Advances in Additive Manufacturing:

Artificial Intelligence, Nature-Inspired,

and Biomanufacturing Ajay Kumar
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Advances in Additive Manufacturing:
Artificial Intelligence, Nature-Inspired,
and Biomanufacturing
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Additive Manufacturing Materials and Technologies

Advances in Additive
Manufacturing:
Artificial Intelligence,
Nature-Inspired,
and Biomanufacturing
Edited by
Ajay Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, JECRC University, Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India

Ravi Kant Mittal

(Retired Professor) Department of Mechanical Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology and Science,
Pilani, Rajasthan

Abid Haleem
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, Delhi, India

Series Editor
Ma Qian
Elsevier
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Contents

List of contributors xv 2.4 Additive manufacturing 16

About the editors xix 2.5 What and why of additive manufacturing 17
2.6 Development trends in additive
manufacturing 17
Part I 2.7 Classification of additive manufacturing
methods based on material characteristics 18
Introduction 2.7.1 Powder-based additive
manufacturing 18
1. Introduction to additive 2.7.2 Liquid-based additive
manufacturing technologies 3 manufacturing 19
Rasheedat M. Mahamood, T-C. Jen, S.A. Akinlabi, 2.7.3 Solid-/filament-based additive
Sunir Hassan and Esther T. Akinlabi manufacturing 20
2.8 Extensive capabilities of additive
1.1 Introduction 3 manufacturing in the current scenario 20
1.2 Brief history of additive manufacturing 4 2.9 Application areas of additive
1.3 Classes of additive manufacturing 4 manufacturing 20
1.3.1 Vat photopolymerization 4 2.9.1 Medical manufacturing 21
1.3.2 Material jetting 5 2.9.2 Aerospace and automotive
1.3.3 Binder jetting process 5 manufacturing 21
1.3.4 Material extrusion 6 2.9.3 Architectural and jewelry
1.3.5 Sheet lamination 6 manufacturing 21
1.3.6 Powder bed fusion 6 2.10 Challenges being taken up by additive
1.3.7 Directed energy deposition (DED) 7 manufacturing 21
1.4 Areas of application of additive 2.11 Future applications and technologies of
manufacturing 8 additive manufacturing 23
1.4.1 Foods and housing 9 2.12 Conclusion 23
1.4.2 Healthcare 10 References 23
1.4.3 Automobiles and aerospace 10 Further reading 25
1.4.4 Electronics 10
1.4.5 Consumers product and jewelry 10
3. Addictive manufacturing in the
1.5 Summary 11
References 11
Health 4.0 era: a systematic review 27
Further reading 13 Vineet Jain, Puneeta Ajmera,
Sheetal Kalra and Sheetal Yadav
2. Trends in additive manufacturing: 3.1 Background and introduction 27
an exploratory study 15 3.2 Additive manufacturing process and
technologies 28
Mohd Shoeb, Lokesh Kumar,
3.3 Application in the health-care industry 28
Abid Haleem and Mohd Javaid
3.4 Materials and methods 29
2.1 Introduction 15 3.4.1 Information sources 29
2.2 Research objectives of the chapter 16 3.4.2 Search strategy and study selection 30
2.3 Comparison of additive manufacturing 3.4.3 Data collection process 30
with traditional manufacturing processes 16 3.5 Results 31

v
vi Contents

3.6 Discussion 37 5.3 Innovative AM technologies 71

3.6.1 Global additive manufacturing 5.3.1 AM based on FDM or fused filament
market 38 fabrication 71
3.6.2 Advantages of additive 5.3.2 AM based on VAT
manufacturing processes 38 photopolymerization: SLA or
3.6.3 Challenges of additive digital light processing (DLP) 77
manufacturing processes 39 5.3.3 AM based on powder bed fusion
3.6.4 Role of additive manufacturing (PBF) or SLS 83
during pandemic COVID-19 39 5.4 Conclusions and future perspective 84
3.7 Conclusion 40 Acknowledgments 84
References 40 References 84

4. Integration of reverse engineering

with additive manufacturing 43 6. Printing file formats for additive
manufacturing technologies 87
Ajay Kumar, Parveen Kumar, Hari Singh,
Abid Haleem and Ravi Kant Mittal Ajay Kumar, Parveen Kumar, Ravi Kant Mittal and
Hari Singh
4.1 Introduction 43
4.2 Concept of RE 44 6.1 Introduction 87
4.3 Product development by RE and AM 45 6.2 3D model representation data formats in
4.4 Integrating RE with AM 46 additive manufacturing techniques 88
4.4.1 Integration of RE and AM by 6.2.1 Standard tessellation language
constructing a 3D CAD model from format 88
the point cloud and obtaining an 6.2.2 Additive manufacturing format 90
STL model for the AM system 46 6.2.3 3D manufacturing format 92
4.4.2 Integrating RE and AM by direct 6.2.4 OBJ format 92
generation of STL model file from 6.2.5 Virtual reality modeling language
point cloud 52 format 92
4.4.3 Integration of RE and AM by Direct 6.2.6 Jupiter Tessellation format 93
Conversion of Data Points to 6.2.7 Extensible 3D format 93
Sliced File 53 6.2.8 Cubital Facet List format 93
4.5 Data digitization techniques in RE 55 6.2.9 Solid interchange format 93
4.5.1 Noncontact data acquisition RE 6.2.10 Surface triangle hinted format 94
techniques 56 6.3 Comparison of 3D model representation
4.6 Summary 63 data formats 94
References 63 6.4 Sliced model representation data
formats in additive manufacturing 95
6.4.1 Common layer interface format 96
Part II 6.4.2 Layer exchange ASCII format 96
6.4.3 Stereolithography contour format 96
Additive manufacturing 6.4.4 Hewlett Packard Graphics
technologies Language format 96
6.4.5 Comparison of sliced model
5. Recent innovative developments on representation data formats in
additive manufacturing technologies additive manufacturing 96
using polymers 69 6.5 Other additive manufacturing interfaces 97
6.5.1 Layered manufacturing interface 98
Carmen M. González-Henrı́quez,
6.5.2 Rapid prototyping interface 98
Dan A. Pérez-Monje, Fernando E. Rodrı́guez-
6.5.3 Voxel-based modeling method 98
Umanzor, Mauricio A. Sarabia-Vallejos and
6.6 Data exchange standards utilization in
Juan Rodrı́guez-Hernández
additive manufacturing 99
5.1 A brief introduction to AM technologies 69 6.6.1 Standard for the Exchange of
5.2 AM market and innovation opportunities 70 Product Model standard 99
 Contents vii

6.6.2 Initial graphics exchange 8.5 Concluding remarks on the use of

specification standard 100 CS as nature-inspired and/or
6.7 Discussion 100 biomanufacturing 137
6.8 Summary 101 References 139
References 101

9. Preprocessing and postprocessing

7. Additive manufacturing techniques in additive manufacturing 141
used for preparation of scaffolds in Ajay Kumar, Parveen Kumar, Ravi Kant Mittal and
bone repair and regeneration 103 Hari Singh
Sudip Dasgupta and Yogendra Pratap Singh
9.1 Introduction 141
7.1 Introduction 103 9.2 Preprocessing in additive manufacturing 142
7.2 Scaffold design 106 9.2.1 Preparation of CAD model 142
7.2.1 Computer-aided design-based 9.2.2 Conversion to STL file 143
methods 106 9.2.3 Diagnosis of STL file error 146
7.2.2 Optimization of topology 107 9.2.4 Part orientation 149
7.2.3 Reverse modeling 107 9.2.5 Generation/design of support 151
7.2.4 Mathematical modeling 107 9.2.6 Types of support structure 152
7.3 Additive manufacturing techniques 108 9.2.7 Slicing 153
7.3.1 Selective laser sintering 108 9.2.8 Generation of tool path pattern
7.3.2 Selective laser melting 110 and internal hatching pattern 155
7.3.3 Extrusion-based printing 111 9.3 Postprocessing in additive manufacturing 160
7.3.4 Fused deposition modeling 113 9.3.1 Removal of support material 160
7.3.5 Electron beam melting 114 9.3.2 Improvement in surface finish 161
7.3.6 Stereolithography 114 9.3.3 Improvement in accuracy 162
7.3.7 Powder inkjet printing 116 9.3.4 Esthetic improvement of additive
7.3.8 Electrospinning 117 manufacturing products 162
7.4 Posttreatments 118 9.3.5 Modifying property of additive
7.4.1 Heat treatment 118 manufacturing products 162
7.4.2 Surface treatment 119 9.4 Summary 162
7.4.3 Coatings 120 References 164
7.5 Challenges and conclusions 121
References 121
10. Computer vision based online
monitoring technique: part quality
8. Cold spray technology: a perspective enhancement in the selective laser
of nature-inspired feature melting process 167
processing and biomanufacturing
Brahmansh Kaushik and S. Anand Kumar
by a heatless additive method
using nanopowders 129 10.1 Introduction 167
10.2 Experimental methods 168
Rija Nirina Raoelison
10.2.1 Design of experiment 168
8.1 Introduction: a heatless additive method 10.2.2 Methods and algorithms of
for nature-inspired, bio- and nanofeatures 129 analysis 168
8.2 Cold spraying principle and processing 10.3 Results and discussion 170
conditions for nanopowders 131 10.3.1 Edge detection analysis 170
8.3 Development of superhydrophobic 10.3.2 Greyscale pixel value analysis 182
properties using the cold spray additive 10.3.3 Layer classification 184
method 132 10.4 Conclusions 190
8.4 Cold spray additive biomanufacturing 10.5 Future scope and industrial
of biocompatible coating for surgical application 192
implant 134 References 193
viii Contents

