative Mach number – –
Ṁ momentum flowrate kg · m/s2 ML/T2
Ṁ  momentum flowrate per unit width of duct kg/s2 M/T2
MG metacentric height m L
N molecular number density 1/m3 1/L3
N number of molecules – –
N rotational speed rps 1/T
NA Avogadro number 1/kmol 1/M
NP turbomachine power-specific speed – –
NS turbomachine specific speed – –
P piezometric pressure Pa M/LT2
 NOTATION xxv

P power W ML2 /T3

Po Poiseuille number – –
Pr Prandtl number – –
Q̇ volumetric flowrate m3 /s L3 /T
Q̇ volumetric flowrate per unit width m2 /s L2 /T
R radius m L
R reaction force N ML/T2
R resultant force N ML/T2
R specific gas constant m2 /s2 ·K L2 /T2 θ
RE mean radius of the earth m L
RH hydraulic radius m L
RI inner radius of annulus m L
RO outer radius of annulus m L
R molar gas constant (universal gas constant) kJ/kmol · K L2 /T2 θ
Re Reynolds number – –
Rex Reynolds number based upon length x – –
Reδ Reynolds number based upon length δ – –
ReC critical Reynolds number – –
ReD Reynolds number based upon pipe diameter – –
ReH Reynolds number based upon hydraulic diameter – –
Rep Reynolds number based upon plastic viscosity
S fluid-structure interaction force N ML/T2
St Strouhal number – –
T absolute temperature K θ
T skin-friction coefficient = θ τS /μU∞ – –
T surface-tension force N ML/T2
T thrust (or thrust force) N ML/T2
T time interval s T
T torque N·m ML2 /T2
T0 stagnation (or total) temperature K θ
T0,REL relative stagnation temperature K θ
Ta Taylor number – –
U free-stream velocity m/s L/T
U0 scaling velocity m/s L/T
U∞ free-stream velocity m/s L/T
V velocity m/s L/T
V vertical component of force N ML/T2
VB buoyancy force N ML/T2
VD vertically downwards force N ML/T2
VU vertically upwards force N ML/T2
V∞ terminal velocity m/s L/T
V average (bulk-mean) velocity m/s L/T
∼
V non-dimensional velocity – –
+
V average velocity V normalised by uτ – –
xxvi NOTATION

V volume m3 L3
VC critical volume for validity of continuum hypothesis m3 L3
VD displaced volume m3 L3
VS submerged volume m3 L3
V∞ y-direction velocity at edge of boundary layer m/s L/T
W relative velocity m/s L/T
W weight N ML/T2
W width m L
W work J ML2 /T2
Ẇ rate of work input (power input) W ML2 /T3
We Weber number – –
X length m L
Y boundary-layer thickness m L
Y surface tension N/m M/T2
Z depth of liquid m L

Lower-case Greek symbols (English word in parentheses)

α (alpha) angle of attack ◦ or rad –

α absolute flow angle ◦ or rad –
α conical gap angle ◦ or rad –
α non-dimensional constant in Blasius’ equation – –
α constant in shock-structure analysis m2 /s L2 /T
β (beta) oblique shock angle ◦ or rad –
β relative-flow angle ◦ or rad –
β wedge angle ◦ or rad –
γ (gamma) ratio of specific heats – –
γ̇ shear rate 1/s 1/T
γ̇xy shear rate corresponding to τxy 1/s 1/T
δ (delta) angle of deflection or deviation ◦ or rad –
δ boundary-layer thickness m L
δ radial gap width m L
δA element of area m2 L2
δF element of force N ML/T2
δh infinitesimal height difference m L
δH element of horizontal force N ML/T2
δm element of mass kg M
δp infinitesimal change or difference in pressure Pa M/LT2
δs infinitesimal change of distance m L
δt infinitesimal change in time s T
δV element of vertical force N ML/T2
δV element of volume m3 L3
 NOTATION xxvii

δW element of weight N ML/T2

δx element of streamwise or x-direction distance m L
δy element of distance normal to a surface or y-direction m L
distance
δz element of depth or z-direction distance m L
δz element of height m L
δ∗ boundary-layer displacement thickness m L
δSUB thickness of viscous sublayer m L
δ1 boundary-layer displacement thickness m L
δ2 boundary-layer momentum-deficit thickness m L
(epsilon) turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rate m2 /s3 L2 /T3
upwash or downwash angle ◦ or rad –
ε (epsilon) eccentricity m L
ε non-dimensional annular gap with – –
ε surface-roughness height m L
ε+ surface-roughness height normalised by uτ and ν – –
η (eta) dynamic viscosity Pa · s M/LT
η boundary-layer similarity variable – –
θ (theta) angle ◦ or rad –
θ boundary-layer momentum-deficit thickness m L
θ contact angle ◦ –
θ turning angle ◦ –
θ̇ angular velocity rad/s 1/T
θ̈ angular acceleration rad/s2 1/T2
κ (kappa) lapse rate K/m θ /L
κ von Kármán’s constant – –
κ wavenumber 1/m 1/L
λ (lamda) time constant s T
λ pressure-gradient parameter – –
λ Pohlhausen’s pressure-gradient parameter – –
λ wavelength of turbulence m L
λP Poiseuille-flow pressure-gradient parameter – –
λθ boundary-layer pressure-gradient parameter – –
μ (mu) dynamic viscosity Pa · s M/LT
μ Mach angle ◦ or rad –
μEFF effective viscosity Pa · s M/LT
μP viscosity of plastic plug Pa · s M/LT
μT eddy viscosity Pa · s M/LT
μ∞ infinite-shear-rate viscosity Pa · s M/LT
ν (nu) kinematic viscosity m2 /s L2 /T
ν Prandtl-Meyer function ◦ –
νT kinematic eddy viscosity m2 /s L2 /T
xxviii NOTATION

