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 Neale TAYLOR | Angela STUBBS
Robert STOKES

CHEMISTRY

2
VCE UNITS 3 AND 4
Chemistry

2
VCE Units 3 and 4
Chemistry

2
VCE Units 3 and 4

Neale Taylor
Robert Stokes
Angela Stubbs
Wan Ng
Maida Derbogosian
First published 2017 by
John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064

Typeset in 10.5/12 pt Utopia Std

© Neale Taylor, Robert Stokes, Angela Stubbs, Wan Ng, Maida Derbogosian 2017

The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.

National Library of Australia

Cataloguing-in-publication data

Creator: Taylor, Neale, author.

Title: Chemistry 2 : VCE units 3 & 4 / Neale Taylor, Robert Stokes,

Angela Stubbs.

ISBN: 978 0 7303 2910 7 (set)

978 0 7303 2909 1 (paperback)
978 0 7303 2913 8 (eBook)
978 0 7303 3116 2 (studyON)

Notes: Includes index.

Target Audience: For secondary school age.

Subjects: Chemistry — Textbooks.

Victorian Certificate of Education examination.

Other Creators/Contributors:
Ng, Wan, author.
Derbogosian, Maida, author.

Dewey Number: 540.712

Reproduction and communication for educational purposes

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Contents
About eBookPLUS and studyON ix Working with gases 38
How to use this book x Specifying the large-scale behaviour of gases 39
Acknowledgements xii Gas pressure 39
Temperature 40
Volume 41
UNIT 3 Laws to describe the behaviour of gases 41
The combined gas equation 43
Area of study 1
Standard conditions for measuring gases 44
Chapter 1 Molar gas volume and Avogadro’s hypothesis 44
Choosing fuels 2 The universal gas equation 46
Mass – volume stoichiometry 47
Energy and fuels 3
Volume – volume stoichiometry 49
What is energy? 3
Applying volume stoichiometry to
Energy from common fuels 3
thermochemistry 50
Thermochemical equations 4
Fuels and greenhouse gases 51
Different forms of energy 5
How do we obtain the energy output of a fuel? 54
Energy conversions 5
Chapter review 57
Energy converters 8
Energy use in society 9
Global energy use 9 Chapter 3
Renewable and non-renewable resources 9 Converting chemical energy to
Choosing energy sources 11
Non-renewable fuels 12
electrical energy 66
Fossil fuels 12 Redox reactions 67
Coal 12 Frog power? 67
Petroleum 13 Oxidation numbers 68
Natural gas 14 Rules for determining oxidation numbers 68
Biofuels 16 Using oxidation numbers 69
Petrodiesel versus biodiesel — comparing fuels 17 Identifying redox reactions 70
Producing petrodiesel 17 Half-equations and redox equations 72
Biodiesel production 19 Harnessing redox reactions 73
Energy use and the environment 22 Galvanic cells in the laboratory 76
The effect of use of fossil fuels on the environment 22 Types of half-cell 77
Sustainable energy 24 Standard electrode potentials 78
Chapter review 26 Use of standard half-cell reduction potentials 81
The unpredictability of the rate of electrochemical
reactions 84
Chapter 2 Cells and batteries 85
Energy calculations 31 Factors affecting selection of cells 85
Energy changes in chemical reactions 32 Primary cells 86
Exothermic and endothermic reactions 33 The dry cell 86
Thermochemical equations 34 The alkaline zinc/manganese dioxide cell 87
Calculating ΔH values from two or more related Button cells 88
reactions 37 Lithium cells 89

Contents v
 Fuel cells 91
Where are fuel cells used? 91
Fuel cell design 91
Types of fuel cell 92
Environmental and safety considerations 96
Chapter review 98
Area of study 2
Chapter 4
Electrolysis 107
Metals through the ages 108
Electrolysis — the process 108
Electrolytic cells 109
Comparing galvanic and electrolytic cells 110
Electrolysis of molten ionic compounds 112
Electrolysis of water 113
Electrolysis of aqueous solutions of ionic compounds 113
Predicting reactions during electrolysis of aqueous
solutions 113
Factors affecting electrolysis of aqueous
solutions 115
The effect of concentration 115
The nature of the electrolyte 116
The nature of the electrodes 117
Commercial applications of electrolysis 118
Producing aluminium 118
Industrial electrolysis of brine 120
Electroplating 121
Calculations in electrolysis — Faraday’s laws 123
Michael Faraday 123
Faraday’s first law of electrolysis 123
Faraday’s second law of electrolysis 124
Applying Faraday’s laws of electrolysis 125
Faraday’s laws in industry 127
Secondary cells — rechargeable batteries 128
Lead–acid accumulator 128
Nickel metal hydride rechargeable cell 131
Rechargeable lithium ion cell 131
Factors affecting battery life 133
Chapter review 135
Chapter 5
Rates of reactions 142
How does a chemical reaction occur? 143
Collision theory 144
Measuring reaction rates 144
Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution curves 145
Factors that affect the rate of a reaction 146
Concentration 146
Pressure 146
Temperature 146
Catalysts 147
Catalytic converters — catalysts in car exhausts 149
The effect of surface area 149
Chapter review 151
Chapter 6
Equilibrium systems 155
Chemical equilibrium 156
The equilibrium law 156
A closer look at equilibrium constants 158
The dynamic nature of equilibrium 159
Dynamic equilibrium and collision theory 160
The distinction between rate and extent 160
Calculations involving the equilibrium constant 160
How can we tell if a reaction is at equilibrium? 164
Reaction quotient, Q, and the equilibrium constant, Kc 165
Representing chemical equilibrium graphically 165
Making changes to equilibrium mixtures — Le Châtelier’s
principle 167
Adding or removing a substance that is involved in the
reaction 168
Explaining Le Châtelier’s principle mathematically 169
The effect of changing volume 170
The effect of changing temperature 172
The yield of a chemical reaction 173
Le Châtelier’s principle and industrial chemicals 174
Making ammonia — applying equilibrium and rate principles
in industry 174
The Haber process 175
An important biological application of equilibrium 177
Transport of oxygen by the blood 177
Carbon monoxide poisoning 178
Treating victims of carbon monoxide poisoning 179
Chapter review 180
UNIT 4
Area of study 3
Chapter 7
Key practical skills and
communication 190
Key practical skills in chemistry 191
Preparing for your experiment 192
Logbook 192
Which question will you choose? 192
Formulating your hypothesis and aim 193
Planning your experiment 193
Performing your experiment 195
Analysing your data 196
Producing your poster 196
Dealing with variables 197
Independent variables 197
Dependent variables 198

vi Contents
 Controlled variables 198 Isomers — same but different 243
More about variables 198 Structural isomerism 244
Dealing with variables experimentally 198 Stereoisomerism 245
Working with figures 199 Physical properties of hydrocarbons 248
Scientific notation 199 Alkanes 248
Significant figures 200 Flashpoint 249
How do we count significant figures? 201 Alkenes and alkynes 250
How are significant figures determined experimentally? 201 How do functional groups affect physical
Significant figures and calculations 202 properties? 250
An ambiguous case 202 Alcohols 251
Errors and uncertainties 203 Carboxylic acids 252
Reliability and accuracy 204 Aldehydes, ketones and esters 252
Tables and graphs 204 Amines and amides 253
Interpreting line graphs 205 Reactions of organic compounds 253
Working safely 206 Reactions of alkanes and alkenes 254
General safety rules 206 Combustion of alkanes and alkenes 254
Risk assessments 207 Substitution reactions of alkanes 254
Acknowledging sources 208 Cracking 256
Bibliographies 209 Addition reactions of alkenes 256
Chapter review 211 Addition polymerisation 257
Reactions of haloalkanes 259
Reactions of alcohols 259
Area of study 1 Reactions of alcohols — summary 260
Chapter 8 Reactions of carboxylic acids 261
Structures and nomenclature of Formation of esters 261
Polyesters 262
organic compounds 212 Reaction of carboxylic acids with amines 263
Carbon: a unique element 213 Reactions of carboxylic acids — summary 263
Organic chemistry 213 Organic pathways 264
Hydrocarbons 215 Measuring the efficiency of reactions 264
Alkanes 215 Percentage yield 264
Alkenes 220 Atom economy 265
Alkynes 222 Chapter review 267
Carbon rings 223
Functional groups 224
Alcohols 225 Chapter 10
Aldehydes 227 Analysis of organic compounds 274
Ketones 227 Chemical analysis 275
Carboxylic acids 228 Spectroscopy 275
Esters 230 Mass spectrometry 275
Amines 232 Infrared spectroscopy 278
Amides 233 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy 283
Haloalkanes 234 Chromatography 293
Compounds containing more than one functional group 234 Principles of chromatography 293
Chapter review 236 High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) 294
Combining techniques 300
Chapter 9 Volumetric analysis 302
Standard solutions 303
Properties and reactions of organic How do we know when to stop a titration? 304
compounds 241 More about these titration curves 307
Physical and chemical properties of Stoichiometry and volumetric analysis 308
organic compounds 242 Some examples of volumetric analysis 308
Properties and bonding 242 Sources of error 311
Bonding in and between organic molecules 242 Chapter review 312

Contents vii
 Area of study 2 Digestion of carbohydrates 354
Chapter 11 What happens to digested carbohydrates? 355
Lactose intolerance 356
Vitamins and proteins 322 Are all carbohydrates equally beneficial? 357
Eating chemicals 323 Fats and oils 358
Vital vitamins 324 Properties and reactions of fats and oils 360
Proteins in the body 327 Oxidation of food 361
Amino acids — building blocks of proteins 328 Essential fatty acids 362
Formation of proteins 331 Digestion of fats and oils 362
Structure of proteins 332 Energy in foods 364
Enzymes as protein catalysts 333 Nutrition information labels 364
The structure and action of enzymes 333 Measuring energy changes in chemical reactions —
Coenzymes — enzyme helpers 334 calorimetry 364
Factors affecting the action of enzymes 335 Solution calorimeter 365
Digestion of protein 337 Bomb calorimeter 367
What happens to digested protein? 338 Chapter review 370
Chapter review 340

