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Chemical and Biological
Weapons and Terrorism
Chemical and Biological
Weapons and Terrorism
Anthony Tu
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
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able efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and pub-
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v
Contents
vi
Contents
vii
Contents
Index 177
viii
PREFACE
My lifelong research began with the study of the structure–function
relationship of snake venom. I also taught general toxicology covering
all types of toxicology including chemical and biological weapons at
Colorado State University from 1967 to 1998. While I was teaching, the
Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988) began and a large-scale chemical war started. I
was able to learn new aspects of chemical weapons. I had been interested
in chemical and biological weapons since 1954 when I was a chemical offi-
cer in the Taiwan Army. In Taiwan, we had to serve for one year in the
military after college graduation. In 1983, the U.S. government learned
that the Soviet Union had developed toxin weapons using various bio-
logical toxins to make new types of biological weapons. One of the toxin
weapons from Uzbekistan was a snake neurotoxin, my specialty. Since
then, I have served as a consultant for various defense companies in the
United States and different branches of the U.S. government.
In 1994, a terrorism attack using sarin occurred in Matsumoto, Japan,
and the Japanese police struggled to find out who did it and where the
sarin was made. I supplied the analysis of methylphosphonic acid in
the soil to the Japanese police with the aid of the U.S. Army. Eventually,
the Japanese police found sarin’s metabolite in the soil of Kamikuishiki
village, establishing direct scientific evidence that this was where the
Aum Shinrikyo cult was making sarin. I also helped the Japanese police
after Aum Shinrikyo struck the Tokyo subway with sarin in 1995. For my
contribution, the Japanese Emperor awarded me with a medal, the Order
of the Rising Sun, Gold Rays with Neck Ribbon. Since then, I have been
invited by different countries to give lectures at various scientific meet-
ings including many defense departments.
I have published several books on sarin terrorism in Japanese, as well
as biological and chemical weapon and terrorism books, two of which
have been translated into Chinese in Taiwan. Since 1995, I have attended
NBC (nuclear, biological, chemical) meetings, some as an invited speaker,
in Croatia, Switzerland, Sweden, Egypt, the United States, Singapore,
Qatar, Thailand, Taiwan, Japan, Indonesia, and Iran.
Chapter 3, titled “An Example of Chemical War: The Iran–Iraq War” is
coauthored with Dr. Sayid Abbas Foroutan, a former Iranian military sur-
geon who actively participated in the treatment of Iranian soldiers who
ix
Preface
suffered from a poisonous gas used by Iraq. In 2007, I was sent to Iran
by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)
to participate in a meeting on chemical casualties held in Tehran, Iran.
Before the meeting, the Iranian government invited me to Isfahan, for an
annual check on the Iranian veterans who suffered chemical injuries from
the earlier Iran–Iraq War. During the meeting in Tehran, I met Foroutan,
who supplied me with many photographs of chemical weapon casualties.
I am very happy to have an opportunity to write a chemical and
biological weapons book in English and am grateful to CRC Press/Taylor
& Francis. The aim of this book is to provide a bird’s-eye view of chemical
and biological weapons to the public, so it is written in easy-to-understand
language. As terrorism is becoming rampant in recent society, I hope this
book will help the public to understand what chemical and biological
weapons are.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to those at CRC Press/
Taylor & Francis for their assistance. They include Jennifer Abbott, Mark
Listewnik, and Misha Kydd. I also extend my thanks to Dr. Brenda Baker,
who reviewed the entire manuscript to improve the English. Finally, I send
my thanks to my late wife, Kazuko Yamamoto Tu, who was d edicated to
helping me throughout her life, and who I dearly miss since her departure
to heaven on December 16, 2012.
x
AUTHOR
Dr. Anthony Tu is the world’s leading expert on the Tokyo sarin
attacks and is much sought after globally for his insight on chemical and
biological weapons and weapons of mass destruction. He has written,
coauthored, and edited 40 books on chemistry and weapons studies in
his decades-long career. Dr. Tu also played an integral role in the investi-
gation of the sarin attacks, the first chemical terrorism attack on record,
pivoting the entire direction of the investigation with his knowledge of
how the chemical weapon would leave deposits on surrounding soil.
xi
Section I
Basic Information
1
Chemical Agents and Weapons
One should not confuse the terms chemical agent and chemical weapon.