ξ (xi) blade stagger angle ◦ or rad –

ξ non-dimensional distance – –
ξ turbomachine enthalpy-loss coefficient – –
ξP non-dimensional radius of plastic plug – –
ρ (rho) density kg/m3 M/L3
σ (sigma) density ratio – –
σ relative density – –
σ surface tension N/m M/T2
σxx normal stress in x-direction Pa M/LT2
τ (tau) characteristic time s T
τ shear stress Pa M/LT2
τK Kolmogorov time scale s T
τS surface shear stress Pa M/LT2
τS average surface shear stress Pa M/LT2
τY yield stress Pa M/LT2
τxy shear stress acting in y-direction Pa M/LT2
φ (phi) angle ◦ or rad –
φ blade camber angle ◦ or rad –
φ turbomachine flow coefficient – –
χ (chi) blade angle ◦ or rad –
χ boundary-layer scale factor – –
ψ (psi) stream function 1/s 1/T
ψ hydraulic machine pressure-change coefficient – –
ω (omega) angular velocity rad/s 1/T

Upper-case Greek symbols

Γ (gamma) circulation m2 /s L2 /T
Γ lapse rate ◦ C/km θ /L
ΓAD adiabatic lapse rate ◦ C/km θ /L
 (delta) finite change or difference – –
 scaling length m L
S shock thickness m L
p finite pressure difference Pa M/LT2
p0 reduction in stagnation pressure Pa M/LT2
Z finite depth difference m L
ρ density difference kg/m3 M/L3
Θ (theta) dilation 1/s 1/T
Θ̃ ratio θ /δ, where θ = boundary-layer – –
momentum-deficit thickness
Λ (lamda) degree of reaction – –
Λ molecular mean free path m L
 (pi) non-dimensional group – –
Π shock strength – –
Another random document with
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banished after it had been put in force went away and made no
attempt to come back; but in June 1659 four who were more resolute
and determined appeared in Boston with the avowed intention of
defying the law. They were William Robinson, Marmaduke
Stevenson, Nicholas Davis, and Mary Dyer. They were arrested and
sentenced to banishment (September 12th), with the threat that they
should suffer death if they remained or returned to the colony.
Nicholas Davis and Mary Dyer “found freedom to depart; but the
other two were constrained in the love and power of the Lord not to
depart, but to stay in the jurisdiction, and to try the bloody law unto
20
death.” They withdrew to the New Hampshire settlements, but in
about four weeks returned to Boston prepared to die, and were
joined there by Mary Dyer, who had decided to share their fate. They
were arraigned before the General Court, which was then in session,
and admitting that they were the persons banished by the last Court
of Assistants, were sentenced to be hanged in a week from that time
21
(October 19th). The authorities evidently were afraid of popular
sympathy, for they gave orders for a military guard of one hundred
men to conduct them to the gallows, while another military force was
charged to watch the rest of the town, and the selectmen were
instructed to “press ten or twelve able and faithful persons every
night to watch the town and guard the prison.”
Neither side would yield: the Quakers had come back with the
declared purpose of dying for their faith and for the principle of
religious liberty; the authorities did not dare to withdraw from the
position in which they had rashly placed themselves, and the leaders
do not seem to have had any desire to do so. They felt that the
question of their authority was at stake, and that if they yielded their
power over the people would be gone. They were willing to claim for
themselves and their institutions the protection of the laws of
England, but they would not admit any appeal to those laws when
they conflicted with the colonial regulations. They claimed to own the
colony in full sovereignty, in virtue of their charter on the one hand
and their deeds from the Indians on the other, and they argued that
they had the same right to exclude obnoxious and dangerous
persons, and to destroy them if they persistently thrust themselves
upon them, that a householder has of resisting a burglar, or a
shepherd of killing the wolves that break into his sheepfold.
It is a great mistake to say that they had come to the colony from
a zeal for religious liberty. What they had come for was to be in a
place where they could order religious affairs to suit themselves. As
Besse, the Quaker historian, shrewdly remarks: “They appear not so
inconsistent with themselves as some have thought, because when
under oppression they pleaded for liberty of conscience, they
understood it not as the natural and common right of all mankind, but
22
as a peculiar privilege of the orthodox.”
The tragedy was performed on the twenty-seventh day of
October 1659; the prisoners, walking hand in hand, were brought to
the gallows by the soldiers. They were insulted in their last moments
by the bigoted Wilson, and when they tried to address the people
their voices were drowned by the beating of the drums. Robinson
and Stevenson died bravely, and Mary Dyer mounted the ladder to
meet her fate; her skirts were tied, the rope was about her neck, and
she was on the point of being “turned off,” when she was released by
the magistrates in consideration of the intercession of her son, who
had come up from Rhode Island to try to save his mother’s life. She
unwillingly accepted the grudging gift, and went back to Rhode
23
Island.
The popular feeling was so strong against the magistrates for
their severity, that they thought it best to put forth a declaration, in
which they argued that their proceedings were justified by the law of
self-defence, and by the precedent of the English laws against the