Practical investigations ONLINE ONLY 376

Chapter 12 Answers 377
Food and energy 346 Glossary 421
Energy and food 347 Index 427
Types of carbohydrates 347 Periodic table of the elements 432
Monosaccharides and disaccharides 347
Polysaccharides 351

viii Contents
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How to use this book
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256
x How to use this book
Chemistry 2 VCE Units 3 and 4 has the following features.
5
How does a chemical reaction occur?
All chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms that are already
Rates of reactions
Unit 3
present. For such an arrangement to occur, existing (or old) bonds need to
AOS 2
Do more be broken and ‘new’ bonds allowed to form. This means that there is always
Topic 1 Energy profiles an energy requirement before a chemical reaction can take place; this corres-
Concept 4 for endothermic ponds to breaking the ‘old’ bonds. This energy required to break these bonds is
reactions called the activation energy and comes from either or both:
• thermal energy (heating)
• the kinetic energy of colliding particles.
When new bonds form, energy is released as the particles involved organise
Collisions cause change. Car accidents, tenpin YOU WILL EXAMINE:
Unit 3 themselves into stable arrangements that form the products. The total energy
bowling, hitting a golf ball, hurricanes and ■ the concept of rate of a reaction stored in a substance is called the enthalpy, or heat content, of the sub-
AOS 2
striking a match; all of these collisions affect their ■ the use of collision theory to explain reaction rates Do more stance and is given the symbol H. It is not possible to measure H directly but
Topic 1
surroundings. The more energy a collision has, ■ energy profile diagrams for exothermic and endothermic Activation energy the change in enthalpy (ΔH) can be measured when a substance undergoes a
the more dramatic are the changes produced. On reactions and the concept of activation energy Concept 6 chemical reaction. Change in enthalpy was discussed in chapter 2. Energy changes
a much smaller scale, collisions between atoms, ■ factors that affect the rate of a reaction can be conveniently summarised using the following energy profile diagrams.
molecules and ions are at the heart of all chemical ■ how catalysts affect the rate of a reaction Energy diagram for an exothermic reaction
reactions. The same ideas about energy and ■ Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution curves and their use in
collisions causing change explain much about how explaining reaction rates. activation
energy —
chemical reactions occur. energy energy
required evolved
to break
Energy
when new
bonds
bonds are
reactants formed
ΔH = –ve
products
Energy profile
Be less curious about
people and more
Blasting is an important step in open-cut mining. It frees up the
ore for collection and subsequent transport. The explosions
that release the ore are chemical reactions designed to happen
diagrams showing
activation energies.
A chemical reaction
Energy diagram for an endothermic reaction
curious about ideas. almost instantaneously, and they release huge volumes of gases can be recognised activation energy
and vast amounts of energy. The energy shockwave fractures as either exothermic energy — evolved
Chemical reactions involve
Marie Curie the rock and ore into smaller, more convenient pieces. Not all or endothermic by its energy when new
breaking old bonds and forming
chemical reactions happen so quickly, however. Chemists can required bonds are
Energy
new bonds. New substances ∆H value. If the ∆H
control the rates of reactions using knowledge of various factors. value is negative, the to break formed
form after the atoms rearrange
reaction is exothermic. bonds products
themselves. The energy required
If the ∆H value is ΔH = +ve
to initiate this process is called the
positive, the reaction is
activation energy.
endothermic. reactants
From these diagrams we can note a number of points:
• The energy required to break the old bonds is called the activation energy.
Energy profile diagrams are a • For an exothermic reaction, the activation energy is less than the energy
convenient way of representing
released when new bonds form. Consequently, there is a net release of
the energy changes during a
energy (usually as heat released to the surroundings).
chemical reaction. Depending
• In an endothermic reaction, the activation energy is greater than the energy
on these changes, reactions may
be classified as exothermic or
released when new bonds form. Consequently, there is a net input of energy
endothermic. A negative ∆H value (in most cases, heat is absorbed from the surroundings).
indicates an exothermic reaction, • In both cases, however, the activation energy represents a requirement
while a positive ∆H value indicates for the progress of the chemical reaction. This must be overcome before a
an endothermic reaction. reaction proceeds.
Bond breaking > bond forming +ΔH
Bond breaking < bond forming –ΔH
CHAPTER 5 Rates of reactions 143
Cracking Ethanol can be produced
catalytic hydration of ethene in the vapour phase is an addition reaction and is
shown below.
Cracking is a process that uses heat and pressure, and sometimes a catalysts by hydration of ethene or
to break larger hydrocarbon molecules into smaller molecules, including an a substitution reaction of a H3PO4
haloalkane. H2C CH2(g) + H2O(g) CH3CH2OH(g)
alkene and hydrogen, or an alkane.
Sample problem 9.2
Write a semi-structural equation for each of the following. +
(a) Ethene is produced from the cracking of propane. Model equation for the direct
(b) Carbon monoxide is produced by incomplete combustion of ethene in hydration of ethene to form
Solution:
limited air.
(a) CH3CH2CH3(g) CH2CH2(g) + CH4(g)
ethanol
ethene + steam ethanol
(b) CH2CH2(g) + 2O2 2CO(g) + 2H2O(g)
eLesson
Addition polymerisation
Revision questions Indirect hydration of ethylene Another important reaction of some unsaturated hydrocarbons is
eles-1677 polymerisation, a process in which many small molecules (monomers) are
16. Write an equation for the complete combustion of octane, C8H18.
17. The alkenes burn in a similar way to alkanes. Write an equation for the joined together to form a large molecule (polymer).
complete combustion of propene. The monomer ethene, containing a double bond, undergoes addition
In addition polymerisation, many
18. How many possible products are there when ethane reacts with bromine? small molecules (monomers) polymerisation readily to form polyethene (also known as polyethylene
Write the name of each of these products. combine to form very large or polythene). This product is one of the most commonly used synthetic
polymers. Low-density (melting at lower temperature) polyethene is used
molecules (polymers).
for making film, garbage bags and plastic wrappers and for making moulded
Unit 4
Addition reactions of alkenes articles such as squeeze bottles. High-density (containing linear rather than
Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes. They are unsaturated hydrocarbons branched chains and melting at a higher temperature) polyethene is more
AOS 1
and undergo addition reactions in which the C C bond is broken and new rigid and is used for moulding items such as bread and drink crates.
Do more Unit 4
Topic 3 Comparison of single bonds are formed. This is because the energy required to break the double
AOS 1 H H H H H H
Concept 2 substitution and bond is less than the energy released in the formation of two single bonds. For See more
addition reactions Topic 3 + C C + C C + C C +
example, hydrogenation of ethene produces ethane and releases energy. Addition reactions
Concept 1 of alkenes H H H H H H
catalyst
Alkenes undergo addition
H2C CH2(g) + H2(g) H3C—CH3(g) monomer ethene ethene ethene
reactions where the C C bonds
Substances that undergo addition reactions with alkenes include H2, Cl2,
are broken and new single bonds
Br2, HCl, HBr and HI. Addition of H2 requires the presence of a catalyst, such
are formed. H H H H H H
as finely divided Pt, Pd or Ni. The others react without the need for catalysis.
eLesson
The equations below are examples of addition reactions with alkenes. Note Addition polymerisation of ethylene polymer C C C C C C
that the reactants Br2, HCl and H2 in these reactions add across the double eles-1675
bond. Therefore, 1,2-dibromopropane is the only product. H H H H H H n
Interactivity
Making polymers
H2C CHCH3 + Br2 CH2BrCHBrCH3 int-3849 Addition polymerisation of ethene to form polyethene
propene bromine 1,2-dibromopropane
H2C CH2 + HCl CH3CH2Cl
ethene hydrogen chloroethane
chloride
3.1%
polyurethane
5.4%
1.4%
ABS/SAN
1.2%
H2C CH—CH2—CH3 + H2 CH3CH2CH2CH3
Pd
polystyrene nylon
but-1-ene hydrogen butane
12.3%
eLesson
Catalysis: hydrogenation of ethylene
The reaction of an alkene with bromine is used as a test for unsaturation.
When red-brown bromine water is shaken with an unsaturated hydrocarbon,
the reaction mixture becomes colourless due to the formation of the dibromo
other
14.5%
46.3%
polyethene
eles-1673
PVC
derivative. This pie chart shows
eLesson
Bromination of ethylene
Ethene is used as a raw material in a fast method to produce the large Australia’s consumption of
eles-1674 amounts of ethanol needed for industrial use. Ethene is mixed with steam and different types of polymers. 15.8%
passed over a phosphoric acid catalyst at 330 °C. The reaction of the direct polypropene
UNIT 4 CHAPTER 9 Properties and reactions of organic compounds 257
 Chapter review 2. Which of the following does not apply to
alkanes?
A They have the general formula CnH2n.
F