A chemical agent is an ingredient, which is not yet a chemical weapon.
Chemical agents need to be packed in a proper container such as an artil-
lery shell or a bomb for transport. In Aum Shinrikyo’s sarin terrorist attack
in Matsumoto, Japan, it used a homemade sprayer to deliver the sarin. In
the Tokyo subway terrorist attack, Aum Shinrikyo members placed sarin
in plastic bags, broke open the bags, and let the sarin diffuse by itself. So,
you could say a plastic bag containing sarin is a sort of chemical weapon.
Some countries have a device attached to an airplane’s wing to spray sarin
from the air. With this device, one can spray the gas directly from an air-
plane instead of packing poisonous gas in bomb. A chemical agent refers
to the ingredient and it always requires some mechanism to transport or
deliver it.
3
Chemical and Biological Weapons and Terrorism
4
Chemical Agents and Weapons
possession being a good deterrent. The same seems to hold true for nuclear
weapons; that is, nobody dares to initiate the first use of a nuclear weapon
attack for fear of retaliation with the same nuclear weapon.
5
Chemical and Biological Weapons and Terrorism
Photo 1.1 Commander Dr. David Moss of Johnston Island (holding the machine
gun), who obtained a doctorate degree from Colorado State University. (Used
with permission from Dr. David Moss.)
Photo 1.2 Senator Daniel Inouye inspects the chemical weapons base on Johnston
Island. (Used with permission from Dr. David Moss.)
6
Chemical Agents and Weapons
chemical and biological agents for war and is in the process of destroying
its stockpiles. This will be discussed further in Chapter 9.
H3C O
CH O P CH3
H3C F
7
Chemical and Biological Weapons and Terrorism
H O
(H3C)3C C O P F
CH3 CH3
Soman
O
O P F
CH3
Cyclosarin
8
Chemical Agents and Weapons
O
CH(CH3)2
C2H5O P S CH2CH2N
CH(CH3)2
CH3
VX
and finally VX was produced. VX is more toxic than the previously men-
tioned nerve gases and is less volatile, it can penetrate the skin and kill
people. From the chemical structure of VX (Structure 1.5), it is an organo-
phosphate but it also contains part of the mustard gas structure. The
chemical structure of the left portion is a G-type nerve gas while the mid-
dle portion has similarities to mustard gas. VX was never used in actual
combat, but it was used for the first time by Aum Shinrikyo, killing one
person and injuring two in Japan in 1994–1995.
Other manufactured nerve gases include GE (ethylsarin), GF (cyclo-
sarin or cyclohexymethyl phosphonoflouridate), and GV. GV was devel-
oped by former Czechoslovakia and was called GV because it has
properties of VX and other G-type nerve gases such as GA, GB, and GD.
During the Cold War, the United States knew of the presence of GV but
called it GP.
A new type of nerve agent is currently being developed and one type,
alkylquarternary salt of N-methyl carbamate, is considered to be one of
the strongest nerve agents.
Some properties of nerve gases are described next.
1.3.1.1 Sarin
Physical properties
Melting point: −56°C
Boiling point: −147°C
Vapor pressure: 2.10 mmHg at 20°C
Volatility: 12,000 mg/m3
Specific gravity against air: 4.86; specific gravity against water: 1.09
Toxicity
Route of entry is inhalation, eye, skin
Lethal dose: 100 mg ⋅ min/m3 (gas) for man
Minimum toxic dose: 1 0×10−3 mg ⋅ min/m3 (gas)
Minimum concentration to incapacitate a person: 0.5 mg ⋅ min/
m−3 (gas)
9
Chemical and Biological Weapons and Terrorism
O O
CH3 CH3
E Ser OH + F P O CH E Ser O P O CH
CH3 CH3
CH3 CH3
AChE Sarin AChE-sarin complex
10
Chemical Agents and Weapons
CH3
H
O HON C N+
+
AChE Ser O P OCH(CH3)2
(CH3)
AChE-sarin complex Pralidoxime (PAM)
(inactive enzyme)
O CH3
H
CH3 P O N C N+
CONH2
HON CH
N+ N+
CH2 O CH2
CO
HON CH N+ +
N
CH2 O O
OH
f
C CH2 O
N
11
Chemical and Biological Weapons and Terrorism
O
Acetylcholine CH3 C O CH2 CH2 N(CH3)3
7A
Br– O
+
E Ser OH + CH3 N O N(CH3)2
(PB)
(AChE, 100%)
O
E Ser OH + E Ser O N(CH3)2
(60 ~ 80%) AChE-PB
E Ser OH
AChE
Structure 1.13 The reason PB can be used as a prophylactic drug for sarin.