11. Fundamentals of thermo-fluid- 12.2 Materials for AM technology 218

mechanical modeling in additive 12.2.1 Polymers 218
manufacturing processes 195 12.2.2 Ceramics 220
12.2.3 Composites 221
Anshul Yadav 12.2.4 Metals 222
11.1 Introduction 195 12.3 Biomaterials for AM technology 223
11.2 Fundamentals of thermal phenomena 12.3.1 Metallic biomaterials 226
modeling 196 12.3.2 Ceramic biomaterials 227
11.2.1 General classification of heated 12.3.3 Polymeric biomaterials 227
body models and heat sources 12.3.4 Composite biomaterials 228
models 196 12.4 Smart materials and 4D printing
11.2.2 Steady-state point moving heat perspectives 228
source 197 12.5 Materials processing issues in AM and
11.2.3 Transitory shifting point heat characterization techniques 230
source 198 12.5.1 Liquid materials processing issues
11.2.4 Semielliptical transient moving and their characterization
heat source 198 techniques 231
11.2.5 Double elliptical transient 12.5.2 Solid materials processing issues
moving heat source 199 and their characterization
11.2.6 Uniform transient moving heat techniques 231
source 200 12.5.3 Powder materials processing
11.3 Mathematical description of issues and their characteristic
temperature field 200 techniques 231
11.3.1 Analytical solutions of the heat 12.6 Newly developed materials for AM 232
conduction equation for point 12.7 Summary 232
source 202 References 232
11.3.2 Surface and volumetric heat
source models 203 13. Ceramic
metal interface: In-situ
11.3.3 Volumetric heat source models 203 microstructural characterization
11.4 Numerical modeling of the thermal aid vacuum brazing additive
field considering solid
liquid changes 204 manufacturing technology 235
11.4.1 Thermal and fluid flow
modeling of the molten pool 205 S. Stalin and K. Kalaichelvan
11.5 Quantitative description of phase 13.1 Introduction 235
transformations in solid state 207 13.2 Wettability 236
11.5.1 Calculating structural shares 13.3 Wetting versus brazing 238
during the single thermal cycle 208 13.4 Ceramic
metal interface:
11.5.2 Key parameters in determining Microstructural characterization 240
the solidification structure 208 13.5 Effect of brazing parameters on the
11.6 Modeling stress and strains during interfacial microstructure evolution 242
additive manufacturing 210 13.6 Ceramic
metal interface:
11.6.1 Analytical modeling of residual Nanoindentation characterization 245
stress in additive manufacturing 210 13.7 Ceramic
metal interface: Brazing
11.7 Summary 213 mechanism 247
References 213 13.8 Conclusion 248
References 249
Part III
Materials in AM 14. Processing challenges in additively
manufactured single crystal alloys:
12. Materials processed by additive a process
structure
property
manufacturing techniques 217 relationship approach 253
Ajay Kumar, Parveen Kumar, Rajkumar Velu, S. Anand Kumar and Ruban
Ravi Kant Mittal and Victor Gambhir Whenish

12.1 Introduction 217 14.1 Introduction and background 253

 Contents ix

14.2 Challenges in the deposition of SX 17. Selective laser melting of functionally

structure 254 graded material: current trends and
14.2.1 Influencing laser processing future prospects 281
parameters 254
14.2.2 Influencing of seeding layer Ashish Kumar Mishra, Kuldeep Yadav and
substrate 255 Arvind Kumar
14.2.3 Influence of thermal gradient 255 17.1 Introduction 281
14.3 Suitable pre- and postprocessing 17.2 FGMs in nature 282
strategies 257 17.3 Classification of FGM 283
14.3.1 Preprocessing schemes 257 17.4 Mathematical representation of FGMs
14.3.2 Influence of postprocessing and models for property prediction 283
schemes 259 17.4.1 Mori
Tanaka scheme 284
14.4 Case study: remanufacturing of 17.4.2 Voigt model 284
high-valued component 261 17.4.3 Power law gradation 285
14.5 Conclusions 261 17.4.4 Exponential law gradation 285
14.6 Future scope 262 17.4.5 Sigmoidal law gradation 285
References 262 17.5 Applications of FGMs 286
Further reading 264 17.6 Manufacturing methods for FGMs 286
17.6.1 Legacy manufacturing methods
for FGMs 286
15. Transient thermal analysis in friction-stir 17.6.2 State of the art of the legacy
additive manufacturing of dissimilar manufacturing methods for
wrought aluminum alloys 265 FGMs 286
17.6.3 Challenges with the legacy
U. Sudhakar and J. Srinivas manufacturing methods for
15.1 Introduction 265 FGMs 287
15.2 Materials and modeling 267 17.7 AM methods for FGMs 288
15.2.1 Thermomechanics of the process 268 17.8 Manufacturing of SS316
AlSi10Mg
15.3 Finite element modeling 269 FGM 290
15.3.1 Microstructure and hardness 17.8.1 The motive 290
evaluation 270 17.8.2 Attempt 1: Building SS316L
15.4 Conclusion 271 over AlSi10Mg Base 290
References 271 17.8.3 Attempt 2: Building the
AlSi10Mg over SS316L
baseplate 291
17.8.4 Attempt 3: In-house
16. Processing of biomaterials by manufacturing of SS316L-IN718
additive manufacturing 273 FGM through SLM 291
Mayurkumar A. Makhesana and Kaushik M. Patel 17.9 Conclusion 295
17.10 Future prospects of FGM 295
16.1 Introduction to additive manufacturing References 296
and biomaterials 273
16.1.1 Introduction of additive
manufacturing 273 18. Nondestructive evaluation of
16.1.2 Additive technology selection 274 additively manufactured parts 299
16.1.3 Material selection 274
16.1.4 Additive manufacturing polymers 274 P.R. Sreeraj and Santosh Kr. Mishra
16.2 Additive manufacturing technology for 18.1 Introduction 299
biomaterials 276 18.2 Defects associated with AM parts 300
16.3 Limitations of additive manufacturing 18.2.1 Cracking 300
with biomaterials 277 18.2.2 Porosity 301
16.4 Further development of additive 18.2.3 Inclusions 301
manufacturing applications 278 18.2.4 Voids 302
References 278 18.2.5 Lack of fusion 302
x Contents

18.2.6 Delaminations 302 20. Path planning and simulation for

18.2.7 Residual stresses 302 prototyping bio-inspired complex
18.2.8 Keyhole 302 shapes 325
18.2.9 Increased surface roughness 302
18.3 Challenges for implementation of Tadele Belay Tuli
NDE in AM 302 20.1 Introduction 325
18.3.1 Geometrical complexity of parts 303 20.2 State of the art 326
18.3.2 Critical defects 304 20.2.1 Path planning for 3D printing 326
18.3.3 Online monitoring 304 20.2.2 Robots as three-dimensional
18.3.4 Inspection procedures 304 printing systems 327
18.4 Applications of NDE in AM 304 20.3 Path planning for three-dimensional
18.5 Technologies involved in NDE for printing 327
testing and inspection of AM parts 305 20.3.1 Geometrical mesh generation
18.5.1 Penetrant testing 305 and shape optimization 327
18.5.2 Ultrasonic testing 306 20.3.2 Slicing and geometric
18.5.3 Acoustic emission 306 reconstruction of the three-
18.5.4 Optical methods 306 dimensional models 328
18.5.5 Radiographic techniques 307 20.3.3 Path generation and planning 330
18.5.6 Thermographic techniques 307 20.4 Result and discussion 330
18.5.7 Electromagnetic techniques 307 20.5 Conclusion and future outlook 332
18.5.8 Recommendations and future Acknowledgment 332
work 308 References 332
18.6 Conclusion 309
References 310

21. Substitute for orthognathic surgery

Part IV using bioprinted bone scaffolds in
Learnings from nature/inspirations restoring osseous defects 335
from nature Sonam Sehrawat, Ajay Kumar and
Mona Prabhakar
19. Bio-inspired advancements in
additive manufacturing 313 21.1 Introduction 335
21.1.1 Role of additive manufacturing
Ruban Whenish, Selvam Arivazhagan, in reconstructive surgery 335
Rajkumar Velu and S Anand Kumar 21.1.2 Literature gap 336
19.1 Introduction 313 21.1.3 Motivation 336
19.2 History and research methods of 21.1.4 Literature review 336
bio-inspired structures 314 21.1.5 Objectives 337
19.3 Learning innovative principles from 21.2 Bone scaffolds for reconstructive
nature 315 treatments 337
19.4 Bio-inspired structures and materials 21.2.1 Bone as a specialized tissue 337
for additive manufacturing 316 21.2.2 Congenital and traumatic
19.5 Additive manufacturing methods for osseous defects 338
bio-inspired structures 317 21.2.3 Biological stimuli responsive
19.6 Mechanical behavior of additively materials 339
manufactured bio-inspired structures 318 21.2.4 Fabrication of bone scaffolds 340
19.7 Bio-inspired structures and their 21.2.5 Fabrication of bioprinted
applications (science, engineering, and scaffolds using stereo
medicine) 319 lithographic files 340
19.8 Future direction and conclusion of 21.3 Orthognathic surgical substitutes 342
bio-inspired design 320 21.3.1 Conventional surgeries and their
References 321 limitations 342
 Contents xi

21.3.2 Genetically driven treatment: 23.3 Programming/training concepts in 4D

gene therapy 343 printing 366
21.3.3 Bioprinted scaffolds for 23.3.1 Programming/training after
reconstructive procedures 344 printing 366
21.3.4 State-of-the-art comparison 344 23.3.2 Programming/training during
21.3.5 Points favoring additive printing 367
manufacturing and clinical 23.4 Case study: PLA-SMP for 4D printing
success of bone scaffolds 344 by FFF based on different programming
21.4 Conclusion and future perspectives 344 concepts and process parameters 367
21.4.1 Conclusion 344 23.4.1 Experimental details 367
21.4.2 Future perspectives 346 23.4.2 Results and discussions 370
References 346 23.5 Applications of 4D printing technology 375
23.6 Conclusion 376
References 376
22. Multiobjective process parameter
optimization in fused filament
fabrication with nature-inspired Part V
algorithms 349 Applications
Nita Yodo and Arup Dey
24. Selected biomedical applications
22.1 Introduction 349
of additive manufacturing
22.2 Methodologies 350
22.2.1 Response surface method 351
techniques 381
22.2.2 Artificial neural network 351 Kishore Pradeep and Bidyut Pal
22.2.3 Genetic algorithm 352
24.1 Introduction 381
22.2.4 Nondominated GA II 352
24.2 Biomedical applications of additive
22.2.5 Particle swarm optimization 353
manufacturing 384
22.3 Case study 353
24.2.1 Spinal and orthopedic Implants 384
22.3.1 Data collection 353
24.2.2 Dentistry 391
22.3.2 Surrogate models 353
24.2.3 Bone tissue engineering 394
22.3.3 MPPO formulations 354
24.2.4 Medical devices: diagnostic
22.3.4 Optimization results 355
and therapeutic tools 396
22.3.5 Results discussion 355
24.2.5 Other applications:
22.4 Discussion and future work 357
pharmaceuticals 397
22.5 Conclusions 358
24.3 Limitations and future potentials
References 358
(4D and 5D printing) 397
24.4 Conclusions 399
23. 4D printing: An experimental case Acknowledgment 400
study on processing of shape References 400
memory polymer by FDM/FFF for
nature inspired structures 361 25. State-of-the-art in additive
manufacturing of Ti
6Al
4V:
Bijaya Bikram Samal, Anita Jena,
recent progress and insights into
Shailendra Kumar Varshney and
Cheruvu Siva Kumar
future developments 405
Natalia B. Ghisi C, Hend Alqaydi,
23.1 Introduction 361
Nujood Alshehhi, Nesma T. Aboulkhair and
23.2 Mechanism of shape memory effect in
Amal M.K. Esawi
thermoresponsive shape memory
polymer 363 25.1 Laser powder bed fusion: definition,
23.2.1 Properties of shape memory importance, and industrial relevance 405
polymers 364 25.2 Titanium alloys for laser powder bed
23.2.2 Shape memory effect in fusion 406
polylactide acid 365 25.2.1 Titanium and its alloys 407
xii Contents