H
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

C OH
B They contain C and H.
H CH3 H H
C Each has at least one C—C bond.
Summary
Chapter
For example, a branched group of —CH3 would D They are saturated hydrocarbons. G OH
be named methyl, CH3CH2— would be ethyl, 3. Which of the following compounds is not regarded
■ Organic chemistry is the study of the compounds H H CH2
CH3CH3CH2— would be propyl and so on. These as an organic compound?
of carbon. This does not include the inorganic
summaries compounds of cyanides, carbonates and oxides of
carbon.
go before the name of the longest chain.
– For molecules with two or more branches of the
A C5H10
B H2CO3
C C2H5OH
H C C C H

same type, the branch type is named and a prefix H H H

give a detailed ■ Carbon can form many different compounds due to

its ability to create four covalent bonds with itself or
other elements.
(di-, tri-, tetra- etc.) is used to indicate the number
of branches. 4.
D ClCH3
Which of the following compounds is correctly
H H OH H

overview of key
– Branches are listed in alphabetical order, ignoring classified as a tertiary alcohol? H C C C H
■ In the methane molecule, a carbon atom can form A 3-methylbutan-1-ol
covalent bonds with four other atoms. The resulting the prefix in the previous rule. Ethyl is written
B 2-methylbutan-1-ol H H CH3
shape is tetrahedral, resulting in bond angles before methyl or dimethyl.

knowledge. ■
of 109.5°.
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds consisting of
Note: Adjacent numbers in a name are separated by
a comma. Numbers are separated from words by a
5.
C 3-methylbutan-2-ol
D 2-methylbutan-2-ol
Which of the following apply to alkenes?
8. The systematic name of the compound
CH3(CH2)5COOH is:
carbon and hydrogen atoms only. hyphen. A hexanoic acid
■ Carbon compounds in the form of rings, such as ben- A They are saturated hydrocarbons. B heptanoic acid
■ A functional group is an atom or a group of atoms B They have the formula CnH2n.
that confers a distinct set of chemical and physical zene, belong to a group called aromatic compounds. C hexanol
C Each has a saturated covalent bond. D heptanol.
characteristics on an organic compound. ■ Alcohols have the functional group —OH (hydroxyl
D They contain C, H and O. 9. The structural arrangement of
A homologous series is a group of organic chemical group) and are named using the suffix -ol.
■
■ Aldehydes have the functional group —CHO (alde- 6. The functional groups and suffixes for naming 2,2-dimethylbutan-1-ol is:
compounds that have a similar structure and whose alcohols and carboxylic acids are respectively:
structures differ only by the number of CH2 units in hyde group) and are named using the suffix -al. A H CH3 CH3 H
A OH, COOH, -oate, -ol
the main carbon chain. They are compounds con- ■ Ketones have the functional group —CO— (carbonyl
B COOH, OH, -ol, -oic H C C C C OH
taining the same functional group and have similar group) and are named using the suffix -one.
C OH, COOH, -ol, -oic
properties. ■ Carboxylic acids have the functional group —COOH
D OH, COOH, -ol, -oate. H H H H
The alkanes, alkenes and alkynes are hydrocarbons (carboxyl group) and are named using the suffix -oic
■ 7. Two structural isomers with the same molecular
and form homologous series with general formulas followed by acid. B H H CH3 H
formula as butanol are:
of CnH2n + 2, CnH2n and CnH2n – 2, respectively. ■ Primary amines have the functional group —NH2
(amino group) and are named using the suffix A H H H H H H C C C C OH
■ Saturated hydrocarbons have only single C—C cova-
lent bonds. -amine. H H CH3 H
H C C C C C H
■ Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. Alkenes and ■ Amides have the functional group —CONH2 (amide
group) H H H H OH C H H CH3 H
alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with double
and triple carbon bonds, respectively. ■ Haloalkanes have the functional group —X (where
B H H CH3 H HO C C C C H
■ Carbon compounds with the same molecular for- X = F, Cl, Br or I) and are named using the prefix
mulas but different structural arrangements are -fluoro, -chloro, -bromo or -iodo. H H CH3 H
H C C C C H
called structural isomers.
H H H OH D H H
Rules for naming organic compounds:
■
– Identify and name the longest unbranched carbon
Multiple choice questions
C H H H H H C C OH
chain containing the principal functional group. (It 1. The name of the organic compound shown is:
is helpful to highlight this chain.) H C C C C H CH3 CH3
– If more than one functional group is present, CH3 10. Cycloalkanes have the same molecular
the order of decreasing priority in determining H H OH OH formula as:
the suffix is carboxylic acid > ester > aldehyde > CH3 CH CH CH3 A alkanes C alkynes
D H OH H H
ketone > alcohol > amine > alkyne = alkene > B alkenes D benzene.
alkane. CH2 H C C C C H 11. Which group of compounds does benzene
– Number the carbon atoms in the longest belong to?
unbranched chain, starting with the carbon atom CH3 H OH H H A alkanes C alkynes
nearest the functional group or branch (if an B alkenes D aromatics
E H CH3 CH3
alkane). A 2-methyl-3-ethylbutane 12. In the IUPAC nomenclature system, the name of
– Identify the branching group(s) of atoms, and B 1,2-dimethylpentane H C C C H which of the following would end in -al?
state the number of the carbon atom to which C 2,3-dimethylheptane A an alcohol C an alkane
it is attached. Branches are named using -yl. D 2,3-dimethylpentane. OH H H B an aldehyde D a ketone

236 UniT 4 CHAPTER 8 Structures and nomenclature of organic compounds 237

Multiple choice and short answer review

questions reinforce understanding
and are divided by headings to make
content easy to identify.

The studyON
‘Sit VCAA
exam’ icon
directs students
to a large bank
In the aluminium–air battery, a piece of which is used by the astronauts for drinking. Each
of VCAA exam
questions at
aluminium is immersed in an electrolyte near hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell used in the Apollo
a porous electrode. This porous electrode has spacecraft weighed approximately 100 kg. Exam practice questions
air on one side and the electrolyte on the other. (a) What advantages do fuel cells have over internal Sit VCAA exam

The electrolyte can be a common salt, NaCl,
solution, an alkali solution, such as potassium
hydroxide, KOH, or sea water. Although the choice
of electrolyte is quite flexible, only special alloys
of aluminium can be used. With ordinary alloys,
concept, topic
combustion engines for use in spacecraft? In a chemistry examination, you will be required to answer a number of multiple choice
and extended response questions.
(b) What are the limitations of fuel cells, compared
with the internal combustion engine?
and entire
Extended response questions
29. Fuel cells have been developed to run on
1. A student set up an electrochemical experiment as shown in the figure.
methane. Assuming that the electrolyte is acidic:

course levels.
the aluminium immediately becomes coated with (a) write the half-equation for the oxidation copper rod V metal
a protective oxide layer or simply dissolves as reaction
aluminium oxide, giving off hydrogen gas. (b) write the half-equation for the reduction salt bridge
In this battery, the aluminium anode reacts with
hydroxide ions to form aluminium hydroxide, with
the release of three electrons.
reaction.
Draw a diagram of this cell, labelling the following.
(c) The methane and oxygen inlets
Students can
Anode: Al(s) + 3OH−(aq) Al(OH)3(s) + 3e−
(d) The anode and cathode and their polarities
(e) The direction of electron flow also choose to
The OH− ions are present either because the
undertake a full
(f ) The ion flow in the electrolyte
electrolyte is an alkali solution or because they are 30. Obtaining hydrogen for use in fuel cells is not yet
produced at the cathode. economically viable. But researchers have come
At the porous cathode, the water in the
electrolyte reacts with oxygen from the air and the
electrons from the anode to produce hydroxide
up with a fuel cell that runs on octane, the main
component of petrol. Previously, the reforming
process caused a build-up of carbon on the
copper(II) sulfate solution metal ion solution
He kept the copper half-cell constant, but changed the other half-cell. For each cell, he recorded the metal
exam.
that was used as the anode and the overall cell voltage.
ions. electrodes in the fuel cell, reducing efficiency. A
new system combines the reformer and the fuel Cell Anode Voltage (V)
Cathode: O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e− 4OH−(aq)
cell and uses a more advanced catalyst.
If the cathode is covered (for example, with (a) Write the equation for the combustion of copper–lead lead 0.49
water) so that oxygen cannot enter the cell, a octane, C8H18. copper–silver copper 0.31
slightly different reaction occurs in the cell in (b) This reaction is the same as the one that
copper–magnesium magnesium 1.45
which hydrogen gas is produced. occurs in the fuel cell and produces the same
amount of carbon dioxide. Explain what copper–iron iron 0.57
2H2O(l) + 2e− H2(g) + 2OH−(aq)
benefit there is in using a fuel cell to supply copper–aluminium aluminium 0.94
(a) Write the overall equation for the aluminium– energy to power a vehicle.
air battery operating under optimal conditions. (c) Write the half-equations for the anode and copper–copper copper 0.00
(b) Write the overall equation if the cathode is cathode reactions in this fuel cell assuming an copper–nickel nickel 0.31
covered with water. acidic electrolyte.
(d) Add the two half-equations from (c) to get (a) How did the student determine which of the metals in the cell acted as the anode? 2 marks
Fuel cells the overall reaction. Compare your answer (b) Why did the copper–copper cell produce no voltage? 1 mark
27. (a) What is a fuel cell? with (a). What do you notice?
(b) List the advantages of a fuel cell over a 31. Discuss the statement ‘Electrochemical cells may (c) Determine the likely order of reactivity of the metals. Justify your placements. 2 marks
primary galvanic cell. help decrease our use of fossil fuels as an energy 2. A half-cell is constructed with a copper electrode in a 1.0 M copper(II) sulfate solution. It is connected by a salt
bridge to another half-cell containing an aluminium electrode in a 1.0 M aluminium nitrate solution.
Exam-style
28. Fuel cells have been used in spacecraft for a source’.
number of years as a source of electrical energy. 32. Describe how the method of producing electricity
Al V Cu
To obtain sufficient current, two gases, hydrogen from an electrochemical cell differs from the
and oxygen, are kept in cylinders under high
pressure. The gases are passed over nickel
electrodes. The product of these fuel cells is water,
method of producing electricity from:
(a) a hydro-electricity scheme
(b) a coal-fired power station.
a b
questions check
– 2–
and challenge
students’
NO3 (aq) SO4 (aq)
Al3+(aq) Cu2+(aq)

(a) A voltmeter is connected into the external circuit. What would be the expected E value for
this cell? 1 mark
understanding.