Jesuits; and they calmly stated that what they had done was only to
present the point of their sword in their own defence, that the
Quakers who had rushed upon it had become “felons de se,” and
that their former proceedings and their mercy to Mary Dyer upon the
“inconsiderable intercession” of her son “manifestly evinced that they
24
desired their lives absent rather than their death present.”
The bodies of the unfortunate men were treated with indecent
brutality, and were buried naked beneath the gallows. Mrs. Dyer
remained away for six months, and then the spirit moved her to
return once more and die. Her husband wrote to Endicott to beg her
life, but without avail. No mercy could be shown her as long as she
defied the law. It is said that her life was offered her if she would
promise to keep out of the colony henceforth, but she declined to
25
receive the favor. “In obedience to the will of the Lord I came,” said
she, “and in his will I abide faithful to the death.”
Meanwhile the prisons and the house of correction had been the
fate of other delinquents, and the jailer and executioner had had
plenty of employment with the scourge. The Southwicks, with their
eldest son Josiah, were whipped, fined, and imprisoned for
withdrawing from the public services and worshipping by
themselves, and their two younger children were ordered to be sold
26
as slaves to the West Indies in satisfaction of the fines imposed.
W. Shattuck was whipped, fined, and imprisoned. Sarah Gibbons
and Dorothy Waugh were whipped. Hored Gardner, a woman with a
sucking babe, and a young girl who came into the colony with her,
were scourged with the “three-fold knotted whip, and during her
tortures she prayed for her persecutors.”
William Brand was thrown into the House of Correction, and,
refusing to work, was beaten constantly by the brutal jailer with a
tarred rope an inch thick. The pathetic record says: “His back and
arms were bruised black, and the blood was hanging as in bags
under his arms, and so into one was his flesh beaten that the sign of
27
a particular blow could not be seen, for all became as a jelly.”
William Leddra and Rouse, whose ears had been cut off, were
ordered to be whipped twice a week with increasing severity until
they consented to work, and were at last dismissed from the colony
under pain of death if they returned.
Patience Scott, a girl eleven years old, was imprisoned as a
Quaker, but discharged, after a period of detention, in consideration
of her youth; but her mother, Catherine Scott, for reproving the
magistrates for a deed of darkness, was whipped ten stripes,
although she was admitted by them to be otherwise of blameless life
and conversation.
Christopher Holden, who, in spite of losing his ears in 1658, had
returned once more, was banished upon pain of death by the same
28
court that had hanged Robinson and Stevenson. Seven or eight
persons were fined, some as high as ten pounds, for entertaining
Quakers, and Edward Wharton, for piloting them from one place to
another, was ordered to be whipped twenty stripes, and bound to his
good behavior. Divers others were then brought upon trial, “for
adhering to the cursed sect of Quakers, not disowning themselves to
be such, refusing to give civil respect, leaving their families and
relations, and roaming from place to place vagabonds like”; and
Daniel Gold was sentenced to be whipped thirty stripes, Robert
Harper fifteen, and they, with Alice Courland, Mary Scott, and Hope
Clifton, banished upon pain of death; William Kingswill whipped
fifteen stripes; Margaret Smith, Mary Trask, and Provided Southwick
29
ten stripes each, and Hannah Phelps admonished. In November,
William Leddra, who had been released, returned, and was at once
arrested. On his trial the opportunity of withdrawal was again
extended, but he refused to accept it, and was executed March 1,
1661. As he ascended the ladder he was heard to say: “All that will
be Christ’s disciples must take up the cross,” and just as he was
being thrown from its rounds, he cried in the words of Stephen, “Lord
Jesus, receive my spirit.” Wenlock Christison, who had been before
this sentenced to death, but allowed to leave the colony, had
returned, and during Leddra’s trial he came boldly before the Court
and told the astonished judges: “I am come here to warn you that ye
shed no more innocent blood.” He was at once arrested, and was
brought up for trial three months later. There was an unusual
difference of opinion in regard to the case, and the condemnation
was only secured by the violence of Endicott, who was able to
browbeat the others into consent. But the sentence they passed was
never executed. The people were tired of bloodshed, and the
opposition which was shown in the General Court to any further
proceedings was so great as to make a change in the law
30
necessary.
The humanity of the delegates to the Court was probably
considerably quickened by a sense of the dangerous position in
which the colony stood since the restoration of Charles II., who, they
might naturally fear, would call them to an account for their
proceedings, especially as the colony had allowed nearly a year to
pass without any recognition of the change in the political situation.
The General Court attempted to save its dignity by interposing a
still greater number of shameful and unusual punishments between
the first offence and the death penalty, and declared that, “being