25.2.2 Feedstock material for laser 27.4 Methodology and design for additive
power bed fusion 409 manufacturing project design
25.3 Process
structure
property process for robot parts 451
relationships 411 27.5 Generative design for additive
25.3.1 Processability of Ti
6Al
4V manufacturing robot parts 451
using laser power bed fusion 411 27.6 Topology optimization for additive
25.3.2 Metallurgy of laser power bed manufacturing of robot parts 453
fusion Ti
6Al
4V 412 27.7 Robot arm modeling techniques and
25.3.3 Mechanical performance of laser simulation processes 453
power bed fusion Ti
6Al
4V 416 27.8 Using additive tools to simulate
25.4 Design freedom capabilities 419 additive manufacturing 454
25.4.1 Topology optimization 420 27.9 Experimental optimization based on
25.4.2 Lattice structures 421 machine configuration 454
25.5 Applications of additively manufactured 27.10 Part printing by a metal-based
titanium alloys in the biomedical additive manufacturing process 455
implants industry 423 27.10.1 Powder bed fusion 455
25.6 Summary and outlook 424 27.10.2 Direct energy deposition 456
Acknowledgments 426 27.11 Case study: using additive
References 426 manufacturing technology to
manufacture robotic parts 457
27.12 Conclusion 460
26. Material selection and processing References 460
challenges with additive
manufacturing in biomimicry for 28. Additive manufacturing of
biomedical applications 431 customized, accessible, and
Deepak Gupta and Jayesh Bellare
affordable lower limb prosthetics
in India: case study 463
26.1 Introduction 431
26.2 Nature-inspired biomedical materials Dheeraj Kumar Angajala, Ankit Sahai and
and devices 432 Rahul Swarup Sharma
26.3 Challenges in biomimicry with additive 28.1 Introduction 463
manufacturing for biomedical 28.1.1 Demography of lower limb
applications 433 amputees in India 463
26.3.1 Hardware limitations 433 28.1.2 Low-cost prosthetic
26.3.2 Bio-inspired geometry 434 manufacturers in India 464
26.3.3 Bio-inspired tissue engineering 28.1.3 Lower limb prosthetics 464
and biofabrication 434 28.2 Traditional lower limb prosthetic
26.3.4 Multicriteria decision-making 437 manufacturing methods in India 465
26.4 Future scope 443 28.2.1 Manufacturing process 465
References 444 28.2.2 Case study: Bhagwan Mahaveer
Viklang Sahayata Samiti
(Jaipur Foot) 465
28.2.3 Case study: Hardayal Viklang
27. Design and optimization of artificial Seva Kendra 466
intelligence robot arm printable 28.2.4 Observations in the case studies 466
by a metal-based additive 28.3 Additive manufacturing of prosthetic
manufacturing process 449 sockets 468
M. Kumaran, V. Senthilkumar and T. Sathies 28.3.1 Introduction 468
28.3.2 Manufacturing process 468
27.1 Introduction 449 28.3.3 Advantages and challenges 470
27.2 Product design and development for 28.4 Case study: additively manufactured
additive manufacturing 449 lower limb prosthetic sockets 470
27.3 Design for additive manufacturing 450 28.4.1 3D scanning 470
 Contents xiii

28.4.2 Socket modeling 470 29.2.1 Three-dimensional scaffolds and

28.4.3 Material characterization 471 periodontal regeneration 480
28.4.4 Additive manufacturing 472 29.2.2 Additive manufacturing for
28.4.5 Testing 472 dental educational and training 482
28.5 Comparison of traditionally and 29.2.3 Additive manufacturing for
additively manufactured lower limb dental implant design and
prosthetics 475 fabrication 482
28.6 Conclusion 475 29.2.4 Oral and maxillofacial surgeries
Acknowledgement 476 and treating traumatic injuries
References 476 using customized technology 484
29.2.5 Augmentation of alveolar bone 485
29.2.6 Prosthetic fabrication 486
29. Current trends of application of 29.3 Challenges in additive manufacturing 487
additive manufacturing in oral 29.3.1 Cost-effectiveness 487
healthcare system 479 29.3.2 Awareness 488
29.3.3 Material availability 488
Amit Bhardwaj, Anurag Bhatnagar and Ajay Kumar
29.4 Conclusion and future directions 488
29.1 Introduction 479 References 488
29.2 Additive manufacturing for oral
healthcare 480 Index 493
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List of contributors
Nesma T. Aboulkhair Advanced Materials Research
Centre, Technology Innovation Institute (TII), Masdar
City, Abu Dhabi, UAE; Centre for Additive
Manufacturing (CfAM), Faculty of Engineering,
University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United
Kingdom
Puneeta Ajmera Department of Public Health, School of
Allied Health Sciences, Delhi Pharmaceutical Science
and Research University, New Delhi, India
Esther T. Akinlabi Department of Mechanical
Engineering Science, University of Johannesburg,
Auckland Park Kingsway Campus, Johannesburg,
Guateng, South Africa; Pan Africa University for Life
and Earth Sciences Institute, Ibadan, Oyo State,
Nigeria
S.A. Akinlabi Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Butterworth Campus, Walter Sisulu University, East
London, Eastern Cape, South Africa
Hend Alqaydi Advanced Materials Research Centre,
Technology Innovation Institute (TII), Masdar City,
Abu Dhabi, UAE
Nujood Alshehhi Advanced Materials Research Centre,
Technology Innovation Institute (TII), Masdar City,
Abu Dhabi, UAE
S. Anand Kumar Additive Manufacturing Research
Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Jammu, Jammu,
Jammu and Kashmir, India
Dheeraj Kumar Angajala Additive Manufacturing Lab,
Faculty of Engineering, Dayalbagh Educational
Institute, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India
Selvam Arivazhagan Department of Mechanical
Engineering, KPR Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Jayesh Bellare Department of Chemical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai,
Maharashtra, India
Amit Bhardwaj Department of Periodontology, Faculty
of Dental Sciences, SGT University, Gurugram,
Haryana, India
Anurag Bhatnagar Department of Periodontology,
Faculty of Dental Sciences, SGT University,
Gurugram, Haryana, India
Sudip Dasgupta Department of Ceramic Engineering,
NIT Rourkela, Rourkela, Odisha, India
Arup Dey Department of Industrial and Manufacturing
Engineering, North Dakota State University, United
States
Amal M.K. Esawi Mechanical Engineering Department,
School of Sciences and Engineering, The American
University in Cairo, New Cairo, Cairo, Egypt
Victor Gambhir Department of Mechanical
Engineering, School of Engineering, JECRC
University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Natalia B. Ghisi C Advanced Materials Research
Centre, Technology Innovation Institute (TII), Masdar
City, Abu Dhabi, UAE
Carmen M. González-Henrı́quez Faculty of Natural
Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Studies,
Department of Chemistry, Metropolitan Technological
University, Santiago, Chile
Deepak Gupta Department of Chemical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai,
Maharashtra, India
Abid Haleem Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
Sunir Hassan Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Butterworth Campus, Walter Sisulu University, East
London, Eastern Cape, South Africa
Vineet Jain Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Mewat Engineering College, Nuh, Haryana, India
Mohd Javaid Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
T-C. Jen Department of Mechanical Engineering Science,
University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park Kingsway
Campus, Johannesburg, Guateng, South Africa
Anita Jena Advanced Technology Development Centre,
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West
Bengal, India
xv
xvi List of contributors
K. Kalaichelvan Department of Ceramic Technology,
ACT Campus, Anna University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu,
India
Sheetal Kalra School of Physiotherapy, Delhi
Pharmaceutical Science and Research University, New
Delhi, India
Brahmansh Kaushik Additive Manufacturing Research
Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Jammu, Jammu,
Jammu and Kashmir, India
Ajay Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering,
School of Engineering, JECRC University, Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Arvind Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh,
India
Cheruvu Siva Kumar Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology,
Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
Lokesh Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
Parveen Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Rawal Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Faridabad, Haryana, India
M. Kumaran Department of Production Engineering,
National Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli,
Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
Rasheedat M. Mahamood Department of Materials and
Metallurgical Engineering, University of Ilorin, Ilorin,
Kwara State, Nigeria; Department of Mechanical
Engineering Science, University of Johannesburg,
Auckland Park Kingsway Campus, Johannesburg,
Guateng, South Africa
Mayurkumar A. Makhesana Mechanical Engineering
Department, Institute of Technology, Nirma
University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
Ashish Kumar Mishra Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur,
Uttar Pradesh, India
Santosh Kr. Mishra Department of Production
Engineering, National Institute of Technology
Tiruchirappalli, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
Ravi Kant Mittal Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology and
Science, Pilani, Rajasthan, India
Bidyut Pal Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Engineering Science and
Technology Shibpur, Howrah, West Bengal, India
Kaushik M. Patel Mechanical Engineering Department,
Institute of Technology, Nirma University,
Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
Dan A. Pérez-Monje Faculty of Natural Science,
Mathematics, and Environmental Studies, Department
of Chemistry, Metropolitan Technological University,
Santiago, Chile
Mona Prabhakar Department of Orthodontics and
Dentofacial Orthopedics, Faculty of Dental Science,
Shree Guru Gobind Singh Tricentenary University,
Gurugram, Haryana, India
Kishore Pradeep Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Indian Institute of Engineering Science
and Technology Shibpur, Howrah, West Bengal,
India
Rija Nirina Raoelison Université de Bourgogne Franche-
Comté—UTBM, Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de
Bourgogne, UMR 6303 CNRS, Belfort, France
Juan Rodrı́guez-Hernández Department of Applied
Macromolecular Chemistry, Polymer
Functionalization Group, Institute of Polymer Science
and Technology–Spanish National Research Council
(ICTP-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
Fernando E. Rodrı́guez-Umanzor Material Science and
Progress Engineering, Metropolitan Technological
University, Santiago, Chile
Ankit Sahai Additive Manufacturing Lab, Faculty of
Engineering, Dayalbagh Educational Institute, Agra,
Uttar Pradesh, India
Bijaya Bikram Samal Advanced Technology
Development Centre, Indian Institute of Technology,
Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
Mauricio A. Sarabia-Vallejos Facultad de Ingenierı́a y
Tecnologı́a, Universidad San Sebastián, Sede
Santiago, Santiago, Chile
T. Sathies Department of Production Engineering,
National Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli,
Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
Sonam Sehrawat Department of Orthodontics and
Dentofacial Orthopedics, Faculty of Dental Science,
Shree Guru Gobind Singh Tricentenary University,
Gurugram, Haryana, India
V. Senthilkumar Department of Production Engineering,
National Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli,
Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
Rahul Swarup Sharma Additive Manufacturing Lab,
Faculty of Engineering, Dayalbagh Educational
Institute, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India