1.3.1.2 Tabun
Physical properties
Melting point: –49°C
Boiling point: 246°C
12
Chemical Agents and Weapons
1.3.1.3 Soman
Physical properties
Melting point: –80°C
Boiling point: 167°C
Vapor pressure: 0.27 mm Hg at 20°
Volatility: 2.06 mg/m3
Specific gravity against air is 6.35 and 1.01 against water
Toxic duration: Good weather at 15°C: 2.5 to 5 days; Good weather and
snow without wind at –10°C: 1 to 6 weeks; Wind and rain at 10°C:
3 hr to 1.5 days
1.3.1.4 VX
Physical properties
Melting point: –20°C
Boiling point: 300°C
Vapor pressure: 0.044 mm Hg at 20°C
Volatility: 1.6 mg/m3
Specific gravity against air is 9.25 and 1.026 against water
Toxicity
Route of entry is skin, inhalation, and eye. It can kill a person
at the concentration of 0.1mg ⋅ min/m3 and the lowest concentra-
tion to cause toxic effects is 110 × 10−3 mg ⋅ min/m3 in gas phase.
Because of low volatility it can last 2 weeks on the battleground.
Moreover it has a strong penetration ability, so it can kill a person
from skin penetration. This is considered the most toxic among
all nerve gases.
Aum Shinrikyo in Japan used VX, which injured two people. The
cult members grabbed their victims and placed a drop of liquid VX onto
them. Suddenly, the victims saw darkness because VX shrinks the pupils.
13
Chemical and Biological Weapons and Terrorism
14
Chemical Agents and Weapons
CI CI
As
CI
Unpurified mustard gas has been used many times. Purified mustard
gas is called distilled mustard gas. Lewisite was the gas that was most often
used during WWI and also in China by the Japanese troops during the
1937–1945 period. Cleanup of the leftover poisonous gases in China was the
responsibility of Japan, which will be described in more detail in Chapter 9.
Lewisite is also a well-known blister agent and was assigned the code
name of “L” by the U.S. Army. The chemical structure of lewisite is shown
in Structure 1.14. It was developed in the United States but was not used
in WWI or WWII. The United States produced 20,000 tons of lewisite but
eventually all the stockpile was destroyed in 2012, as the United States
decided not to use chemical weapons for war. Although the United States
never used lewisite, Japan used it extensively in the Chinese war zone.
Lewisite contains arsenic atoms in its compound and this caused arsenic
poisoning for many years after Japan buried it underground after WWII.
Again, more on this in Chapter 9.
Lewisite is the inhibitor of pyruvic acid dehydrogenase and thus pre-
vents the formation of acetyl-CoA, which in turn prevents the formation
of ATP in vivo. The action of lewisite is somewhat similar to mustard gas
and produces blisters upon skin contact. It causes intensive pain in the
skin and is also inhaled. The antidote for lewisite is dimercaprol, which
can be injected to prevent systemic poisoning but will not to prevent the
effects on the skin.
In addition to mustard gas and lewisite, phenyldichloroarsine (PD),
ethylchloroarsine (ED), and methylchloroarsine (MD) are also arsenic
compounds with blister effects.
15
Chemical and Biological Weapons and Terrorism
the carbon atom. It is also called by different names, such as chlorine cya-
nide, cyanic chloride, chlorocyanogen, and chlorocyanide.
The toxic effect is that it damages the respiratory organs and eyes
upon contact. It causes drowsiness, sore throat, coughing, nausea, vom-
iting, edema, convulsion, paralysis, and eventually death. It becomes
hydrogen cyanide (HCN) after it enters the body.
The duration of toxicity in 15°C clear weather is only a few minutes,
so it is highly diffusible. Even on a rainy day, the toxic effect lasts only a
few minutes.
The melting point is −6.55°C and the boiling point is 13°C, so it is a
gas in the normal temperature range of 20°C to 30°C. It is a colorless gas,
and soluble in water and some organic solvents such as ethanol and ether.
The specific gravity against air is 2.1, so it is heavier than air. The specific
gravity of liquid cyanogen chloride is 1.22.