104 UNIT 3 CHAPTER 3 Converting chemical energy to electrical energy 105

How to use this book xi

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 UNIT 3
Area of study 1
Chapter 1 Choosing fuels
Chapter 2 Energy calculations
Chapter 3 Converting chemical energy to electrical energy

Area of study 2
Chapter 4 Electrolysis
Chapter 5 Rates of reactions
Chapter 6 Equilibrium systems
1
CHAPTER
Choosing fuels
Fuels are burned to produce heat energy. The energy
evolved from this combustion is used to heat our
homes and for transport and industrial processes.
It can also be converted into electrical energy, and,
as such, can be conveniently transported over long
distances and used to power many machines and
appliances. The challenge to our society is to meet
its increasing energy demands with a reliable supply
of energy from clean, efficient and sustainable
sources.
You will examine:
■■ the definition of a fuel
■■ how fuels and energy sources may be classified as
renewable and non-renewable
■■ use of the joule as the SI unit for measuring energy
■■ energy transformation
■■ the concept of efficiency as it applies to energy
transformations
■■ how fossil fuels and biofuels may be compared
according to a range of criteria.
Alcohol and cars are thought to be a bad
combination. But what if the alcohol goes into the
car instead of the driver? Drivers are increasingly
being offered more fuel choices for their cars.
In Australia, E10, a blend of 10% ethanol with
90% petrol, is readily available and can be used in
most modern cars. Elsewhere in the world, blends
with higher proportions of ethanol are available.
In Brazil, for example, flex-fuel vehicles can
operate on any blend from E20 to E100. Special
fuel sensors detect the ethanol to petrol ratio in
the fuel and automatically tune the engine for
optimum performance. Similar technology is also
being introduced throughout Europe. Other fuels
for cars include LPG and diesel. While these are
non-renewable fuels, diesel can also be made in
a renewable way, so there is now a trend for such
diesel to be blended with petroleum diesel, as
ethanol is blended with petrol. When ethanol and
diesel are made as fuels from renewable resources,
they are often called bioethanol and biodiesel.
While some crops are now being grown specifically
for the production of these fuels, new research is
developing ways of using plant waste materials
instead. It is also investigating plant sources that
use less land, so that it does not encroach on land
required to grow food crops.
 Energy and fuels
What is energy?
We cannot see energy so it is difficult to define. Nevertheless, we can see the
Energy is the ability to do work.
effects of energy; we can see things changing because of energy.
Energy is defined as the ability to do ‘work’. Whenever something is being
pushed or pulled, work is being done. When work is done, energy is used. The
unit of energy is the joule; it has the symbol J. One joule is a relatively small
amount of energy. It takes about 70  000  J (70  kJ) to boil the water to make a cup
of coffee.
Most chemical reactions absorb or produce energy, generally in the form of
A fuel produces energy in a
heat. The study of heat changes in chemical reactions is called thermochem-
combustion reaction.
istry. An example of a reaction that produces heat energy is a combustion
reaction.

Energy from common fuels

A substance used for producing energy by combustion is called a fuel. Coal,
Fossil fuels are formed from the petroleum and natural gas are also known as fossil fuels because they were
decayed remains of living matter
formed from the decaying remains of plants and tiny marine animals that lived
that has been buried for millions
millions of years ago.
of years.

Use of explosives releases

an enormous quantity of
energy. An explosion is an
uncontrolled chemical reaction
that occurs suddenly and is
highly exothermic.

Sample problem 1.1

The efficiencies of two fuels, propan-1-ol and butan-1-ol, were tested in a

thermochemical experiment. The two fuels were ignited and the heat given
out by each flame was measured by recording the change in temperature of a
known amount of water heated by each flame. The results of this experiment
are shown in table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Experimental results for the combustion of propan-1-ol and butan-1-ol

Mass of alcohol used in

Alcohol experiment (g) Heat given out (kJ)
propan-1-ol, C3H7OH 3.75 126
butan-1-ol, C4H9OH 3.68 129

CHAPTER 1 Choosing fuels 3

 (a) Write balanced equations for each combustion reaction, given that the
combustion products are carbon dioxide and water vapour.
(b) Calculate the energy produced by each fuel as kJ g–1, and thereby
determine the more efficient of the two fuels.
(c) Calculate the energy produced by each fuel as kJ mol–1.

Solution: (a) Combustion of propan-1-ol:

2C3H7OH(l) + 9O2(g) 6CO2(g) + 8H2O(g)
Combustion of butan-1-ol:
C4H9OH(l) + 6O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(g)
126
(b) Propan-1-ol produces = 33.6  kJ g–1
3.75
129
and butan-1-ol produces = 35.1  kJ g–1.
3.68
So, in terms of energy per gram of fuel, butan-1-ol is slightly more efficient
than propan-1-ol.
3.75
(c) Number of moles of propan-1-ol, n(propanol) = = 0.0625 mol.
60.0
Since 0.0625 mol produces 126  kJ of energy,
126
1 mol produces = 2.02 × 103  kJ of energy.
0.0625
3.68
Number of moles of butan-1-ol, n(butanol) = = 0.0497 mol.
74.0
Since 0.0497 mol produces 129  kJ of energy,
129
1 mol produces = 2.60 × 103  kJ of energy.
0.0497
So, in terms of energy per mole of fuel, butan-1-ol is more efficient than
propan-1-ol.

Thermochemical equations
The information in sample problem 1.1 may be neatly summarised by using
thermochemical equations. These combine the normal chemical equation
with ΔH notation (delta H) to specify the quantity of heat given out when the
mole amounts as specified in the equation are burned. For example, the com-
bustion of butan-1-ol in sample problem 1.1 may be summarised as:

C4H9OH(l) + 6O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(g) ΔH = –2.60 × 103  kJ mol–1

By convention, exothermic reactions (such as combustion reactions that give

out heat) are assigned negative ΔH values.
Thermochemical equations are discussed in detail in chapter 2.
Most of the energy obtained from the combustion of fossil fuels is
derived from an exothermic reaction in which the carbon in the fuel is con-
verted into carbon dioxide and the hydrogen in the fuel is converted into
water.
Coal is used for generation of electricity. The complete combustion of coal
may be represented as:

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

Oil, from which petrol is obtained, is mainly used for transport. The complete
combustion of octane, a major component of petrol, may be represented as:

2C8H18(l) + 25O2(g) 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)

4 Unit 3
 Natural gas is used both for generation of electricity and directly for domestic
and commercial cooking and heating. The complete combustion of methane,
found in natural gas, may be represented as:

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

Revision question

1. The combustion of 3.15  g of methanol was found to yield 71.5  kJ of heat.

Calculate the ΔH value for this reaction, and write the thermochemical
equation.

Different forms of energy

Energy may take a number of different forms. These include:
• mechanical energy
• thermal (heat) energy
• chemical energy
• light energy
• sound energy
• electrical energy
• gravitational energy
• nuclear energy.
The total energy of an object is the However, all of these forms of energy may be classified as either p
­ otential
sum of its potential and kinetic energy (energy that is stored, ready to do work) or kinetic energy (energy
energy. ­associ­ated with movement, in doing work).

heat gravitational electrical energy nuclear

mechanical sound
potential
kinetic energy

chemical elastic

chemical light magnetic

Types of potential and kinetic

energy The total energy of an object is the sum of its potential and kinetic energy.
All objects, from the smallest atom to the largest space rocket, have potential
and kinetic energy.

Energy conversions
Whatever form energy takes, it is governed by two general laws of
thermodynamics.
The first law states that energy is neither created nor destroyed, but simply
changes from one form into another. Whenever energy is converted from
one form to another, the total quantity of energy remains the same. This is
­sometimes called the Law of Conservation of Energy.

CHAPTER 1 Choosing fuels 5

 (a) Water stored in a dam has
potential energy.
(b) Water flows downhill and (c) The falling water turns the
is converted to kinetic blades of a waterwheel so
energy. that kinetic energy is
converted to mechanical
energy.

(d) The waterwheel turns a generator to (e) Electrical energy may be converted into
convert mechanical energy into light energy, sound energy and heat
electrical energy. energy in the home.

In any energy conversion, the total

The second law states that, although the quantity of energy in the universe
quantity of energy remains the may stay the same, the quality or usability gets worse. This is because when-
same. ever energy is converted from one form to another, heat is also produced. This
is low-temperature heat, which is difficult to use again. It simply warms up
the Earth’s atmosphere by a small amount. So, after each energy change, less
usable energy remains.