desirous to try all means with as much lenity as might consist with
safety to prevent the intrusions of the Quakers, who had not been
restrained by the laws already provided, they would henceforth order
that such intruders should be tied to a cart’s tail and whipped from
town to town toward the borders of the jurisdiction. Should they
return after being dealt with thus thrice, they were to be branded with
the letter R on their left shoulder, and be severely whipped and sent
away again at the cart’s tail. Should they again return, they were to
31
be liable to the former law of banishment under pain of death.”
It is quite possible that this appeared to be lenity to men like
Endicott and Norton, but it is very doubtful whether the Quakers so
considered it. It did not prevent, though it anticipated, an order from
the king directing that any Quakers imprisoned or under sentence
32
should be released and sent to England for trial. To make this still
more galling to the pride of the colony, it was sent by Samuel
Shattuck, a Salem Quaker, who had been banished from the colony
under pain of death if he should return, and who, we cannot doubt,
thoroughly enjoyed his mission and the humiliation of Endicott. For a
short time the order was obeyed and then the “lenient” laws were put
in force again; and, as many delicately nurtured Quaker women
found to their cost, the “tender mercies” of the saints were cruel.
Palfrey remarks, with great gratification apparently, that “no hanging,
no branding, ever took place by force of this law,” but that “under its
provisions for other penalties the contest was carried on for a
considerable time longer.”
It would be wearisome to cite all of the subsequent proceedings;
a few of them will suffice to show that the treatment of the Quakers
still continued to be extremely severe, and that in spite of it all they
persisted in braving the threats of the magistrates. It was not until
1679, when religious toleration was forced against their wills upon
the good Christians of Massachusetts, that the Quakers found any
safety within the boundaries of the colony.
In 1661, when the Quakers were set free at the command of the
king, some of them were whipped at the cart’s tail twenty stripes
33
apiece, on the ground that they were vagabonds.
In 1662, Josiah Southwick, who had returned from his
banishment, was whipped at the cart’s tail in Boston, Roxbury, and
Dedham, and dismissed into the woods with a warning not to return.
The magistrates apparently had found that their old style of whipping
was too humane; for the whip used on this and several subsequent
occasions was made, not of cord, “but of dried guts like the bass
strings of a bass viol,” with three knots at each end—a weapon
which, according to contemporary testimony, made holes in the back
34
that one could put pease into.
In December 1662 Ann Coleman, Mary Tompkins, and Alice
Ambrose were stripped to the waist and whipped at the cart’s tail in
Dover, Hampton, and Salisbury, and were forced to walk the entire
distance in slush and snow up to their knees. The “lenient” sentence
required indeed that they should be whipped in each town in the
jurisdiction, but the constable at Newbury found in the warrant some
flaw by which he was able to release them. On their return to Dover,
they were seized by the constables by night, dragged face
downwards over snow and stumps to the river, one of them at least
was doused in the stream and dragged after a canoe, and they were
only released because the storm was too severe for their tormentors
35
to brave. Ann Coleman, again, with four friends, was whipped
36
through Salem, Boston, and Dedham. Elizabeth Hooton, a woman
of over sixty years of age, Fox’s first convert, was first imprisoned,
and then carried two days’ journey into the wilderness, “among
wolves and bears,” and left there to shift for herself. On returning,
she was kept in a dungeon at Cambridge two days without food, tied
to the whipping-post and flogged there, then taken to Watertown,
where she was flogged with willow rods, flogged again at Dedham,
and then carried into the woods as before. Coming back once more
to fetch her clothes from Cambridge, she and a companion, “an
ancient woman,” and her daughter were whipped in private, in spite
of which we find her coming once more to Boston, and on that
37
occasion she was whipped again at the cart’s tail. Mary Tompkins,
Alice Ambrose, and Ann Needham also appear again and again in
the records of suffering. One Edward Wharton, who was most
resolute in defying the authorities, was constantly under arrest, and
even a bare enumeration of his floggings would fill a page.
In 1665 Deborah Wilson, for going naked through the streets of
Salem “for a sign,” was whipped; but the constable executed his
office so mercifully that he was displaced. There is a pathetic
incident mentioned by Bishop, the Quaker historian, that “her tender
husband, though not altogether of her way, followed after,” as she
underwent her punishment, “clapping his hat sometimes between the
38
whip and her back.”
Eliakim Wardwell, at Newbury, was fined heavily in 1665 for
entertaining Wenlock Christison; and this injustice in addition to the
other cruel acts, so affected his wife Lydia that, although a modest
and delicate woman, she came naked into the meeting at Newbury,
as a testimony against them. She was seized and hurried away to
the court at Ipswich, which sentenced her to be whipped at the
nearest tavern post. Bishop says:

Without Law or President they condemned her to be tyed to

the fence Post of the tavern, where they sat, which is usually
their Court places, where they may serve their ears with Musick,
and their bellies with Wine and gluttony; whereunto she was tyed
stript from the Waste upwards, with her naked breasts to the
 splinters of the Posts and there sorely lashed, with twenty or
thirty cruel stripes, which though it miserably tore and bruised
her tender body, yet to the joy of her Husband and Friends that
were Spectators, she was carried through all these inhumane
cruelties, quiet and chearful, and to the shame and confusion of
these unreasonable bruit beasts, whose name shall rot, and their
39
memory perish.

Eliakim, her husband, some time after, for vindicating her

character, was by order of the court at Hampton bound to a tree and
whipped fifteen lashes. In 1675 a law was passed which made it the
duty of the constables, under heavy penalties, to break up all Quaker
meetings and to commit those present to the House of Correction,
there to have the discipline of the house and be kept to work on
bread and water, or else to pay five pounds.
In 1677 an order was passed requiring an oath of fidelity to the
country, and legal liabilities were imposed upon all who refused the
oath. This struck directly at the Quakers, and was believed by them,
whether justly or not, to have been made for the purpose of vexing
40
and plundering them. A vigorous protest against it was made in
writing by Margaret Brewster, who came from Barbadoes to bear her
testimony against the law and to declare the evils that were coming
upon the colony. Having, as she declared, “a foresight given of that
grievous calamity called the Black Pox, which afterwards spread
there to the cutting off of many of the People. Wherefore she was
constrained in a prophetic manner to warn them thereof, by entering
into their publick assembly clothed in sackcloth and ashes, and with
her face made black.” For this she and four of her friends were
arrested and cast into prison upon the charge of “making a horrible
disturbance, and affrighting the people in the South Church in
Boston in the time of the public dispensing of the Word, whereby
several women ... are in danger of miscarrying.” She was whipped at
the cart’s tail twenty lashes, and the young women who were with
her were forced to accompany her during her punishment. Twelve
Quakers, who were arrested the same day at a Quaker meeting,
41
were whipped, and fifteen the week following.
In the other colonies the sufferings of the Quakers were not so
severe, though in Plymouth they had to endure banishment, fines,
and whippings. In Connecticut, thanks probably to the wisdom of
John Winthrop, the only cases which occurred were met with
banishment, and the Quakers seem to have respected the
jurisdiction where they were mercifully treated. In New Haven there
were several prosecutions; Southold on Long Island seems to have
been the place most frequented by the Quakers, though they also
appeared in Greenwich. The only case of extreme severity was that
of Humphrey Norton, who had already borne his torturing in
Massachusetts, where he had enraged the magistrates by his appeal
to the laws of England. He was arrested at Southold and taken to
New Haven, where he was “cast into Prison and chained to a Post,
and kept night and day for the space of twenty Days with great
Weights of Iron in an open Prison without Fire or Candles in the
bitter cold Winter (December 1657), enough (reasonably) to have
starved him,” as Bishop writes. When he attempted to reply to
Davenport in the Court, he was not suffered to speak, but was
gagged with “a great Iron Key, tied athwart his mouth.” After his trial
42
was over he was whipped thirty stripes and branded H in the hand.
Several who sympathized with or who entertained Quakers were
punished with heavy fines. In New Netherlands they fared little
43
better; and in Virginia the much-flogged Mary Tompkins and Alice
Ambrose found little mercy from the cavaliers, being put in the pillory
and whipped with a cat-of-nine-tails so severely that blood was
drawn by the very first stroke; and George Wilson, “in cruel irons that
rotted his flesh, and long imprisonment, departed this life for his
44
testimony to the Lord.” In Maryland they were subjected to fine and
imprisonment for refusing to take an oath or to serve in the militia.
45
Liberty of conscience was granted in 1688.
It was in New England, and especially in Massachusetts, that the
persecution was general and severe. The magistrates, as a rule,
defended their action, as necessary to the maintenance of their
authority and to the preservation of order and orthodoxy; and their
conduct has been extenuated and excused, if not actually defended,
by modern New England historians.
It is not a pleasant history, but there is something to be said upon
the side of the authorities even by one who has no admiration for
them or sympathy with them. The Puritans had not come to New
England for liberty of thought, but for liberty of action. Having failed,
as they thought at the time, to secure the triumph of their views in
the church and state of England, they preferred to leave the struggle
and come to New England, where they could live under their own
system without being obliged to contend or suffer for their faith—a
point upon which the Quaker controversialists make some very
46
sharp remarks.
They considered the territory which they held to be their own
peculium, and claimed that by their charter they had acquired
absolute sovereignty in its limits, subject to no appeal to England;
and they realized that if appeal to England was granted, their
absolute authority was at an end. One of the leading colonists is
reported to have said: “If we admit appeal to the Parliament this year,
next year they will send to see how it is, and the third year the
government will be changed.” The settlement also had in their eyes a
religious character; it was founded, as they boasted, for religion and
not for trade, and they held that they had a right to dictate the
religious usages and practices therein, as was shown by their
treatment of Mrs. Hutchinson and Wheelwright, Roger Williams and
Gorton, Child and Maverick, not to mention Morton of Merry Mount.
They believed the Quakers to be a pernicious sect, confounding
them with other fanatical bodies which they resembled, and they
feared that the natural consequence of the claim which they made to
immediate revelation would be communistic attempts at the
overthrow of the established order, such as had been seen a
hundred years before in Germany. From these premises the
conclusion was a natural one, that their duty was to nip the evil in the
bud, to crush the Quakers before they became strong enough to be
dangerous to the state. Their action in banishing the first that arrived,