16
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no related content on Scribd:
hyvä. Mitäs sanoisit?
— Mutta sinä lupasit olla vain minulle sisko, sanoi Paavo. Hänen
oli vaikea luopua yksinoikeudestaan.
Nyt oli jo Paavo tyytyväinen. Hän oli tähän asti ajatellut vain
itseään.
7.
Jos minä olen lyhyempi kuin sinä, niin ainakin olen yhtä paksu.
— Koetetaan, sanoi Laila. — Jos täytät kolttuni miehustan, niin
silloin olet.
— Nyt sen näet. Minähän olenkin liian paksu, arveli Laila. Olen kai
kohta kuin pallo.
— Voi per….na!
Paavo veteli vielä muutamia isoja ahvenia, ja saalis oli nyt jo siksi
hyvä, että kannatti palata.
Metsissä ja kukkaniityillä kuljeksiessa kului päivä huomaamatta
illoilleen. Päivällinen oli jo syöty, kun palattiin. Täti oli säästänyt
Niilon saaman, paistetun ahvenen heille, ja siinä oli syömistä
jokaiselle.
Paavo sai kirjeen äidiltä. Siinä oli tosin osa Heikillekin, mutta kirje
oli osoitettu Paavolle. Huomispäivänä päätti Paavo kirjoittaa äidille ja
kertoa juhannuksen vietosta Hernemaassa. Se näytti muodostuvan
hyvin hauskaksi.
Paavo sai Lailalta luvan tanssia hänen kanssaan ensimmäisen
valssin.
Häntä vain taaskin suretti se, ettei ollut yhtä pitkä kuin Laila.
Varmaankin vieraat nauravat, kun minä olen lyhyempi kuin Laila,
vaikka
hänkään ei ole pitkä, ajatteli Paavo. Hänen täytyi keventää
sydäntään
Lailalle.
Ihana juhannus!
8.
Setä oli vielä sanonut, ettei hän saisi tulla enää yhtään kertaa
kesäksi Hernemaahan, jos vain laiskotteli niin, että koulussa sai
ehdot.
Se oli ankara tuomio, mutta Heikki lupasi pitää sen mielessään.
Hän ei enää voinut ajatellakaan muualla kesän viettoaan kuin täällä,
jossa oli herttainen Laila ja paljon muutakin kaunista.
— Ooho!
9.
Hernemaassa oli äkäinen pässi, ja Paavo oli ollut sitä
härnäämässä. Hänelle oli johtunut mieleen, että kaupungissakin
härnäsivät pojat suutarin matamin pässiä. Miksei tätäkin saisi
härnätä. Sehän oli niin kovin hauskaa.
— No, no, Paavo, ei saa… tule nyt sisään, niin saat mansikoita,
lupasi serkku.
Paavon harmi oli tiessään.
Paavo vaikeni. Vasikat olivat olleet niin hassun näköisiä, kun hän
niitä ajoi. Ei hän tietänyt, että Laila näki.
10.
— Tuonkin mökin isä ja äiti ovat kerran olleet pieniä, niinkuin tekin
nyt. Heillä oli vain tuollainen mökki kotina ja heidän täytyi lähteä
maailmalle elättämään henkeään ihmisten työtä tekemällä, niinkuin
teki isäkin. Heillä näes ei ollut omaa maata, jota muokaten olisivat
voineet hankkia leipänsä, vaan maa heidän tupansa ympärillä oli
toisen, joka ei sitä antanut heidän viljellä muuta kuin pienen
perunamaan.
11.
12.
Niityllä oli kovin hauskaa. Hei, miten haravat heiluivat ja heinä
kuivui niin että ritisi. Se tuoksui voimakkaasti vielä kuivuessaankin.
— Minulle tuli niin kuuma, että piti lähteä uimaan, sanoi hän ja
tarkasteli, mitä Laila mahtoi ajatella.
Nauroi, veitikka. Kyllä kai Laila arvasi, minkä vuoksi hän oli niityltä
lähtenyt. Ja sitäpaitsi setä oli kieltänyt puhumasta toisin, kuin asia
oli.
— Minulle tuli niin paha mieli, kun sinä sanoit niin, virkkoi Heikki, ja
sen vuoksi minä lähdin. Ei puhuta nyt enää siitä mitään, eikös?
13.