Efficiency
The efficiency of energy conversion is a concept that follows from the second
Efficiency is defined as a
law. It takes the amount of usable energy obtained into account and is defined
percentage according to the
as a percentage according to the following formula.
following formula.
% efficiency =
energy obtained in desired form
energy obtained in desired form
× 100 % efficiency = × 100
energy available before conversion energy available before conversion

The efficiency of changing one energy form into another varies.

rocket engine
50% car engine 25%

chemical energy gas heater

photosynthesis 85%
<1%
heat energy
Energy transformations are dry cell hot water
not 100% efficient. This light energy 60–90% steam
heater 99%
is because, when energy turbine
conversions take place, heat tungsten 45%
is also produced. The second lamp 4%
generator mechanical
law of thermodynamics states solar cell
95% energy
that a high quality of energy is 5–15%
transformed to a lower quality motor
electrical
of energy and some heat. 60–90%
energy

6 Unit 3
 Sample problem 1.2

A compact fluorescent light bulb converts electrical energy into light energy. As
part of a quality control test, it was found to convert 9.0  kJ of electrical energy
into 1.8  kJ of light energy. Calculate its efficiency.

energy obtained in desired form

Solution: % efficiency = × 100
energy available before conversion

1.8
% efficiency = × 100 = 20%
9.0

Sample problem 1.3

The electricity from a coal-fired power station is used to power an electric

motor. If the overall efficiency of the power station is 28%, and the efficiency
of the motor in producing mechanical energy is 75%, calculate the overall
efficiency for the conversion of chemical energy in coal to mechanical energy
in this situation.
Solution: We can answer this by following the fate of 100  J of energy supplied originally
by the coal. From the original input of 100  J, the power station produces 28  J of
electricity. When this 28  J is fed into the electric motor, the mechanical energy
produced can be calculated.
mechanical energy produced
75% = × 100
28
75 × 28
Mechanical energy produced = = 21  J
100

As 21  J of mechanical energy is produced from the original 100  J

21
% efficiency = × 100 = 21%
100

Revision questions

Where necessary, use efficiency figures in the diagram at the bottom of the
previous page to answer the following questions.
2. A device converts 350  J of mechanical energy into 120  J of output energy.
Calculate the efficiency of this device.
3. Calculate the energy input required for a gas heater to produce 72 MJ.
4. Heat energy in steam is used to drive a steam turbine that, in turn, drives
an electrical generator. Calculate the electrical energy produced from steam
containing 400  000  kJ.

CHAPTER 1 Choosing fuels 7

 Energy converters
Energy converters enable one form of energy to be changed into another.
Plants
Plants take carbon dioxide from the air and water from the roots to effect the
energy change in a process called photosynthesis. In addition to providing
food for animals as a result of this process, they provide oxygen as a by‑product
of the reaction.
carbon dioxide
heat and (from the air)
chemical
light
energy
energy water
(from the roots)

oxygen

Plants act as energy

converters. They change the
heat and light energy from the
Sun into chemical energy that
is stored in the plant.

Power stations

9. chimney
2. air
inlet 6. electricity
steam output

5. turbo-
3. air generator
cooling
preheater
tower

steam
4. boiler
1. coal
inlet
7. condenser

8. water to
Key: 1. Coal inlet
boiler from cooled-water
2. Air intake
3. Air is preheated by exhaust gases from boiler. pond
4. Water is converted to steam.
5. Heat energy is converted to mechanical energy.
6. Mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy.
7. Hot water from condenser
8. Steam from turbo-generator is cooled in condenser, then recycled to boiler.
9. Waste products of combustion

8 Unit 3
 When coal is burned, its stored chemical potential energy is converted into
heat energy. This heat energy is used to convert water into steam, so heat
energy is converted into kinetic energy. The steam flows past a turbine so the
kinetic energy of the steam is converted into mechanical energy in the spin-
ning turbine. The turbine is connected to a generator, which converts mechan-
ical energy into electrical energy. Electrical energy may then be used in the
home and in industry in a wide range of appliances.

chemical
kinetic energy kinetic energy electrical energy
potential
in steam in turbine from dynamo
energy

Energy use in society

There is concern about the
environmental effects of the use of
fossil fuels.
Global energy use
About 80% of the world’s energy requirements are provided by the fossil fuels
coal, oil and gas. Australia has agreed to a pact with five other nations of the
Asia–Pacific region (USA, Japan, South Korea, India and China) to collab-
oratively research more efficient and less polluting methods of generating
power using fossil fuels.

Renewable and non-renewable resources

About 95% of our energy requirements are provided by the fossil fuels coal,
Unit 3 Classifying oil and gas. Australia has a diverse range of energy resources available, but
fuels the availability, abundance and relatively low cost of fossil fuels are the
AOS 1
Summary screen
and practice
reasons that they are in high demand. About 75% of Australia’s electricity gen-
Topic 1
questions eration is provided by black and brown coal, and 16% is supplied by natural
Concept 1 gas. Access to these low-priced fuels is important for our manufacturing
industry.
There is, however, extreme concern about the future use of fossil fuels. The
combustion of fossil fuels releases gases that pose a threat to the environment.
Carbon dioxide contributes to global warming, and sulfur dioxide contributes
to acid rain. World reserves of fossil fuels are finite, and the fuels are being
consumed at a much faster rate than they can be produced.

1000
coal
900
(billion tones oil equivalent)

gas
800 oil
Energy reserves

700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
2011 2021 2031 2041 2051 2061 2071 2081
Year

Projected depletion of world reserves of fossil fuels based on current usage

CHAPTER 1 Choosing fuels 9


Non-renewable energy sources
are those that are being used up
faster than they can be produced.
Renewable energy sources are
those that can be produced at a
faster rate than they are consumed.
Energy sources may be classified as non-renewable or renewable.
Non-renewable energy sources are those that are used up faster than they
can be produced on Earth. Non-renewable energy sources include fossil fuels
and nuclear energy sources. There is a limited supply of non-renewable energy
sources on Earth.
Renewable energy sources are those that can be produced faster than they
are used by society. Renewable energy includes solar energy, hydro-electricity,
tidal power, wave power and geothermal energy. It also includes a group
called biofuels. These are fuels that can be made from biological materials and
include bioethanol, biodiesel and biogas.
Attention is increasingly being focused on the development of alternative
renewable energy sources to provide our energy needs.

Uranium is a non-renewable energy source. Once its chemical energy has been
converted to another form, it cannot be used again. In addition, only finite
reserves of uranium exist — once it has been ‘used up’, it cannot be replaced.
The rate of usage exceeds the rate of replacement for all non-renewable sources.

energy sources

renewable non-renewable

solar energy wind waves tides fossil fuels nuclear fuels

biofuels
(radiant heat e.g. uranium
and light (nuclear energy)
falling water coal oil gas
Renewable and non- energy)
renewable energy sources (kinetic energy) (chemical energy)

10 Unit 3
 Choosing energy sources
Although energy may be obtained from the direct combustion of fossil fuels, a
more convenient form of energy is electricity. It can be carried from one place
to another, it can be switched on and off, and it can be used as a source of
energy for many different devices.
Table 1.2 Electricity production in Australia by energy source, 2014
Energy source Production (GWh)
black coal 111  491
gas 51  053
brown coal 47  555
hydro-electricity 18  270
wind 7  328
oil 4  464
solar photovoltaic cells 3  817
bioenergy 3  151
geothermal 1
* Source: 2014 Australian Energy Update (Australian Government Bureau of Resources and
Sources of energy for society Economics).

hydro-electricity
from falling
radiant
heat and water
light from
the Sun

wind energy timber

photosynthesis
nuclear energy
solar energy

ium
uran
ore mal
oil ral gas ther
tidal energy geo y
natu rg
ene
wave energy
coal

Electricity is a secondary fuel

because it is produced from other
energy sources.
Electricity is sometimes described as a secondary fuel, since it is not a
natural source of power; it is produced from other fuels or energy sources.
At present, most of Australia’s electricity is generated by burning fuel at
power stations. Fossil fuels could be made to last longer, and the environmental
hazards of fossil fuel combustion could be decreased, if other ways of

CHAPTER 1 Choosing fuels 11

 gener­ating electricity were used. One way is to use nuclear energy. Others
involve wind, moving water, wave motion, falling water, tides and biomass
reactions. Electricity may also be generated directly from chemical reactions,
as in fuel cells, which are thought to be a possible energy source for the future.
Photovoltaic (PV) cells are yet another method. Already these are becoming
more and more popular as people install them on the roofs of their houses.
PV cells convert solar energy into electrical energy. They can even feed excess
electricity produced back into the grid.

Non-renewable fuels
Fossil fuels
As explained earlier, coal, petroleum and gas are called fossil fuels because
Fossil fuels include coal, petroleum
they were formed from animals, trees and smaller plants that lived millions of
and natural gas.
years ago.
Coal was formed from the combined effects of pressure, temperature, mois-
ture and bacterial decay on vegetable matter over several hundred million
years. Decaying vegetation progressively became peat (very soft and mushy),
lignite (crumbly brown coal), bituminous coal (hard black coal) and anthracite
(very hard). Over this period, the moisture content dropped and the carbon
content increased, so anthracite is the highest quality coal.

Electricity is known as a
secondary fuel because it is
produced from other sources
of energy.

Petroleum and natural gas have their origin in marine life buried in the
sediments of the oceans millions of years ago. Heat, pressure and the action of
bacteria changed this residue into petroleum and natural gas.

Coal
Coal is the world’s most plentiful fossil fuel. The main elements in coal are
carbon (50–98%), hydrogen (3–13%), oxygen and very small amounts of
nitrogen and sulfur. It also contains moisture and inorganic material that
remains as ash when coal is burned. As coal was formed, it underwent changes
in composition that made it a more efficient fuel.

12 Unit 3
 Unit 3
AOS 1 decaying
See more peat vegetation
Topic 1 Coal-fired

increasing temperature and pressure

Concept 2 power station
time passes

increasing quality
brown coal brown
coal
sub-bituminous
coal

bituminous
coal
anthracite
anthracite

Process of coal formation

key: moisture % carbon % other %

Victoria generates most of its electricity from brown coal, which has about
a quarter of the heat content of black coal. Brown coal can have up to 30%
oxygen content, a relatively low carbon content (60–75% when dried), and a
high moisture content (30–70%).
By a process called destructive distillation, coal can be converted into many
useful products, such as briquettes for heating, coal gas, sulfur, ammonia, ben-
zene, coal tar and coke. Coke is used in the reduction of Fe2O3 to iron.
Traditionally, coal was burned in lumps, but ground coal powder is now
used to improve the rate and efficiency of combustion.
In addition to electricity, coal may be converted into gas or liquid fuels.
These can be transported and used more cheaply and conveniently than solid
coal.