Mohd Shoeb Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
Hari Singh Department of Mechanical Engineering,
National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra,
Haryana, India
Yogendra Pratap Singh Department of Ceramic
Engineering, NIT Rourkela, Rourkela, Odisha,
India
P.R. Sreeraj Department of Production Engineering,
National Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli,
Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
J. Srinivas National Institute of Technology Rourkela,
Odisha, India
S. Stalin Department of Ceramic Technology, ACT
Campus, Anna University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu,
India
U. Sudhakar SCSVMV Kanchipuram, Tamilnadu, India
Tadele Belay Tuli Department of Electromechanical
Engineering, College of Electrical and Mechanical
Engineering, AASTU, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia;
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of
Siegen, Siegen, Germany
List of contributors xvii
Shailendra Kumar Varshney Department of Electronics
and Electrical Communication Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
Rajkumar Velu Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology, Jammu, Jammu and
Kashmir, India; Additive Manufacturing Research
Laboratory, Indian Institute of Technology Jammu,
Jammu and Kashmir, India
Ruban Whenish Centre for Biomaterials, Cellular and
Molecular Theranostics, Vellore Institute of Technology,
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India; Manna Chemicals & Drugs
Private Limited, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Anshul Yadav CSIR–Central Salt and Marine Chemicals
Research Institute, Bhavnagar, Gujarat, India
Kuldeep Yadav Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh,
India
Sheetal Yadav Department of Hospital Management,
School of Allied Health Sciences, Delhi Pharmaceutical
Science and Research University, New Delhi, India
Nita Yodo Department of Industrial and Manufacturing
Engineering, North Dakota State University, United States
This page intentionally left blank
About the editors

Dr. Ajay Kumar is currently serving as an associate professor in the Mechanical Engineering Department, School of
Engineering and Technology, JECRC University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. He received his PhD in the field of advanced
manufacturing from Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, Hisar, India, after BTech (Hons.) and MTech
(Distinction) from Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, India. His areas of research include artificial intelligence, intelli-
gent manufacturing, incremental sheet forming, additive manufacturing, advanced manufacturing, Industry 4.0, waste man-
agement, and optimization techniques. He has over 60 publications in international journals of repute including SCOPUS,
Web of Science, SCI indexed database, and refereed international conferences. He has coauthored/coedited several books
including “Incremental Sheet Forming Technologies: Principles, Merits, Limitations, and Applications, CRC Press, Taylor
and Francis. ISBN: 978-0-367-27674-4,” “Waste Recovery and Management: An Approach Towards Sustainable
Development Goals, CRC Press, Taylor and Francis, ISBN: 9781032281933,” “Handbook of Flexible and Smart Sheet
Forming Techniques: Industry 4.0 Perspectives, John WILEY and Sons,” and “Smart Manufacturing: Forecasting the Future
of Industry 4.0, CRC Press, Taylor and Francis, ISBN 9781032363431.” He has organized various national and international
events, including the International Conference on Mechatronics and Artificial Intelligence (ICMAI-2021), as conference
chair. He has more than 15 national and international patents to his credit. He has supervised more than eight MTech, PhD
scholars, and numerous undergraduate projects/theses. He has more than 13 years of experience in teaching and research. He
is a guest editor and review editor of reputed journals, including Frontiers in Sustainability. He has contributed to many inter-
national conferences/symposiums as a session chair, expert speaker, and member of the editorial board. He has won several
proficiency awards during the course of his career, including merit awards and best teacher awards. He has also authored
many in-house course notes, lab manuals, and monographs, and invited chapters in books. He has organized a series of
faculty development Programs, international conferences, workshops, and seminars for researchers and PhD-, UG-, and
PG-level students. His area of research includes additive manufacturing, dieless sheet forming, and intelligent manufacturing
systems. He teaches the following courses at the graduate and postgraduate levels: additive manufacturing, manufacturing
technology, smart manufacturing, advanced manufacturing processes, material science, CAM, optimization techniques,
design of experiments and research methodology, and so on.

Prof. (Dr.) Ravi Kant Mittal began his academic career at Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani (BITS
Pilani), one of the top universities of India, in 1975, and retired from there as a senior professor in 2018. He headed the
offshore campus of BITS Pilani in Dubai, UAE, as the director and was also the vice-chancellor of a private university,
K.R. Mangalam University, Gurugram, India, for a term. In his academic endeavor, he has introduced, developed, and
taught a wide spectrum of courses in mechanical engineering, computer science, and new courses in emerging and inter-
disciplinary areas at the graduate and postgraduate levels, including product design, mechanical design, reliability engi-
neering, control systems, systems modeling, robotics and intelligent systems, mechatronics, micro-electromechanical
systems (MEMS), and nanotechnology. He is a life member of IEEE and ACM. He is the author/coauthor of over 80
technical papers and has coauthored 3 popular textbooks: “Elements of Manufacturing Processes, PHI Learning, ISBN:
978-81-203-1958-5”; “Incremental Sheet Forming Technologies: Principles, Merits, Limitations, and Applications,
CRC Press, Taylor and Francis, ISBN: 978-0-367-27674-4”; and “Robotics and Control, McGraw-Hill, ISBN:
0070482934.” He was editor of two international conference proceedings and has also authored many in-house course
notes, lab manuals, monographs, and invited chapters in books. His research interests include robust robot design,
robot-path planning, MEMS, nanotechnology, software engineering, software testing, additive manufacturing, and waste
management. At BITS Pilani, he held a series of leadership positions, including director (special projects); deputy direc-
tor of administration; dean, Academic Registration and Counselling Division, and founder chief, computer-assisted
housekeeping unit, and IEEE Student Branch Counselor, among others. He received BE (Hons.) and ME in mechanical
engineering and PhD degrees from BITS Pilani, India. He obtained the highest rank in order of merit in ME and was
awarded the Institute’s Gold Medal.
xix
xx About the editors

Dr. Abid Haleem, working as a professor of mechanical engineering at Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India, is
acknowledged in the list of top global scientists (Elsevier and Stanford) in the top 2% in 2019 and 2020 and has a
global rank in the top 0.4%. Currently, he is the regional editor of the Global Journal of Flexible Systems Management
(Springer) and associate editor with JCOT (Elsevier), MAPAN (Springer), and Journal of Orthopaedics (Elsevier),
Apollo Journal of Medicine (Kluwer).
With an h-index of 55 in Google Scholar (39 in SCOPUS) and more than 13,000 citations in Google Scholar, more
than 460 research articles have been published, more than 270 articles indexed in SCOPUS (95 SCI), three books to his
credit. His latest book is “Handbook of Materials Management,” published by Prentice Hall of India, while the latest
edited book is “An update on Medical 3D Printing” from Solubris. He has more than 34 years of teaching and research
experience at graduate and higher levels and has produced more than 31 PhD. His research interest includes additive
manufacturing, advanced healthcare technologies and management, and supply chain management.
He is conferred with the fellowship of AGBA and has professional and life membership of IIIE, ISME, ISTE, GIFT,
SCL, IICC, and ISC. He has also served as the president and secretary to the Global Institute of Flexible Systems
Management and AGBA. In 2019 he was selected for and attended the Leadership Program (LEAP) of UGC MHRD at
AMU and Ohio State University, United States. He has visited various academic institutions and industries around the
world for intellectual pursuits. Besides consulting and arbitration experience, he also provides leadership in taking up
different educational and allied programs in management and technology. He also worked on the board of
Telecommunications Consultants India Ltd. as an independent director and advisor to DTDC Ltd. He is on various insti-
tutions’ advisory/research boards and is involved in multiple institutional activities related to policy planning, adminis-
tration, accreditation, curriculum design, admission, evaluation and examination, and other educational processes.
Part I

Introduction
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 1

Introduction to additive manufacturing

technologies
Rasheedat M. Mahamood1,2, T-C. Jen2, S.A. Akinlabi3, Sunir Hassan3 and Esther T. Akinlabi2,4
1
Department of Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria, 2Department of Mechanical Engineering
Science, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park Kingsway Campus, Johannesburg, Guateng, South Africa, 3Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Butterworth Campus, Walter Sisulu University, East London, Eastern Cape, South Africa, 4Pan Africa University for Life and Earth
Sciences Institute, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria

Chapter Outline
1.1 Introduction 3 1.4 Areas of application of additive manufacturing 8
1.2 Brief history of additive manufacturing 4 1.4.1 Foods and housing 9
1.3 Classes of additive manufacturing 4 1.4.2 Healthcare 10
1.3.1 Vat photopolymerization 4 1.4.3 Automobiles and aerospace 10
1.3.2 Material jetting 5 1.4.4 Electronics 10
1.3.3 Binder jetting process 5 1.4.5 Consumers product and jewelry 10
1.3.4 Material extrusion 6 1.5 Summary 11
1.3.5 Sheet lamination 6 References 11
1.3.6 Powder bed fusion 6 Further reading 13
1.3.7 Directed energy deposition (DED) 7

1.1 Introduction
Additive manufacturing (AM) has revolutionized the manufacturing world by bringing innovations to how products are made
(Mahamood et al., 2014, 2021). In conventional manufacturing processes, the part designer is faced not only with the workabil-
ity of a part but also its manufacturability. The designer is forced to break a component into several parts as a result of the lim-
itations of the manufacturing process, especially when the component is made of complex, intricate parts. Such parts end up
being bulky due to the extra materials used in coupling the parts together (Mahamood et al., 2014). This is not the case with
AM technologies. In AM technologies, parts are produced simply by adding materials layer after layer, following the path gen-
erated by the three-dimensional (3D) model of the part. With AM technology, the designer does not have to worry about the
manufacturability of the product (Mahamood et al., 2021). All he needs to focus on is the workability of the component. If a
component can be drawn using any kind of computer-aided design (CAD) software, it can be produced using AM technology.
With AM technologies, components can be made with all the flexibility and complexity of a single part. Since the advent of
AM technologies, a number of industries has benefited from this revolutionary technology due to a number of its advantages.
Transport and aerospace industries have really benefited from these exciting manufacturing processes because they offer weight
savings, which in turn helps to reduce the carbon footprints of these industries (Mahamood, 2018; Mahamood et al., 2017). In
this chapter, a brief background of AM technologies is presented in Section 1.2. The different classes of AM technology are
presented in Section 1.3. Application areas of AM technology is discussed in Section 1.4. The chapter ends in Section 1.5 with
a summary of the chapter.