before any overt acts were committed, was undoubtedly technically
illegal; but if the Quakers had been in reality what they fancied them,
no one would have blamed them for their prompt decision. Besides,
they had a law by which they were accustomed to banish heretics,
and the Quakers might very well come under that description.
As regards the compelling shipmasters to carry them back to the
port from which they had come, such a custom had prevailed from a
very early date in the case of undesirable immigrants. Winthrop, in
his History mentions the reshipping to England of a crazy pauper
woman whom the parish of Willesden had sent over to the colonists
in Massachusetts. The Quakers came in spite of banishment, and
the more they were imprisoned and beaten the more daring became
their defiance, the more violent their abuse. They spared neither
priest nor magistrate, and the floods of denunciation which they
poured out were portentous. It is not to be wondered at that a stern
and severe people, living a hard and cruel life of constant struggle
with the elements, and in the constant dread lest their privileges
should be assailed, should have been cruel in their treatment of
these incorrigible offenders.
Judged by the common standard of the age, the cruelty of the
treatment of the Quakers is not so remarkable as to be singled out
above all other cruelties for reprobation. The Quakers themselves
were cruel at times. George Fox himself is said to have been a
witch-finder; and a son of the Samuel Shattuck who bore the king’s
mandate to Endicott appears in the Salem witchcraft trials as a
47
prominent witness against some of the unfortunates. The folly and
fatuity of the treatment adopted is more of a point to notice. In the
colonies where the Quakers were let alone they caused no trouble.
Palfrey’s sneer, that there was no order to disturb in Rhode Island,
may be justified perhaps as regards that colony, but Connecticut
certainly was a well-ordered commonwealth. In Massachusetts, on
the contrary, the same persons kept coming again and again, and
the severer the punishments the madder became their actions. It
should be remembered that the acts usually mentioned as justifying
the Puritans’ severity, such as the performances of the naked
women at Salem and Newbury, of the men who broke bottles on the
pulpit steps, and of the woman who smeared her face with black and
frightened the matrons in the Old South church, were not committed
until after the persecution had been carried on for years, until scores
of women had been stripped naked and flogged by the authorities,
until men had had their ears cut off, and until three men and one
woman had been put to death upon the gallows. The persecution
was a blunder, and the details of it made it a blunder of the most
atrocious description. Power was put into the hands of local and
irresponsible magistrates to sentence men and women to these
shameful and unusual punishments, and brutal constables and
jailers were entrusted with the enforcement of the law without any
due supervision. The most painful part of the whole history is the
attitude of the Puritan clergy, in Massachusetts especially. They were
bitter and bigoted, hounding on the magistrates to their cruel work,
and insulting the unfortunate wretches when they came to suffer.
Quaker instinct rightly, no doubt, fixed upon John Norton as the
“Fountain and Principal unto whom most of the cruelty and
48
bloodshed is to be imputed.”
For the constancy of the Quakers themselves, their endurance
and their fortitude, one can feel nothing but admiration. One
remembers how, centuries before, men who like them were willing to
die rather than to deny their faith had been called the enemies of
mankind, and accused of a perverse and execrable superstition. It
must be admitted, however, that their behavior was often of a kind
that would not be allowed to-day any more than it was then, although
it is to be hoped that our modern statecraft would find milder and
more efficient means of repression than did our predecessors in New
England; yet when one remembers how the Mormons were treated
in Illinois and Missouri, and how the mob destroyed a Roman
Catholic convent in Massachusetts, within the memories of living
men, we may think it perhaps prudent not to be too sweeping in our
condemnation.
The fundamental difficulty in the Puritans’ position was their
illegal and unconstitutional government. To maintain that, they were
led to deny to other Englishmen their rights, and to assert an
independence of the home authorities which was little short of actual
separation.
The second evil principle in their government was the union of
church and state, or rather the subjection of the state to the church,
a church moreover in which the people had no rights except by favor
of the ministers, a church that was a close corporation and imbued
with the spirit of the law of Moses rather than that of the gospel of
Christ. In church, as well as in state, there was a consciousness that
their existence was illegal and illegitimate; that, in spite of their
protests to the contrary, they had separated from their fellow-
Christians in England and had formed a polity for themselves; hence,
just as they felt it necessary to manifest their political authority by
acts of severity upon any who questioned it, so they deemed it
necessary to maintain their orthodoxy by persecuting those who
differed from them in religion. They were ill at ease both politically
and religiously, and they sought to disguise the fact from themselves,
by making proof of all the power that they possessed. Hence it was
that the conflict arose which has stained with innocent blood the
early history of the land. It is not to be wondered that the Quakers
should see, in the horrible death of Endicott and the miserable end of
49
Norton, the hand of an avenging Providence, or that they should
believe that for a distance of twenty miles from Boston the ground
was cursed so that no wheat could ripen because of a blood-red
50
blight that fastened upon it. But we, who live at a time when we
can view the history of the struggle with calmness and impartiality,
may respect the grim determination of the severe magistrates who
felt it their duty, at whatever cost, to keep that which was committed
to their trust free from the poison of heresy and fanaticism, while we
sorrow at the blindness which hid from their eyes the folly and the
cruelty of their proceedings. We may sympathize with the tortured
Quakers, whom we now know to be harmless enthusiasts, yet
without approving or extenuating their mad actions, their abusive
language, or their grotesque indecencies; and we may hope that,
though at enmity in this life, yet, as Browning wrote of Strafford and
Pym,
 “in that world
Where great hearts led astray are turned again,”