Petroleum
Petroleum (or crude oil) is a sticky, black substance composed of a ­combination
Petroleum, a mixture of
of many different hydrocarbons. It must be refined before it can be used.
hydrocarbons, is used to
Octane, C8H18, is the major component of petrol and may burn in air to
manufacture other fuels and many
other chemicals.
release energy according to the equation:
Natural gas, which is mainly 2C8H18(l) + 25O2(g) 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)
methane, is a source of alkanes of
low molecular mass. However, if the oxygen supply is limited, toxic carbon monoxide gas may be
produced instead of carbon dioxide according to the equation:
2C8H18(l) + 17O2(g) 16CO(g) + 18H2O(g)
Fuels obtained from petroleum include petrol, liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG), diesel fuel, heating oil and kerosene. Petroleum is also the raw material
for manufacture of a number of useful materials such as plastics, paints, syn-
thetic fibres, medicines and pesticides.

LPG
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a hydrocarbon fuel that consists mainly
of propane and butane. It is non-toxic, non-corrosive, lead-free and heavier

CHAPTER 1 Choosing fuels 13

 than air. LPG is liquefied under pressure but when allowed to vaporise
it expands to nearly 300 times its liquefied volume. This is why LPG can
be stored as a compact liquid but burns as a dry, gaseous vapour. LPG is
popular with many motorists, especially fleet-vehicle owners, because it is an
economical energy source. Although LPG conversion costs for cars running
on petrol are quite high, more people may make the conversion (or buy new
cars designed to run on LPG) as petrol prices increase.

Natural gas
Natural gas is an important source of alkanes of low molecular mass. Victoria
has large reserves of natural gas in the Gippsland basin. Typically, natural gas
is composed of about 80% methane, 10% ethane, 4% propane and 2% butane.
The remaining 4% consists of nitrogen and hydrocarbons of higher molecular
mass. Natural gas also contains a small amount of helium and is one of its
major sources.
Methane is the major constituent of natural gas and it burns with a hot,
clean flame.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
Since natural gas is lighter than air, it disperses in air. However, it is explosive
in certain concentrations, so a safety measure incorporated by gas companies
is to add an odour to natural gas so that leaks may be readily detected. Natural
gas itself is odourless.

Table 1.3 Typical heat content values of some fossil fuels

Heat content

Fossil fuel kJ g –1 MJ/tonne

natural gas 54 54  000
petrol 48 48  000
diesel 45 45  000
black coal 34 34  000
brown coal 16 16  000

Coal seam gas

Coal miners have long been aware of the dangers of methane gas. Released
Coal seam gas is similar to natural
from coal seams during underground mining operations, this gas has been
gas. Its major constituent is
responsible for many explosions and subsequent tragedies over the years.
methane.
Methane gas, besides being found in association with petroleum deposits, is
also a by-product of coal formation. It is often adsorbed onto the surface of
coal deposits deep underground.
Coal seam gas (CSG), also called coal bed methane, is extracted by drilling
deep wells into underground coal deposits. Such wells are typically 100 to
1500 metres deep and as such are below the level of aquifers used for bore
water supplies in inland Australia. The coal seams are nearly always filled with
water, which must be pumped to the surface to initiate gas production. This
causes a reduction in pressure in the coal seam below and allows the methane
to desorb from the coal. It is then brought to the surface along with more of the
underground water through the drilled well.
Australia has large deposits of coal seam gas, which are now being extracted
from the Bowen and Surat Basins in northern New South Wales and Queens-
land. The methane produced is relatively free from impurities, often containing
only small amounts of ethane, nitrogen and carbon dioxide, and so requires

14 Unit 3

water
Coal seam gas is produced
from coal deposits that lie
deep underground.
only minimal processing. It is used in the same way as natural gas and also
contributes to a growing LNG (liquefied natural gas) export industry.
Although the coal seam gas industry has shown enormous expansion since
1996, there are concerns from various groups concerning its environmental
impact. These include farmers who worry that it may pollute aquifers that
supply some of Australia’s most economic farming land. Concerns have also
been raised about some of the practices used to increase gas flow in wells
using a process called ‘fracking’.
wellhead
gas
water
normal underground
water aquifers
gas
coal layer containing
water and methane
gas
Revision questions
5. An examination of table 1.3 reveals that brown coal has a relatively low
energy content. Why do you think brown coal is used on such an extensive
scale to generate electricity in Victoria?
6. It is difficult to determine the total world reserves of fossil fuels. Estimates
are constantly revised to take into account new discoveries, new
­information about known deposits and new techniques for extracting them.
Conservation strategies will enable us to extend the ‘life’ of fossil fuels.
  Discuss how each of the following factors affects the rate at which fossil
fuels are used.
(a) Population growth rate
(b) Community awareness of the need for energy conservation
(c) Alternative technologies and fuel sources
(d) Fuel pricing policies, nationally and internationally
(e) Trade relations between nations
7. Fossil fuels took millions of years to form, yet they are likely to be used up
within a few hundred years. Draw up a table with two columns.
(a) In the first column of the table, list the activities you do during a week
that require energy from fossil fuels.
CHAPTER 1 Choosing fuels 15
Another random document with
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 Mr. Stockman smiled genially and continued.

"In a word, fine chap that you are and a willing worker, with good
methods and worthy of my praise—which you've had—I'm going to get
along without you now, and so we'll part Monday month, if you please. And
delighted I shall be to give you a right down good character for honesty and
sound understanding—where the hosses are concerned."

Mr. Palk had not expected this. He was much bewildered.

"D'you mean it, master?" he asked, with eyes not devoid of alarm.

"I do, my dear. I never meant anything with a better appetite. A great
loss, because with one like me—old and stricken before my time, along of
working far too hard, which was a foolish fault in my generation—it was a
comforting thing to feel I'd got a hossman in you worthy of the name. You
be the pattern of a good, useful sort, that's dying out—worse luck. But when
you said you wasn't a nosey-poker, Thomas, you said wrong, I'm afraid; and
a meddlesome man, that has time to spare from the hosses for the women,
and thrusts in between parent and child, be very much against the grain with
me. And though, of course, you may be quite right, and know better how to
treat and cherish a grown-up daughter than a stupid creature like me—and
you a bachelor—yet even the worm will turn, Thomas. And, worm though I
am, I be going to venture to turn. You're great on the point of view; and so
will I be: and, from my point of view, I can see you haven't got enough
work to do in this little place. You must go in the world and find a bigger
and a harder job, that won't leave you time for other people's business,
which at best be a kicklish task and avoided by men of much wits as a rule."

"I meant well, master."

"And don't you always mean well? Why, you're the most well-meaning
man, after myself, I ever had the luck to meet, Thomas. But you've fixed a
gulf to-day, and I feel terrible sure we shan't suit each other no more. So
we'll part friends Monday month."

Joe spoke with far greater cordiality than when raising Mr. Palk's wages
six weeks before. He beamed graciously on Thomas and lighted his pipe
again.

"The talk be at an end now, because I mustn't strain my tubes," he said.

"And I'll beg you not to return to the subject. Both me and my God are very
well satisfied with the way I brought up Soosie-Toosie, and so's she; and if
she feels there's anything on this earth I can do for her, to make her home a
happier place, rest assured she'll ax me herself. She's my master-jewel and
always will be, though she'll never know all I've done for her, because no
child ever can know the heights and depths of a good father's love. 'A good
father,' mark me, Thomas."

"Monday month then, master?"

"If quite convenient to yourself."

Then Palk went out into storm and gathering dusk. The woods of
Buckland waved grey through the gloaming and rain swept them heavily.
The wind shouted over the granite crown of the Beacon; sheep and cattle
had crept down from the high land and stood in the shelter of walls and
woods.

Thomas considered with himself. He was in a state as perturbed as it

was possible for such a stolid spirit to be; but he remembered that the
innocent cause of this revolution was now returning heavy laden up the
long hill from the market town.

He decided that he would go and meet Susan. His upheaval took the
form of increased solicitude for Miss Stockman.

"She shall hear the fatal news from me—not him," he reflected.

He set off and presently sighted the woman tramping up the hill in the
rain. Under the wild weather and fading light, she looked like some large,
bedraggled moth blown roughly about. Her basket was full and her left arm
held a parcel in blue paper. It was the only spot of colour she offered. They
met, greatly to her surprise.
 "Good Lord!" she said. "Have father put more chores on you? Be you
going to Ashburton?"

"I am not," he answered. "I came out with my big umbrella to meet
you."

She was fluttered.

"How terrible kind! But 'tis no odds. I be bone-wet."

Nevertheless, Mr. Palk unfurled a large, faded, glass-green umbrella

over her.

"Give me the basket," he said, "and I'll walk betwixt you and the
weather. I come for more reasons than one, Susan. Something's happened
while you were to town and I'd sooner you heard it from me than him."

"Nought gone wrong with father?"

"That's for others to say. But something have gone parlous wrong with
me."

She started and hugged her blue paper parcel closer. It contained the
bottle of brown sherry.

"I hope not, I'm sure."

"In a word, I'm sorry to say I leave Falcon Farm Monday month. It have
fallen with a terrible rush upon me—and my own fault too. I can't tell you
the reason, but so it is. The master's sacked me; and every right to do so, no
doubt, in his own eyes."

Miss Stockman stood still and panted. Her face was wet with rain; her
hair touzled; her hat dripping.

"Be you saying truth?" she asked, and fetched a handkerchief from her
pocket and dried her face.
 "Gospel. I done a thing as he took in a very unkind spirit I'm sorry to
say."

The blue parcel trembled.

"Going—you? Never!"

"Monday month it have got to be."

"Why for? What have you gone and done? It must have been something
properly fearful, for he thought the world of you, behind your back."