Advances in Additive Manufacturing: Artificial Intelligence, Nature-Inspired, and Biomanufacturing. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-91834-3.00002-8
© 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 3
4 PART | I Introduction

1.2 Brief history of additive manufacturing

AM began in the 1980s in Japan as a solution for faster product development (Mahamood et al., 2017).
Stereolithography (SLA) was invented in 1983 by Hull (1990). At the time, the technology was referred to as Rapid
Prototyping (Mahamood et al., 2017) because the idea was to produce 3D models for prototypes and for form and fit
functions (Mahamood et al., 2017). In 1986, Hull cofounded a company, 3D Systems. In addition, Chuck and 3D
Systems developed the standard triangulation language (STL) file format that helps the communication between CAD
software and the AM machine for the electronic transfer of data from the CAD software to the 3D printers. SLA is a
rapid prototyping system for creating models using liquid photopolymer resin that is subsequently cured with ultraviolet
(UV) lasers. SLA was the first AM technology in the world to be commercialized since its invention, SLA has greatly
reduced the time for developing 3D concepts into prototypes, which has in turn reduced time to market or lead time of
new product. In 1986, Carl Deckard and Joe Beaman of the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the University of
Texas developed selective laser sintering (SLS) (Deckard, 1989). SLS is an AM technology for building 3D models
through successive layers of powdered materials that are fused together using a high-power laser. In 1989, Carl
Deckard, Joe Beaman, and Paul Forderhase formed a company called Nova Automation. The company produced the
early SLS machines. In 1989, another AM technology, fused deposition modeling (FDM), was invented and patented
by Crump (1991).
In the 1990s, AM metal-based processes were developed and introduced to the market. Many companies launched
systems for laser sintering systems that were able to produce metal parts. In 1998, laser-engineered net shaping
(LENS), a metal powder system based on technology, was developed and commercialized by Optomec at Sandia
National Labs in the United States (Mahamood et al., 2017; Griffith et al., 1996). With the high interest in AM technol-
ogy among the research community, AM continues to grow and resolution and accuracy continue to be improved,
enabling the production of end-used parts that are made with the desired materials. It is now possible to produce 100%
dense functional parts using metals, composites, and other materials. AM continues to grow as a wide range of
suitable materials continue to evolve. Today large-scale printers capable of printing large 3D objects, such as cars, are
available. Additive manufacturing has continued to revolutionize our world by offering numerous advantages in the pro-
duction of end-used parts, giving engineers and designers unprecedented design freedom and flexibility that enable the
manufacture of components from varieties of materials.

1.3 Classes of additive manufacturing

AM/3D printing, according to the joint committee of ISO and ASTM international, is the name used to describe a group
of technologies that generate 3D objects by adding successive two-dimensional (2D) layers of materials (Mahamood
et al., 2021; Scott et al., 2012), Since the advent of AM technology, many AM technologies with different names have
been developed and commercialized. Many of these developed technologies are similar to one another, and people
started to be overwhelmed by these similar technologies with different names. As a result, the ASTM/ISO joint techni-
cal committee classified these AM technologies into seven different groups. Five main stages are common to all AM
technologies: generation of the 3D CAD model of the object to be made, conversion of the CAD file into a STL, slicing
of the STL data into 2D equal sizes that form the layer thickness for building the component, layer-by-layer building of
materials, and, finally, the removal of the component from the building platform and other finishing operations
(Mahamood and Akinlabi 2017). Four out of the five basic steps in AM technologies are similar for all AM processes.
The only step that differentiates all the seven classes is the building process. Vat photopolymerization, powder bed
fusion, material jetting, material extrusion, sheet lamination, binder Jetting, and direct energy deposition (DED) are the
seven groups of AM technologies (Scott et al., 2012). Each of these groups is described next.

1.3.1 Vat photopolymerization

Vat photopolymerization is used to describe AM technologies that use liquid photopolymer, which is selectively cured
to generate a 3D component (Mahamood et al., 2021). The light is controlled to selectively harden the polymer. The
build platform is immersed in the polymer bath. Each time the stage is lowered into the photopolymer bath, a new layer
of the polymer is selectively cured. The process is repeated until the building process is completed. The schematic dia-
gram of AM technology in this category is shown in Fig. 1.1 (Hagedorn, 2017). When the building of the part is fin-
ished, the remaining liquid photopolymer is drained from the bath, and the built object is removed. Some of the AM
technologies in this class are SLA (Mahamood et al., 2021; Jacobs, 1992), digital light processing (DLP), continuous
 Introduction to additive manufacturing technologies Chapter | 1 5

FIGURE 1.1 Schematic diagram of vat Photopolymerization (Hagedorn, 2017).

FIGURE 1.2 Schematic diagram of material jetting.

DLP, etc. (Mahamood et al., 2021). This group of AM process is used to produce prototypes and end-used components
made of plastic materials.

1.3.2 Material jetting

The material jetting group of AM technologies is used to describe a group of AM technologies that produce 3D compo-
nents by selectively spraying liquid build materials onto the building platform and the liquid is then cured and hardened
using UV light (Yap et al., 2017). The cured material on the building platform forms a layer. This process is repeated
to produce layer after layer of the build material forming the 3D object. The schematic diagram of AM technology in
this group is shown in Fig. 1.2. An example of AM technologies in this group is nanoparticle jetting.

1.3.3 Binder jetting process

The binder jetting class describes a group of AM technologies that create 3D objects using powder and binder in liquid
form. The binder is selectively jetted or sprayed by print head on the powder material in order to bond the powder
6 PART | I Introduction

FIGURE 1.3 Schematic diagram of binder jetting.

together. That is, the powder is first spread on the built platform using a powder roller, and then the print head sprays
the binding material (Mahamood et al., 2021). As the build platform is lowered, each time a layer is produced, the pow-
der is spread on the build platform, and the binder is sprayed to produce the next layer. The process is repeated until
the 3D object is generated (Jacobs, 1992). The schematic diagram of AM technology that belongs to binder jetting
group is shown in Fig. 1.3. An example of AM technology in this class is 3D printing.

1.3.4 Material extrusion

Material extrusion is the name given to a group of AM technologies that generates 3D objects using the extrusion pro-
cess (Mahamood et al., 2021). Material is extruded through a heated nozzle that softens the material. The extruded
material is deposited on the build platform layer by layer to create the 3D object. The schematic diagram of AM tech-
nology in this group is shown in in Fig. 1.4 (Zhang et al., 2020). An example of AM technology in this group is FDM
(Mahamood et al., 2021).

1.3.5 Sheet lamination

Sheet lamination is the name given to a group of AM technology that uses sheet materials that are bonded together
(using ultrasonic welding, adhesive chemicals, or brazing) and then cut into the desired shapes using a computer numer-
ically controlled (CNC) laser to generate 3D objects (Mahamood et al., 2021). The new sheet is joined to the previously
bonded sheet, and the desire path is cut with CNC machine or laser. The process is repeated layer after layer until the
3D object is made. The schematic diagram of AM technologies that belong to the sheet lamination group is shown in
Fig. 1.5 (Hagedorn, 2017). Examples of this group of AM include ultrasonic AM and laminated object manufacturing
(Mahamood et al., 2021). Sheet metals are used in the ultrasonic AM process and are bonded using ultrasonic welding,
while paper materials are used in laminated object manufacturing and adhesive is used for binding.

1.3.6 Powder bed fusion

Powder bed fusion is a name given to a group of AM technologies that use powder material and heat energy to create
the 3D object. The heat energy sources used by this group of AM include laser and electron beam, which are used to
melt or fuse the powder material that is spread over the build platform (Mahamood et al., 2021). Then the heat source
is selectively scanned over the powder to fuse or melt the powder on its path (Mahamood et al., 2021). Each time the
build platform is lowered, the powder is spread, and the fused or melted layer is created. The process is repeated until
the desired 3D object is generated. Examples of AM technologies in this class of AM include electron beam melting,
 Introduction to additive manufacturing technologies Chapter | 1 7

FIGURE 1.4 Schematic diagram of material extrusion (Zhang et al., 2020).

FIGURE 1.5 Schematic diagram of sheet lamination (Hagedorn, 2017).

selective laser melting, selective heat sintering, and SLS (Mahamood et al., 2021). A schematic diagram of AM technol-
ogy in a powder bed fusion group is shown in Fig. 1.6 (Yap et al., 2017).

1.3.7 Directed energy deposition (DED)

DED is the name given to a group of AM technologies that creates 3D objects by melting wire or powder material using
a heat energy source placed coaxially with the powder material as it is being deposited on the substrate (Mahamood
et al., 2021). The heat energy sources used in this group of AM include laser, electron beam, and plasma arc. DED can
be used to produce objects using multilaterals that enable the creation of parts with composites, as well as functionally
graded materials. This group of AM technology can also be used to repair highly valued parts that could not be repaired
in the past or that have been prohibitive to repair. A 3D object is created in the directed energy deposition class of AM
by focusing the heat source on the substrate to create a melt pool; the powder or wire material is then fed into the
melt pool, and, upon solidification of the material, a layer of solidified material is created (Mahamood et al., 2021).
8 PART | I Introduction

FIGURE 1.6 Schematic diagram of powder bed fusion (Löber et al., 2014).

FIGURE 1.7 Schematic diagram of directed energy deposition (Mahamood et al., 2013).

The process is repeated layer after layer until the 3D object is created (Mahamood et al., 2021). The schematic diagram
of the AM technology that belongs to directed energy deposition is shown in Fig. 1.7 (Mahamood et al., 2013).
Examples of this group of AM technologies include electron beam melting, laser metal deposition, and LENS.