both now are able to respect each other’s loyalty of purpose and
fidelity to their respective conceptions of truth.
 NOTES.
1
Vide infra, Note 6.
2
George Fox, Journal. It is well to notice that of the ministers
mentioned by Fox by name or parish, Nath. Stevens, the rector
of Fenny Drayton, was a Presbyterian of some eminence, and
was ejected for non-conformity in 1662. So also was Matthew
Cradock, the “priest of Coventry,” who was a distinguished
non-conformist divine. The priest at Mansetter, who advised
tobacco and psalm-singing, kept his living during the whole
period of the Commonwealth, and so may be presumed not to
have been a “Churchman” in the commonly received sense of
the term. “One Macham,” of whom Fox speaks, and who
seems to have treated him with more sympathetic kindness
than any of the others, was a loyal Churchman and was
sequestered in 1645, as a penalty for his adherence to the
bishop and the king to whom he had sworn allegiance. It is
rather surprising to find historians in general, even those who
should be better informed, assuming that, because these men
were filling the parishes of the Church of England, they were,
therefore, Church of England clergymen.
3
Bishop, George, New England Judged, London, 1661, pp. 14–
25.
4
Geo. E. Ellis, Memorial History of Boston, vol. i. p. 181.
5
Hubbard’s History of New England, p. 553.
6
Massachusetts Records, iv. (1), 276.
7
Bishop, 5–13.
 8
Hazard, Historical Collections, ii. 349. Rhode Island Records, i.
374.
9
Mass. Records, iv. (1), 277.
10
Bishop, 38, 39.
11
Bishop, 40, 42.
12
Mass. Records, iv. (1), 308. Bishop, 50.
13
Mass. Records, iv. (1), 325.
14
Bishop, 72, 73.
15
Mass. Records, iv. (1), 345, 346.
16
Mass. Archives, vol. x. p. 246.
17
Mass. Records, iv. (1), 348. (In payment for this work Norton
received five hundred acres of land, a good price for a sermon.
Ibid., p. 397.)
18
The Heart of New England Rent at the Blasphemies of the
Present Generation. Printed by Samuel Green, Cambridge in
New England, 1659. The arguments used in this declaration
are so characteristic of the spirit of the times that the following
extract may be useful. The author has been demonstrating that
the Quakers were heretical on various points of the faith, and
that the Scriptures authorize the punishment of false believers.
He continues:
“But other Scriptures omitted, I shall here transcribe only two
more, both of which are eminently pregnant with this truth:
wherein also are cases put between the cause of God and our
near relations, on purpose to provide against obstructions in
this great business of religion.
The first we have Deut. xiii. per totum.
 Relating to all times succeeding that constitution; ‘If thy
brother, the son of thy mother, or thy son, or thy daughter, or
the wife of thy bosom, or thy friend, which is as thine own soul,
entice thee secretly, saying, Let us go and serve other gods,
which thou hast not known, thou, nor thy fathers; Thou shalt
not consent unto him, nor hearken unto him; neither shalt thine
eyes pity him, neither shalt thou spare, neither shalt thou
conceal him.’ vers. 6, 8. The second we have Zech. xiii. 1, 3.
Expressly relating unto the times of the Gospel. In that day,
viz.: after the Coming of the Messiah in the time of the Gospel
when the families of the tribes shall mourne Chapt. xii. 11. The
familie of the house of David apart, & the familie of the house
of Nathan apart, etc. There shall be a fountain opened, i. e. the
doctrine of Christ under Moses’ dispensation is compared to a
fountain vailed, 2 Cor. iii. 13, etc. Under the Gospel
dispensation to a fountain opened. The vail of the Temple &
the ceremonial law being taken away. And it shall come to
pass that when any shall yet Prophecie, then his father & his
mother that begat him, shall thrust him through, when he
prophecieth. These words [thrust him through] may be
understood either of a Capital punishment judicially dispensed,
or of any other smart punishment piercing though not Capital.