"To my face, however, he did not—not this evening. And as to what I

done, I hope he won't feel called to name it in your ear. It was a very
dangerous task, as I reckoned when I started on it; but I felt drove—Lord
knows why! I meant well, but that don't amount to much when you fail. No
doubt he'll get somebody he likes better; and he won't withhold a good
character neither."

"This be a cruel come-along-of-it," she said blankly. "I couldn't have

heard nothing to trouble me more, Thomas. You was the bestest we've ever
had to Falcon Farm—and kindness alive."

"Thank you I'm sure. We've been very good friends. And why not?"

"I can't picture you gone. 'Twas a rit of temper. I'll speak to father."

"Don't you do that. There weren't no temper, nor yet language. He

meant it and he's an unchanging man."

"Whatever did he say? What did you do? I will know! It shan't be hid.
Perhaps 'tis only his tubes fretting him."

"No—nothing to do with his tubes. He was well within his rights. Not
that I'll allow he was right, however."

"Why can't you tell me what it is then? If you want to stop—but perhaps
you don't?"
 He considered.

"I never thought to go, and I never wanted to go less than what I do at
this minute, seeing you cast down. I be very much obliged to you in a
manner of speaking for not wanting me to go."

She looked up drearily at him and sniffed.

"We never know our luck," she said. "Not you, but me."

To his intense amazement he perceived that Susan was shedding tears.

She shook her head impatiently and it was not rain that fell from her face. If
a small fire can kindle a great one, so surely may a drop of water swell into
a river.

Light began to dawn in the mind of the man and it much astonished him
by what it revealed there. He was, in fact, so astounded by the spectacle that
he fell into silence and stared with mental eyes at the explanation of the
mysteries that had long puzzled him. His next remark linked past with
present.

"Be damned if I don't begin to know now why for I done this!" he said
with a startled voice. "I've wondered for weeks and weeks what was driving
me on, and I couldn't put no name to it, Susan; but 'tis coming out in me.
Shut your mouth a minute and let me think."

She kept silence and they plodded on. At the top of the hill a gust
caught the umbrella and it was in peril. Thomas turned it against the wind.

"Come under the lew side of the hedge," he said. "I thought 'twas
conscience driving at me—but I begin to see it weren't. There's a wonder
happening. Fetch in here under the trees a minute."

She followed him through a gap at the summit of the hill and they left
the road for the partial shelter of spruce firs. They escaped the wind, but the
rain beat from the branches upon Mr. Palk's umbrella.
 "You're a woman of very high qualities and a good bit undervalued in
your home—so it seems to me. You're the light of the house, but 'twas left
for others to find that out seemingly—not your father. He's a man with a
soft tongue, but a darned hard heart—to say it respectful."

"I'm naught and less than naught. But I was always pleased to pleasure
you," she answered.

"The light of the house," he repeated. "And 'tis the light be far more to
the purpose than the candlestick. I can speak to you straight, Susan, because
I'm ugly as sin myself and not ashamed of it. I didn't have the choosing of
my face, and my Maker didn't ax me what I'd like to look like come I grew
up. And same with you. But you be a living lesson to us other plain people,
and show us that the inside may be so fine no thinking man would waste a
thought on the outside."

Susan was not concerned with his philosophy: she had fastened on a
question of fact.

"You're not particular ugly, Thomas. I've seen scores plainer. You've got
a very honest face and nice grey eyes if I may say so."

"Certainly you may say so, and I'm very well content as you've been to
the trouble to mark the colour of my eyes. 'Tis a way women have. They
always know the colour of their friends' eyes. And if my face be honest in
your opinion, that's good news also. And as for your eyes, if they was in a
prettier setting, they'd well become it."

Susan grew a dusky red, but kept to the point.

"If you can say such things as that, surely you can tell me why you're
going?"

"I meddled—I—but leave the subject. 'Tis all dust and ashes afore
what's stirring in my head now—now I know why I meddled. You'd like me
to bide at Falcon Farm seemingly?"
 "I should then. You've got nice ways, and—and you've always been
amazing pitiful to me."

"Where would your father be if you left him?"

"I'll never leave him. He knows that."

"How old might you be?"

"Thirty-five—thirty-six come October."

"Some say port-wine marks are handed down, and again some say they
are not. And if you was to hand it down, you'd hand down what's better too,
I shouldn't wonder."

She did not answer, but gasped and stared in front of her.

"Look here," he said. "Now I see so plain why for I done this, why the
mischief shouldn't you? 'Twas done because I've risen up into loving you,
Susan! I want you—I want to marry you—I'll take my dying oath I do. It
have just come over me like a flap of lightning. Oh, hell!"

The bottle of wine had trembled dangerously in Soosie-Toosie's arm

before; now it dropped, broke on a stone, and spread its contents at their
feet. The sweet air suddenly reeked of it. But Susan ignored the catastrophe.

"Me! Me! My God, you must be mad!"

"If so, then there's a lot to be said for being mad. But I ain't. I see the
light. I've been after you a deuce of a time and never grasped hold of it. I
didn't think to marry. In fact my mother was the only woman I ever cared a
cuss about till I seed you. And no doubt, for your part you've long despaired
of the males; but you'm a born wife, Susan; and you might find me a very
useful pattern of husband. I love you something tremenjous, and I should be
properly pleased if you could feel the same."

"'Tis beyond dreaming," she said regarding him with wild eyes. "'Tis
beyond belief, Thomas."
 "It may be," he admitted, "but not beyond truth. We can make it a cast-
iron fact; and 'tis no odds who believes it, so long as it happens."

"You be above yourself for the minute. Your face is all alight. Best to
think it over and go to church and let a Sunday pass. I can't believe you
really and truly mean it."

"God's truth I do then."

"Father—did I ought to put love of you afore love of him, Thomas?"

"Certainly you did ought, and you've got the Bible behind you. If you
love me, then you did ought to put me afore every damn thing, and cleave
to me for ever after. Say you'll do it, like a dear woman. I want to hear you
say it, Susan. 'Twill cheer me up a lot, because I've never had the sack afore
in my life and don't like the taste of it. I be feeling low, and 'twill be a great
thing to get back on farmer afore I go to bed to-night."

She was suspicious at once.

"You ban't doing this out of revenge, however?" she asked.

"For naught but love—that I'll swear."

"To be loved by a fine man—a go-by-the-ground creature like me!"

"And never no female better fit for it."

"I'll take you, Thomas; but if you change your mind after you've slept
on it, I shan't think no worse of you. Only this I'll say, I do love you, and I
have loved you a longful time, but paid no attention to it, not
understanding."

"Then praise the Lord for all His blessings, I'm sure."

He held her close in his arms and they kissed each other. She clung to
him fervently.
 "Now, if you'll take the basket, I'll go back and buy another bottle of
sherry wine," she said.

"Not at all. But we mustn't shatter the man at one blow. He'll want more
than pretty drinking when he hears about this. I'll traapse down for another
bottle, and you go home under my umbrella; and change every stitch on
you, and drink something hot, else you might fall ill."

"Ah! That's love! That's love!" she said, looking up at him wet-eyed.

"No—only sense. I'll show 'e what love be so soon as I know myself.
You get home, and say as you dropped your bottle and was just going back
for another when I met you, on my way to Ashburton, and offered to get it.
And on the whole us'll keep the fearful news for a few days till he's well
again. 'Twill be more merciful."

"You'm made of wisdom, Tom. 'Tis a great relief to keep it from father a
bit till I've got used to the thought."

"Kiss me again then," he answered, and put his arms round her once
more.

"There's a brave lot of 'e to cuddle whether or no."

"'Tis all yours I'm sure, if you really want it, dear Thomas."

"I be coming to want it so fast as I can, woman!"

CHAPTER XXVIII

THE LAW
 For Dinah Waycott the sole difficulty of her position began to clear
itself; and since she was now convinced that she and Lawrence saw the
future with the same vision, she felt that future approach quickly. It seemed,
however, that for her, pure joy could only be reached through sorrow, and
on an occasion of meeting Maynard upon the moor, she said so.

"Nothing ever do run quite smooth, and out of my misfortune my

fortune comes. For it's only a terrible sad thing that be clearing the road for
us and leaving nobody in my life to think of but you."

She had assumed somewhat more than her lover at this point, and in a
sense, taken the lead.

"Your foster-father?" he said.

"Yes; it's a pretty dark cloud against my happiness, and if it was only for
that, I'd be glad to be gone. You can't say yet he don't know me; but you can
say he very soon won't. We seem to slip away from him according as he
cared for us. He don't know Jane no more at all, and asks her what he can
do for her when she comes in the room. But he knows Johnny off and on,
and he knows me off and on too. His wife he still knows, and I can see it's
life and death to her that he shall go on knowing her; because it will be a
great triumph for her if, when he's forgot everybody, he still remembers
her."

"I dare say it would be."

"I'd have been jealous as fire that he shouldn't forget me, if it hadn't
been for you. But not now. I won't be sorry to leave him now, and just love
to remember what he was to me. To think I could ever say that! It's cruel
sad, poor old dear."

"There's a bright side, however," he answered. "And though you might

say no man could be worse off than to lose his wits, yet for poor old Ben
there's one good thing: he'll never know you've gone, or how you've gone."

"I've thought of that; but how can you be sure, if he'd had the mind left
to understand, he wouldn't have been glad for me? He liked you."
 "You know different, Dinah. He liked me; but he'd never have been
glad, given the facts."

She was silent and Lawrence spoke again.

"He's only a shadow of a man now and will grow more and more faint,
till he fades away. But you'll have the grateful memory of him."

"Yes; and if ever we get a son, Lawrence, he must be called Benjamin—

I will have it so."