1.4 Areas of application of additive manufacturing

COVID-19 pandemic is one of the challenges faced by human beings in all parts of the world at the moment. AM has
contributed immensely to fighting this pandemic, as well as in other areas where this technology has been used. AM/3D
printing is used to produce face shields and ventilator splitters by innovators across the world when the large
manufacturing plants and airports were shut down at the peak of the ravaging pandemic (Kumar and Pumera, 2021).
A number of personal protective types of equipment were 3D printed to fight COVID-19 that includes face shield,
Another random document with
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cables all over the world being 2937, with a total length of 291,137
nautical miles.
Before describing the actual working of a submarine cable, a few
words on cable-laying may be of interest. Before the cable-ship
starts, another vessel is sent over the proposed course to make
soundings. Galvanized steel pianoforte wire is used for sounding,
and it is wound in lengths of 3 or 4 nautical miles on gun-metal
drums. The drums are worked by an engine, and the average speed
of working is somewhere about 100 fathoms a minute in descending,
and 70 fathoms a minute in picking up. Some idea of the time
occupied may be gained from a sounding in the Atlantic Ocean
which registered a depth of 3233 fathoms, or nearly 3½ miles. The
sinker took thirty-three minutes fifty seconds in descending, and
forty-five minutes were taken in picking up. The heavy sinker is not
brought up with the line, but is detached from the sounder by an
ingenious contrivance and left at the bottom. The sounder is fitted
with an arrangement to bring up a specimen of the bottom, and also
a sample of water; and the temperature at any depth is ascertained
by self-registering thermometers.
When the soundings are complete the cable-ship takes up her
task. The cable is coiled in tanks on board, and is kept constantly
under water to prevent injury to the gutta-percha insulation by
overheating. As each section is placed in the tank, the ends of it are
led to a test-box, and labelled so that they can be easily recognized.
Insulated wires run from the test-box to instruments in the testing-
room, so that the electrical condition of the whole cable is constantly
under observation. During the whole time the cable is being laid its
insulation is tested continuously, and at intervals of five minutes
signals are sent from the shore end to the ship, so that a fault is
instantly detected. The cable in its tank is eased out by a number of
men, and mechanics are posted at the cable drums and brakes,
while constant streams of water cool the cable and the bearings and
surfaces of the brakes. The tension, as shown by the dynamometer,
is at all times under careful observation. When it becomes necessary
to wind back the cable on account of some fault, cuts are made at
intervals of a quarter or half a mile, tests being made at each cutting
until the fault is localized in-board. As soon as the cable out-board is
found “O.K.,” the ends are spliced up and the paying-out begins
again. If the cable breaks from any cause, a mark-buoy is lowered
instantly on the spot, and the cable is grappled for. This may take a
day or two in good weather, but a delay of weeks may be caused by
bad weather, which makes grappling impossible.
The practical working of a submarine cable differs in many
respects from that of a land telegraph line. The currents used in
submarine telegraphy are extremely small, contrary to the popular
impression. An insulated cable acts like a Leyden jar, in the sense
that it accumulates electricity and does not quickly part with it, as
does a bare overhead wire. In the case of a very long cable, such as
one across the Atlantic, a current continues to flow from it for some
time after the battery is disconnected. A second signal cannot be
sent until the electricity is dissipated and the cable clear, and if a
powerful current were employed the time occupied in this clearing
would be considerable, so that the speed of signalling would be slow.
Another objection to a powerful current is that if any flaw exists in the
insulation of the cable, such a current is apt to increase the flaw, and
finally cause the breakdown of the line.
The feebleness of the currents in submarine telegraphy makes it
impossible to use the ordinary land telegraph receiver, and a more
sensitive instrument known as the “mirror receiver” is used. This
consists of a coil of very fine wire, in the centre of which a tiny
magnetic needle is suspended by a fibre of unspun silk. A magnet
placed close by keeps the needle in one position when no current is
flowing. As the deflections of the needle are extremely small, it is
necessary to magnify them in some way, and this is done by fixing to
the needle a very small mirror, upon which falls a ray of light from a
lamp. The mirror reflects this ray on to a sheet of white paper
marked with a scale, and as the mirror moves along with the needle
the point of light travels over the paper, a very small movement of
the needle causing the light to travel some inches. The receiving
operator sits in a darkened room and watches the light, which moves
to the right or to the left according to the direction of the current. The
signals employed are the same as those for the single-needle
instrument, a movement to the left indicating a dot, and one to the
right a dash. In many instruments the total weight of magnet and
mirror is only two or three grains, and the sensitiveness is such that
the current from a voltaic cell consisting of a lady’s silver thimble with
a few drops of acidulated water and a diminutive rod of zinc, is
sufficient to transmit a message across the Atlantic.
The mirror receiver cannot write down its messages, and for
recording purposes an instrument invented by Lord Kelvin, and
called the “siphon recorder,” is used. In this instrument a coil of wire
is suspended between the poles of an electro-magnet, and to it is
connected by means of a silk fibre a delicate glass tube or siphon.
One end of the siphon dips into an ink-well, and capillary attraction
causes the ink to fill the siphon. The other end of the siphon almost
touches a moving paper ribbon placed beneath it. The ink and the
paper are oppositely electrified, and the attraction between the
opposite charges causes the ink to spurt out of the siphon in very
minute drops, which fall on to the paper. As long as no current is
passing the siphon remains stationary, but when a current flows from
the cable through the coil, the latter moves to one side or the other,
according to the direction of the current, and makes the siphon move
also. Consequently, instead of a straight line along the middle of the
paper ribbon, a wavy line with little peaks on each side of the centre
is produced by the minute drops of ink. This recorder sometimes
refuses to work properly in damp weather, owing to the loss of the
opposite charges on ink and paper, but a later inventor, named
Cuttriss, has removed this trouble by using a siphon kept constantly
in vibration by electro-magnetism. The ordinary single-needle code is
used for the siphon recorder.
 CHAPTER XVIII
THE TELEPHONE