* * * * *
“Wee through grace abhorre prejudicing the liberty of
conscience the least measure, and account such report of us
to be a slander. And through the same grace; Wee both dread,
and beare witness against, liberty of heresy, liberty to
Blaspheme the Blessed Trinity, the Person and Office of Christ,
the holy-Scripture, the tabernacle of God, and those that dwell
in heaven. Howsoever fallaciously transformed into, and
misrepresented under the plausible vizard of liberty of
conscience falsely so called. We say Religion is to be
perswaded with Scripture-reasons, not Civil weapons: with
Arguments, not with punishments. But blasphemies immediate
and heresies carried on with an high hand, and persisted in are
to be suppressed with weapons and punishments; where
reasons, and arguments cannot prevail.
We distinguish between Heresie (Quiet and alone,
Turbulent, i. e. incorrigible) accompanied with soliciting the
people to apostacy from the Faith of Christ to defection from
the churches, to Sedition in the Commonwealth. And that after
due meanes of conviction, and Authoritative prohibition.
We subject not any to Civil or Corporal punishment for
heresie, if quiet and alone. We do not inflict any Church-
censure in case of heresie, without doctrinal conviction on the
Churche’s part, and contumacy on the delinquent’s part
foregoing.
In case of Heresie incorrigible, in conjunction with
endeavours to seduce others thereunto, and tending to the
disturbing of Publick-order, we acknowledge it to be the pious
Wisdom of the Magistrate to proceed gradually, and where
gentler meanes may rationally be looked at as effectual, there
to abstain from the use of any severer remedie.
And according to this method, hath been the gradual
proceeding of the Magistrate here, with those (hitherto
incorrigible) Quakers, who from England have unreasonably
and insolently obtruded themselves upon us. 1. Instructing
them. 2. Restraining them untill an opportunity for their returne.
3. Publishing a law to warne and prohibite both them and all
others of that sect, from Coming into this jurisdiction: otherwise
to expect the house of Correction. And in case they returned
yet again, then to loose one of their eares, etc.
At last upon experience of their bold contempt of these
inferior restraints, and that after their being sent away again
and again, they continue to return yet again and again; to the
seducing of diverse, the disturbance, vexation and hazard of
the whole Colonie. The Court finding the Law passed, to be an
insufficient fence against these persons, proceeded to a
Sentence of Banishment.
 Their restraint before the Law published, was but restraint in
the Prison, until an opportunity of shipping them away. They
who after the Law was published, would that notwithstanding,
break in upon us from England, or other forraign parts, by
Rode-Island, after their correction received, and discharging
their dues, might return again to the Island, if they pleased.
The wolfe which ventures over the wild Sea, out of a ravening
desire to prey upon the sheep, when landed, discovered and
taken, hath no cause to complain, though for the security of the
flock, he be penned up, with the door opening unto the fold fast
shut; but having another door purposely left open, whereby he
may depart at his pleasure either returning from whence he
came, or otherwise quitting the place.
Their Sentence of Banishment as Circumstanced, by an
Impartial and equal eye, may be looked upon as an Act which
the court was forced unto se defendendo, in defence of
Religion, themselves, the Churches, and this poore State and
People from Ruine: which the principles of confusion, daylie
and studiously disseminated by them, threatened to bring all
unto, if not seasonably prevented. Exile from a wilderness,
from a place of exile; though voluntarie, from a place;
confinement whereunto would indeed justly be called exile, is
an easie exile.” (Pages 48, 49, 53, 54.)
19
Rhode Island Records, i. 376–378. See also the letter of the
General Assembly, 378–380.
20
Bishop, 95.
21
Mass. Records, iv. (1), 383.
22
The Sufferings of the People called Quakers, by Jos. Besse,
London, 1753, ii. p. 177.
23
Bishop, 89–95, 109.
24
Hubbard’s History of New England, p. 173. See also an
Address to the King (Charles II.), Dec. 19, 1660, in which the
 colonial authorities argue as follows: “Concerning the Quakers,
open and capitall blasphemers, open seducers from the
glorious Trinity, the Lord’s Christ, our Lord Jesus Christ, etc.
the blessed gospell, and from the Holy Scriptures as the rule of
life, open enemies to government itself as established in the
hands of any but men of their oune principles, malignant and
assiduous promoters of doctrines directly tending to subvert
both our churches and state, after all other meanes for a long
time used in vajne, wee were at last constrejned, for our oune
safety, to pass a sentence of banishment against them, vpon
pajne of death. Such was theire daingerous, impetuous, &
desperat turbulency, both to religion & the state civil &
ecclesiastical, as that how vnwillingly soever, could it have binn
avoyded, the magistrate at last, in conscience both to God and
Man, judged himself called for the defense of all, to keep the
passage with the point of the sword held towards them. This
could do no harm to him that would be warned thereby: theire
wittingly rushing themselves therevpon was theire oune act, &
wee, wth all humility, conceive a cryme bringing theire blood on
theire oune head. The Quakers died, not because of theire
other crymes, how capitall soever, but vpon theire superadded
presumptuous & incorrigible contempt of authority; breaking in
vpon vs notwthstanding theire sentence of banishment made
knoune to them. Had they not binn restreigned, so farr as
appeared, there was too much cause to feare that wee
ourselves must quickly haue dyed, or worse; and such was
theire insolency, that they would not be restreined but by
death; nay, had they at last but promised to depart the
jurisdiction, and not to returne wthout leaue from authority, wee
should haue binn glad of such an opportunity to haue sayd
they should not dye.” Mass. Records, iv. (1), 450–453. Bishop,
113.
25
Mass. Records, iv. (1), 419.
26
Mass. Records, iv. (1), 366. Bishop, 90, 91.
27
Bishop, 44–48, 52–54.