In our younger days most of us have amused ourselves with a toy

telephone consisting of a long piece of string having each end
passed through the bottom of a little cardboard box, and secured by
a knot. If the string is stretched tightly this arrangement enables
whispered words to be heard at a distance of 20 or 30 yards. Simple
as is this little toy, yet it is probable that many people would be rather
nonplussed if asked suddenly to explain how the sounds travel along
the string from one box to the other. If the toy had some complicated
mechanism most likely every one would want to know how it worked,
but the whole thing is so extremely simple that generally it is
dismissed without a thought.
If we strike a tuning-fork and then hold it close to the ear, we
hear that it produces a sound, and at the same time, from a slight
sensation in the hand, we become aware that the fork is in vibration.
As the fork vibrates it disturbs the tiny particles of air round it and
sets them vibrating, and these vibrations are communicated from
one particle to another until they reach the drum of the ear, when
that also begins to vibrate and we hear a sound. This is only another
way of saying that the disturbances of the air caused by the
vibrations of the tuning-fork are propagated in a series of waves,
which we call “sound waves.” Sound is transmitted better through
liquids than through the air, and better still through solids, and this is
why words spoken so softly as to be inaudible through the air at a
distance of, say, 100 feet, can be heard fairly distinctly at that
distance by means of the string telephone. The sound reaches us
along the string in exactly the same way as through the air, that is,
by means of minute impulses passed on from particle to particle.
 A more satisfactory arrangement than the string telephone
consists of two thin plates of metal connected by a wire which is
stretched very tightly. Words spoken close to one plate are heard by
a listener at the other plate up to a considerable distance. Let us try
to see exactly what takes place when this apparatus is used. In the
act of speaking, vibrations are set up in the air, and these in turn set
up vibrations in the metal plate. The vibrations are then
communicated to the wire and to the metal plate at the other end,
and finally the vibrations of this plate produce vibrations in the air
between the plate and the listener, and the sound reaches the ear.
This simple experiment shows the remarkable fact that a plate of
metal is able to reproduce faithfully all the vibrations communicated
to it by the human voice, and from this fact it follows that if we can
communicate the vibrations set up in one plate by the voice, to
another plate at a distance of 100 miles, we shall be able to speak to
a listener at the further plate just as if he were close to us. A
stretched string or wire transmits the vibrations fairly well up to a
certain distance, but beyond this distance the vibrations become
weaker and weaker until no sound at all reaches the air. By the aid of
electricity, however, we can transmit the vibrations to a tremendous
distance, the range being limited only by the imperfections of our
apparatus.
The first attempt at the construction of an electric telephone, that
is an instrument by means of which the vibrations set up by the voice
or by a musical instrument are transmitted by electricity, was made in
1860 by Johann Philipp Reis, a teacher in a school at Friedrichsdorf,
in Germany. His transmitting apparatus consisted of a box having a
hole covered by a tightly stretched membrane, to which was
attached a little strip of platinum. When the membrane was made to
vibrate by sounds produced close to the box, the strip of platinum
moved to and fro against a metal tip, which closed the circuit of a
battery. The receiver was a long needle of soft iron round which was
wound a coil of wire, and the ends of the needle rested on two little
bridges of a sounding box. The vibrations of the membrane opened
and closed the circuit at a great speed, and the rapid magnetization
of the needle produced a tone of the same pitch as the one which
set the membrane vibrating. This apparatus transmitted musical
sounds and melodies with great accuracy, but there is considerable
difference of opinion as to whether it was able to transmit speech.
Professor Sylvanus Thompson distinctly states that Reis’s telephone
could and did transmit speech, but other experts dispute the fact. We
probably shall be quite safe in concluding that this telephone did
transmit speech, but very imperfectly. In any case it is certain that
the receiver of this apparatus is not based on the same principle as
the modern telephone receiver.
Some years later Graham Bell, Professor of Vocal Physiology in
the University of Boston, turned his attention to the electric
transmission of speech, probably being led to do so from his
experiments in teaching the deaf and dumb. His apparatuses shown
at an exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876, consisted of a tube having
one end open for speaking into, and the other closed by a tightly
stretched membrane to which was attached a very light steel bar
magnet. The vibrations set up in the membrane by the voice made
the little magnet move to and fro in front of the poles of an electro-
magnet, inserted in a battery circuit, thus inducing currents of
electricity in the coils of the latter magnet. The currents produced in
this way varied in direction and strength according to the vibratory
movements of the membrane, and being transmitted along a wire
they produced similar variations in current in another electro-magnet
in the receiver. The currents produced in this manner in the receiver
set up vibrations in a metal diaphragm in front of the magnet poles,
and so the words spoken into the transmitter were reproduced.
Since the year 1876 the telephone has developed with
remarkable rapidity, and an attempt to trace its growth would involve
a series of detailed descriptions of closely similar inventions which
would be quite uninteresting to most readers. Now, therefore, that we
have introduced the instruments, and seen something of its principle
and its early forms, it will be most satisfactory to omit the
intermediate stages and to go on to the telephone as used in recent
years. The first telephone to come into general use was the invention
of Graham Bell, and was an improved form of his early instrument
just described. A case or tube of ebonite, which forms the handle of
the instrument, contains a steel bar magnet having a small coil of
insulated wire at the end nearest the mouthpiece of the tube, the
ends of the coil passing along the tube to be connected to the line
wires. Close to the coil end of the magnet, and between it and the
mouthpiece, is fixed a diaphragm of thin sheet-iron. A complete outfit
consists of two of these instruments connected by wires, and it will
be noticed that no battery is employed.
The air vibrations set up by the voice make the diaphragm
vibrate also, so that it moves backwards and forwards. These
movements are infinitesimally small, but they are sufficient to affect
the lines of force of the magnet to such an extent that rapidly
alternating currents of varying degrees of strength are set up in the
coil and sent along the line wire. On arriving at the receiver these
currents pass through the coil and produce rapid variations in the
strength of the magnet, so that instead of exerting a uniform
attraction upon the iron diaphragm, the magnet pulls it with
constantly varying force, and thus sets it vibrating. The air in front of
the diaphragm now begins to vibrate, and the listener hears a
reproduction of the words spoken into the transmitter. The way in
which the fluctuations of the current make the second diaphragm
vibrate exactly in accordance with the first is very remarkable, and it
is important to notice that the listener does not hear the actual voice
of the speaker, but a perfect reproduction of it; in fact, the second
diaphragm speaks.
The reader probably will be surprised to be told that the
transmitter and the receiver of a magneto-electric telephone are
respectively a dynamo and electric motor of minute proportions. We
provide a dynamo with mechanical motion and it gives us electric
current, and by sending this current through an electric motor we get
mechanical motion back again. In the transmitter of the telephone
just described, the mechanical motion is in the form of vibrations of
the metal diaphragm, which set up currents of electricity in the coil of
wire round the magnet, so that the transmitter is really a tiny dynamo
driven by the voice. The receiver is provided with electric current
from the transmitter, and it converts this into mechanical motion in
the diaphragm, so that the receiver is a little electric motor.
 Transmitters of the type just described work well over short
distances, but the currents they produce are too feeble for
transmission over a very long wire, and on this account they have
been superseded by transmitters on the microphone principle. A
microphone is an instrument for making extremely small sounds
plainly audible. If a current is passed through a box containing loose
bits of broken carbon, it meets with great resistance, but if the bits of
carbon are compressed their conducting power is considerably
increased. Even such slight differences in pressure as are produced
by vibrating the box will affect the amount of current passing through
the carbon. If this current is led by wires to an ordinary telephone
receiver the arrangement becomes a simple form of microphone.
The vibrations of the box vary the resistance of the carbon, and the
corresponding variations in the current set up vibrations in the
receiver, but in a magnified form. The smallest sound vibrations alter
the resistance of the carbon, and as these vibrations are magnified
in the receiver, the reproduced sound is magnified also. The
footsteps of a fly may be heard quite distinctly by means of a good
microphone, and the ticks of a watch sound like the strokes of a
hammer.
By means of this power of magnifying
vibrations a microphone transmitter can
be used on a line of tremendous length,
where an ordinary Bell transmitter would
be utterly useless. The general features
of this transmitter, Fig. 31, are a
diaphragm and a block of carbon
separated slightly from one another, the
intervening space being filled with
granules of carbon. These are enclosed
in a case of ebonite having a mouthpiece
in front and two terminals behind, one
Fig. 31.—Diagram of
terminal being connected with the carbon Microphone Transmitter.
block and the other with the diaphragm.
From these terminals wires are led to a
battery and to the receiver, which is of the Bell type. The current has
to pass through the carbon granules, and the movements of the
diaphragm when set in vibration by the voice vary the pressure upon
the granules, and in this way set up variations in the current. Carbon
dust also may be used instead of granular carbon, and then the
instrument is called a “dust transmitter.”
It is usual to have a transmitter and a receiver
on one handle for the greater convenience of the
user. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 32, and it
will be seen that when the user places the receiver
to his ear the transmitting mouthpiece is in position
for speaking. The microphone with its carbon dust
is placed at A, just below the mouthpiece, and the
earpiece or receiver B contains a little magnet and
coil with a diaphragm in front, so that it is really a
Bell instrument. A little lever will be noticed at C.
This is a switch which brings the transmitter into
circuit on being pressed with the finger.
It is now time to see something of the
arrangement and working of telephone systems.
As soon as the telephone became a commercially
Fig. 32.— practicable instrument the necessity for some
Combined means of inter-communication became evident,
Telephone and the telephone exchange was brought into
Transmitter and being. The first exchange was started in 1877, in
Receiver.
Boston, but this was a very small affair and it was
run on very crude lines. When one subscriber
wished to communicate with another he had to call up an operator,
who received the message and repeated it to the person for whom it
was intended; there was no direct communication between the
various subscribers’ instruments. As the number of users increased
it became necessary to devise some system whereby each
subscriber could call the attention of an operator at the central
station, and be put into direct communication with any other
subscriber without delay; and the exchange system of to-day, which
fulfils these requirements almost to perfection, is the result of gradual
improvements in telephone methods extending over some thirty-five
years.
 When a subscriber wishes to telephone, he first must call up the
operator at the exchange. Until comparatively recently this was done
by turning a handle placed at the side of the instrument. This handle
operated a little dynamo, and the current produced caused a shutter
at the exchange to drop and reveal a number, just as in the electric
bell indicator, so that the operator knew which instrument was
calling. As soon as the operator answered the call, the shutter
replaced itself automatically. The signal to disconnect was given in
the same way, but the indicator was of a different colour in order to
prevent confusion with a call signal. These handle-operated
telephones are still in common use, but they are being replaced by
instruments which do away with handle-turning on the part of the
subscriber, and with dropping shutters at the exchange. In this latest
system all that the subscriber has to do is to lift his telephone from its
rest, when a little electric lamp lights up at the exchange; and when
he has finished his conversation he merely replaces the telephone,
and again a little lamp glows.
We must now see what happens at the exchange when a call is
made. Each operator has control of a number of pairs of flexible
cords terminating in plugs, the two cords of each pair being
electrically connected. The plugs rest on a shelf in front of the
operator, and the cords pass through the shelf and hang down below
it. If a plug is lifted, the cord comes up through the shelf, and it is
drawn back again by a weight when the plug is not in use. Two
lamps are provided for each pair of cords, one being fixed close to
each cord. The two wires leading from each subscriber’s instrument
are connected to a little tube-shaped switch called a “jack,” and each
jack has a lamp of its own. When a subscriber lifts his telephone
from its rest a lamp glows, and the operator inserts one plug of a pair
into the jack thus indicated, and the lamp goes out automatically.
She then switches on her telephone to the caller and asks for the
number of the subscriber to whom he wishes to speak; and as soon
as she gets this she inserts the other plug of the pair into the jack
belonging to this number. By a simple movement she then rings up
the required person by switching on the current to his telephone bell.
 Here comes in the use of the two lamps connected with the
cords. As long as the subscribers’ telephones are on their rests the
lamps are lighted, but as soon as they are lifted off the lamps go out.
The caller’s telephone is of course off its rest, and so the lamp
connected with the first cord is not lit; but until the subscriber rung up
lifts his instrument to answer the call, the lamp of the second cord
remains lit, having first lighted up when the plug was inserted in the
jack of his number. When the second lamp goes out the operator
knows that the call has been responded to, and that the two
subscribers are in communication with each other. Having finished
their conversation, both subscribers replace their instruments on the
rests, whereupon both lamps light up, informing the operator that she
may disconnect by pulling out the plugs.
It is manifestly impossible for one operator to attend to the calls
of all the subscribers in the exchange, and so a number of operators
are employed, each one having to attend to the calls of a certain
number of subscribers. At the same time it is clear that each
operator may be called upon to connect one of her subscribers to
any other subscriber in the whole exchange. In order to make this
possible the switchboard is divided into sections, each having as
many jacks as there are lines in the exchange, so that in this respect
all the sections are multiples of each other, and the whole
arrangement is called a “multiple switchboard,” the repeated jacks
being called “multiple jacks.” Then there are other jacks which it is
not necessary to duplicate. We have seen that when a subscriber
calls the exchange a lamp glows, and the operator inserts a plug into
the jack beside the lamp, in order to answer the call and ascertain
what number is required. These are called “answering jacks,” and
the lamp is the line signal. It is usual to have three operators to each
section of the switchboard, and each operator has charge of so
many answering jacks, representing so many subscribers. At the
same time she has access to the whole section, so that she can
connect any of her subscribers to any other line in the exchange.
When a number is called for, the operator must be able to tell at
once whether the line is free or not. The jack in her section may be
unoccupied, but she must know also whether all the multiple jacks
belonging to that number are free, for an operator at another section
may have connected the line to one of her subscribers. To enable an
operator to ascertain this quickly an electrical test is provided. When
two lines are connected, the whole of the multiple jacks belonging to
each are charged with electricity, and if an operator at any section
touches one of these jacks with a plug, a current through her
receiver makes a click, and on hearing the click she knows that the
line is engaged. The testing takes an extremely short time, and this
is why a caller receives the reply, “Number engaged,” so promptly
that he feels inclined to doubt whether the operator has made any
attempt at all to connect him up to the number.
In order that an operator may have both hands free to
manipulate the plugs, her telephone receiver is fixed over one ear by
a fastening passing over her head, and the transmitter is hung from
her shoulders so as to be close to her mouth.
In telegraphy it is the rule to employ the earth for the return part
of the circuit, but this is not customary in telephony. The telephone is
a much more sensitive instrument than the telegraph, and a
telephone having an earth return is subject to all kinds of strange
and weird noises which greatly interfere with conversation. These
noises may be caused by natural electrical disturbances, or by the
proximity of telegraph and other wires conveying electric currents.
On this account telephone lines are made with a complete metallic
circuit. As in telegraphy, protection from lightning flashes is afforded
by lightning arresters. The current for the working of a telephone
exchange is supplied from a central battery of accumulators, and
also from dynamos.
 PLATE XII.

By permission of Craven Brothers Ltd.

LARGE ELECTRIC TRAVELLING CRANE AT A RAILWAY WORKS.

Although the manual exchange telephone system of to-day

works with remarkable efficiency, it has certain weak points. For
instance, if an operator cares to do so, she can listen to
conversations between subscribers, so that privacy cannot be
assured. As a matter of fact, the operators have little time for this
kind of thing, at any rate during the busy hours of the day, and as a
rule they are not sufficiently interested in other people’s affairs to
make any attempt to listen to their remarks. The male operators who
work through the slack hours of the night are occasionally guilty of
listening. Some time ago the writer had to ring up a friend in the very
early morning, and during the conversation this gentleman asked
what time it was. Before the writer had time to get a word out, a deep
bass voice from the exchange replied, “Half-past two.” Little incidents
of this sort remind one that it is not wise to speak too freely by
telephone. Then again operators are liable to make wrong
connexions through faulty hearing of the number called for, and
these are equally annoying to the caller and to the person rung up in
mistake. Many other defects might be mentioned, but these are
sufficient to show that the manual system is not perfect.
For a long time inventors have been striving to do away with all
such defects by abolishing the exchange operators, and substituting
mechanism to work the exchanges automatically, and during the last
few years the system of the Automatic Electric Company, of
Chicago, has been brought to great perfection. This system is in
extensive use in the United States, and is employed in two or three
exchanges in this country. Unfortunately the mechanism of this
system is extremely complicated, so that it is impossible to describe
it fully in a book of this kind; but some idea of the method of working
may be given without entering into technical details.
Each subscriber’s telephone instrument is fitted with a dial which
turns round on a pivot at its centre. This dial has a series of holes
round its circumference, numbered consecutively from 1 to 9, and 0.
Suppose now a subscriber wishes to speak to a friend whose
telephone number is 2583. He removes the receiver from its hook,
places his finger in the hole marked 2, and turns the dial round in a
clockwise direction until his finger comes in contact with a stop. He
then removes his finger, and the dial automatically returns to its
original position. He then places his finger in the hole marked 5, and
again turns the dial as far as the stop, and when the dial has
returned to the normal position he repeats the process with his finger
placed successively in the holes marked 8 and 3. He now places the
receiver to his ear, and by the time he has done this the automatic
mechanism at the exchange has made the necessary connexions,
and has rung the bell of subscriber number 2583. On completing the
conversation each subscriber returns his receiver to its hook, and the
exchange mechanism returns to its normal position.
The turning of the dial by the finger coils up a spring, and this
spring, acting along with a speed governor, makes the dial return to
its first position at a certain definite speed as soon as the finger is
removed. During this retrograde movement a switch automatically
sends out into the line a certain number of impulses, the number
being determined by the hole in which the finger is placed. In the
case supposed, groups of two, five, eight, and three impulses
respectively would be sent out, each group separated from the next
by an interval during which the subscriber is turning the dial.
Now let us see what takes place at the exchange. The
subscriber’s instrument is connected to a mechanical arrangement
known as a “line switch.” This switch is brought into play by the act of
removing the receiver from its hook, and it then automatically
connects the subscriber’s line to what is called a “first selector”
switch. The group of two impulses sent out by the first turning of the
dial raises this first selector two steps, and it then sweeps along a
row of contacts connected to “trunks” going to the 2000 section.
Passing by occupied trunks, it finds an idle one, and so connects the
line to an idle “second selector.” This selector is operated by the
second group of impulses, five in number, and after being raised five
steps it acts like the first selector, and finds an idle trunk leading to
the 2500 section. This places the caller’s line in connexion with still
another switch called a “connector,” and this switch, operated by the
remaining groups of eight and three impulses, finds the required tens
section, and selects the third member of that section. If the number
2583 is disengaged, the connector switch now sends current from
the central battery to this instrument, thus ringing its bell, and it also
supplies speaking current to the two lines during the conversation,
restores the exchange mechanism to its original condition as soon
as the conversation is ended and the subscribers have hung up their
receivers, and registers the call on the calling subscriber’s meter. If
the connector finds the number engaged, it sends out an intermittent
buzzing sound, to inform the caller of the fact. All these operations
take time to describe, even in outline, but in practice they are carried
out with the utmost rapidity, each step in the connecting-up process
taking only a small fraction of a second.
For ordinary local calls the automatic system requires no
operators at all, but for the convenience of users there are usually
two clerks at the exchange, one to give any information required by
subscribers, and the other to record complaints regarding faulty
working. For trunk calls, the subscriber places his finger in the hole
marked 0, and gives the dial one turn. This connects him to an
operator at the trunk switchboard, who makes the required
connexion and then calls him up in the usual way.
It might be thought that the complex mechanism of an automatic
exchange would constantly be getting out of order, but it is found to
work with great smoothness. Each automatic switchboard has a
skilled electrician in attendance, and he is informed instantly of any
faulty working by means of supervisory lamps and other signals.
Even without these signals the attendant would be quickly aware of
any breakdown, for his ear becomes so accustomed to the sounds
made by the apparatus during the connecting-up, that any abnormal
sound due to faulty connecting attracts his attention at once.
However detected, the faults are put right immediately, and it often
happens that a defective line is noted and repaired before the
subscriber knows that anything is wrong.
On account of its high speed in making connexions and
disconnexions, its absolute accuracy, and its privacy, the automatic
telephone system has proved most popular wherever it has been
given a fair trial. Its advantages are most obvious in large city
exchanges where the traffic during business hours is tremendously
heavy, and it is probable that before very long the automatic system
will have replaced manual methods for all such exchanges.
The telephone system is more highly developed in the United
States than in this country, and some of the exchanges have been
made to do a great deal more than simply transmit messages. For
instance, in Chicago there is a system by which a subscriber, on
connecting himself to a special circuit, is automatically informed of
the correct time, by means of phonographs, between the hours of 8
a.m. and 10 p.m. New York goes further than this however, and has
a regular system of news circulation by telephone. According to
Electricity, the daily programme is as follows: “8 a.m., exact
astronomical time; 8 to 9 a.m., weather reports, London Stock
Exchange news, special news item; 9 to 9.30 a.m., sales,
amusements, business events; 9.45 to 10 a.m., personal news,
small notices; 10 to 10.30 a.m., New York Stock Exchange and
market news; 11.30 a.m. to 12 noon, local news, miscellaneous; 12
noon, exact astronomical time, latest telegrams, military and
parliamentary news; 2 to 2.15 p.m., European cables; 1.15 to 2.30
p.m., Washington news; 2.30 to 2.45 p.m., fashions, ladies’ news;
2.45 to 3.15 p.m., sporting and theatrical news; 3.15 to 3.30 p.m.,
closing news from Wall Street; 3.30 to 5 p.m., musical news, recitals,
etc.; 5 to 6 p.m., feuilleton sketches, literary news; 8 to 10.30 p.m.,
selected evening performance—music, opera, recitations.”
Considering the elaborate nature of this scheme one might imagine
that the subscription would be high, but as a matter of fact it is only
six shillings per month.
The telephone has proved of great value in mine rescue work, in
providing means of communication between the rescue party and
those in the rear. This end is achieved by means of a portable
telephone, but as the members of a rescue party often wear oxygen
helmets, the ordinary telephone mouthpiece is of no use. To
overcome this difficulty the transmitter is fastened round the throat.
The vibrations of the vocal cords pass through the wall of the throat,
and thus operate the transmitter. The receiver is fixed over one ear
by means of suitable head-gear, and the connecting wire is laid by
the advancing rescuers. A case containing some hundreds of feet of
wire is strapped round the waist, and as the wearer walks forward
this wire pays itself out automatically.
By the time that the telephone came to be a really practical
instrument, capable of communicating over long distances on land,
the Atlantic telegraph cable was in operation, and an attempt was
made to telephone from one continent to the other by means of it,
but without success. In speaking of submarine telegraphy in Chapter
XVII. we saw that the cable acts like a Leyden jar, and it was this fact
that made it impossible to telephone through more than about 20
miles of cable, so that transatlantic telephony was quite out of the
question. It was evident that little progress could be made in this
direction unless some means could be devised for neutralizing this
capacity effect, as it is called, of the cable, and finally it was
discovered that this could be done by inserting at intervals along the
cable a number of coils of wire. These coils are known as “loading
coils,” and a cable provided with them is called a “loaded cable.”
Such cables have been laid across various narrow seas, such as
between England and France, and England and Ireland, and these
have proved very successful for telephonic communication. The
problem of transatlantic telephony however still remains to be
solved. Experiments have been made in submarine telephony over a
bare iron cable, instead of the usual insulated cable. Conversations
have been carried on in this way without difficulty between Seattle,
Washington, U.S.A., and Vashon Island, a total distance of about 11
miles, and it is possible that uninsulated cables may play an
extremely important part in the development of submarine telephony.
 CHAPTER XIX
SOME TELEGRAPHIC AND TELEPHONIC
INVENTIONS

In telegraphy messages not only may be received, but also

recorded, by the Morse printer or one of its modifications, but in
ordinary telephony there is no mechanical method of recording
messages. This means that we can communicate by telephone only
when we can call up somebody to receive the message at the other
end, and if no one happens to be within hearing of the telephone bell
we are quite helpless. This is always annoying, and if the message is
urgent the delay may be serious. Several arrangements for
overcoming this difficulty by means of automatic recording
mechanism have been invented, but the only really successful one is
the telegraphone.
This instrument is the invention of Waldemar Poulsen, whose
apparatus for wireless telegraphy we shall speak of in the next
chapter. The telegraphone performs at the same time the work of a
telephone and of a phonograph. In the ordinary type of phonograph
the record is made in the form of depressions or indentations on the
surface of a cylinder of wax; these indentations being produced by a
stylus actuated by vibrations set up in a diaphragm by the act of
speaking. In the telegraphone the same result is obtained entirely by
electro-magnetic action. The wax cylinder of the phonograph is
replaced by a steel wire or ribbon, and the recording stylus by an
electro-magnet. The steel ribbon is arranged to travel along over two
cylinders or reels kept in constant rotation, and a small electro-
magnet is fixed midway between the cylinders so that the ribbon
passes close above it. This magnet is connected to the telephone
line, so that its magnetism fluctuates in accordance with the
variations in the current in the line. We have seen that steel retains
magnetism imparted to it. In passing over the electro-magnet the
steel ribbon is magnetized in constantly varying degrees,
corresponding exactly with the variations in the line current set up by
the speaker’s voice, and these magnetic impressions are retained by
the ribbon. When the speaker has finished, the telephone line is
disconnected, the ribbon is carried back to the point at which it
started, and the apparatus is connected to the telephone receiver.
The ribbon now moves forward again, and this time it acts like the
speaker’s voice, the varying intensity of its magnetic record
producing corresponding variations in the strength of the magnet, so
causing the receiver diaphragm to reproduce the sounds in the
ordinary way.
The magnetic record made in this manner is fairly permanent,
and if desired it may be reproduced over and over again. In most
cases, however, a permanent record is of no value, and so the
magnetic impressions are obliterated in order that the ribbon may be
used to take a new record. This can be done by passing a
permanent magnet along the ribbon, but it is more convenient to
have an automatic obliterating arrangement. This consists of another
electro-magnet fixed close to the recording magnet, so that the
ribbon passes over it before reaching the latter. The obliterating
magnet is connected with a battery, and its unvarying magnetism
destroys all traces of the previous record, and the ribbon passes
forward to the recording magnet ready to receive new impressions.
For recording telephone messages the telegraphone is attached
to the telephone instrument, and by automatically operated switches
it is set working by a distant speaker. It records all messages
received during the absence of its owner, who, on his return,
connects it to his receiver, and thus hears a faithful reproduction of
every word. By speaking into his instrument before going out, the
owner can leave a message stating the time at which he expects to
return, and this message will be repeated by the telegraphone to
anybody ringing up in the meantime. The most recent forms of
telegraphone are capable of recording speeches over an hour in