He fell silent. Dinah often spoke with delight of children; and it was at
those times the man felt the drag on his heart hardest. They had argued
much, but her frank puzzlement and even amusement at his problems and
doubts began to wear them down. She knew it, but, behind her assumption
of certainty, still suspected him a little. He varied and seemed more inclined
to listen than to talk. But things were rushing to a conclusion and there
could only be one.

It was agreed that they must now hide their friendship and their purpose
for the sake of other people. Dinah grew full of plans, and Lawrence
listened while she ran on; but she knew that the real plans would be made
by him. A sort of vagueness came into their relation and its cause was in his
head, not his heart. That, too, she knew. But certain things to-day he told
her and certain things, unknown to him, she now determined to do.
Impatience must have been created for Dinah this evening, but that she
understood his doubts were solely on her account. She believed that nothing
but questions of law remained to deter Maynard, and of their utter
insignificance she had often assured him.

"I've got the facts," he said, "and I'd like for you to hear them. And,
after to-night, we mustn't see each other so often. To make it easier for us
when we go, we'd better keep as far apart as need be till then. There's a lot
must pass between us and we can't post letters very well—not in the pillar-
boxes; but we may want a pillar-box of our own presently."

"What I hate about life," she cried, "is that you've got to pretend such a
lot. If this had happened to Jane, she'd love the hiding up and the plotting
and turning and twisting, like a hare running away from the hounds. But I
hate it. I hate to think the world's full of people, who look at life in such a
way that what we're going to do must be wrong."

"They've been brought up with fixed ideas about marriage and think it's
got more to do with God than with men and women. The interests of the
Church are put high above right and justice for the people. They always
were; and them that claim marriage is God's plan, also claim that He would
chain wretched, mistaken creatures together for life, quite regardless of
their honour and decency and self-respect. It's funny that educated men
should write the stuff I read; but the moment you see the word 'God' in a
newspaper, you can say good-bye to reason and pity. We're punished—we
who make a mistake—for what? Oft for nothing but misreading character,
or because truth's withheld from us on purpose. Palk was telling of a man he
knew who went courting and was never told his intended's mother was in a
mad-house. And he married, and his wife went out of her mind with her
first child. Now she's got to be put away and may live for fifty years, and
sane, well-meaning people tell the man he must bide a widower for ever-
more—at the will of God! God wills he should go alone to his dying day,
because his wife's people hid the truth from him."

"But the law—surely the law——?"

"The law's with the Church so far. They hunt in couples. But the law's
like to be altered 'tis thought; though no doubt the Church will call down
fire from Heaven if any human mercy and common sense and decency is
brought to bear on marriage."

"Can't the religious people see that lots quite as good as them, and quite
as willing and wishful to do right are being put in the wrong? And can't they
see tortured men and women won't be patient for ever?"

"No; they put us in the wrong and they keep us in the wrong, for God's
sake—so He shan't be vexed. They don't understand it isn't only adultery
that breaks up marriage, but a thousand other things beside. It's human
progress and education and understanding; and these pious people only
leave one door to escape through. And they don't seem to see that to decent
thinking and self-respecting men and women that's a door they won't enter.
They say, 'If you want to right your mistake, you must sin.' But if Almighty
God made marriage, He never made such filth to be thrust down the throats
of them that fail in marriage. Thus, any way, it stands with Minnie Courtier
at present—and with me. This is the law and clear enough. A man
disappears and blots himself out of life, you may say, and, what's more
important, blots himself out of the lives of everybody who knew him,
including his wife. And the question is, what can the wife do about it? I've
looked into this very close, and I find the issue is like a lot of other things in
the law. It often depends on the judge, and how he reads the facts of the
case, and whether he's all for the letter of the law, or one of the larger-
minded sort, who give the spirit a chance. A man not heard about for seven
years may be counted dead in the eyes of the law; but there's no
presumption he died at any particular time in the seven years, and it isn't
enough to say, 'Seven years are past and I'm in the right to presume
somebody dead.' You must have legal permission, and judges differ. You've
got to prove that diligent inquiries were made to find the vanished person
before you apply to the Court, and a human sort of judge is satisfied as a
rule and doesn't torment the public and sets a man or woman free. But if
circumstances show that the vanished party wouldn't be heard of, even if he
was alive, then many frost-bound judges won't allow he's dead, or grant
freedom to a deserted partner even after seven years. So, now, though the
seven years are up, even if application was made to assume my death, it
rests on the character of the judge whether Mrs. Courtier would be allowed
to do so."

"She may not care a button about it one way or the other," said Dinah
—"any more than I do."

"Very likely. It's only of late that I've spared a thought to her. There's
very little doubt in my mind that she's settled down to being a widow—had
enough of men I reckon."

"You don't know, however?"

"I don't know—and it's time I did, I suppose. But how?"

Dinah considered.
 "She's a clever woman and she may find herself very well content to
keep herself to herself as you say. Or she may not. One thing's sure; she'll
never forgive you, and she wouldn't do nothing to help you if she could."

"She can't help, any more than she can hinder."

"'Tis a great thought—that woman. I'd give a lot to know a bit about
her," said Dinah. "Suppose, for example——"

Then she broke off, for her mind had suddenly opened a path which
must be followed alone, if followed at all. A possibility had occurred to
Dinah—a possibility of vague and shadowy outline, but still not quite
devoid of substance. She wondered intensely about a certain thing, and
since, when she wondered, her spirit never rested until some answer to her
wonderment was forthcoming, she felt now that this problem must be
approached. Indeed it was no sooner created than it possessed her, to the
destruction of every lesser idea. She was on the verge of uttering it to
Lawrence, but controlled herself. He might disagree, and she could brook
no disagreement, even from him, before this sudden impulse. There was
hope in it for them both. She acknowledged to herself that the hope must be
small; but it existed.

She changed the subject with suspicious abruptness, but Maynard,

following his own thoughts, which led in a different direction, did not
observe that after her hiatus and a silence following on it, Dinah resumed
about something else. He had also left the facts and drifted to the future.
The suggestion that he himself had raised: to attempt some inquiry
concerning his wife, though obvious enough to any third person, did not
impress itself upon him as important. He mentioned it and dismissed it. He
felt sufficiently certain of her and her present state. The details of his own
future presented more attractive and pressing problems. For he was now
affirmed to go—either with Dinah, or before her, on an understanding that
she would follow. For the present they must certainly part and be associated
no more—either by rumour or in reality.

Upon these thoughts she struck, so naturally that it seemed they were
unconsciously communicating in their minds.
 "We must set up a post office, Lawrence, where the letters won't need
stamps; and for the minute I'd be glad if you could give me a few shillings
for pocket-money. I've got a hatred now of Bamsey money and the five
shillings a week Mrs. Bamsey gives me, because foster-father's past doing it
himself. And I've told them that I'm not going to take any of his money in
the future. I've told them very clear about that and I mean it."

"I'm glad you have. But they won't agree."

"So they say; but I shall be far ways off, beyond their reach or
knowledge, long before then. And Jane knows clearly I won't touch it."

Maynard brought out a little leathern purse and gave Dinah the contents
—some thirty shillings.

She thanked him and assured him that would be enough. They parted
soon afterwards and arranged to meet once more, on a date a fortnight
hence, in late evening, at a certain gate not above a mile from Green Hayes.

"I may have something to tell you by then," she said, "and I'll find a
post office. It'll be a year till I see you again."

He took a lingering leave of her and was moved by a last word she
spoke at parting.

"We never get no time to love each other," she said, "'tis all hard, hateful
talk and plotting. But we'll make up to each other some day."

Then he went his way, leaving her to develop her secret determination.

Conscience smote Dinah that she should enter upon any such adventure
without telling him; but the fear that he might forbid her was too great, for
she felt very positive the step she designed must be to the good. Certain
precious and definite knowledge at least would follow; and the worst that
could happen would only leave them where they were.

She meant to go to Barnstaple. When she had broken off her speech, she
was about to put it to Maynard whether the woman there might not be in his
own position—desirous to marry and perhaps even already seeking the aid
of the law to free herself from a vanished spouse. It seemed intensely
possible to Dinah; but evidently in the mind of Lawrence no such likelihood
existed. That he should not have followed the thought showed how little
importance he attached to it—so little that she felt sure he would not have
supported her sudden desire to learn more. Therefore she kept the
inspiration from him and determined he should know nothing until her
quest was accomplished.

And, he, having left her, now endeavoured, as he had endeavoured for
many days, to shake his mind clear of cobwebs and traditions and
prevenient fears. Even his thoughts for her seemed petty when he was with
her. Deeply he longed for Dinah, and the peace that she must bring to his
mind, and the contentment inevitable out of a life shared with hers.

Perhaps for the first time he now resolutely banished every doubt, thrust
them behind him, and devoted all future thought to their departure from
England. He inclined to Australia now from all that he had read and heard
about it. There he would take Dinah, and there, as "Lawrence Maynard," he
would marry her.

He began to look back upon his doubts as unmanly and mawkish; he

began to marvel that, for so many painful months, he had entertained them.
He assured himself that the air was clean and cloudless at last, and designed
to advance the situation by definite preliminary steps before he met Dinah
again.

CHAPTER XXIX

JOE TAKES IT ILL

 Melinda Honeysett came to see Mr. Stockman, and it happened that she
paid her visit but half an hour after heavy tidings had fallen on his ears.

From the moment of her arrival, she was aware of something unusual in
his manner, and presently she learned from him all particulars.

He was in his garden, sitting alone under a little arbour constructed at

the side of the house with its eye in the sun; and there he sat with his hands
in his pockets, idle, staring before him. Even the customary pipe was absent
from his mouth. He was restored to health, as Melinda knew; but she felt at
a loss to see him dawdling thus at noon. He looked old and dejected too, nor
did he rise to greet her when she entered the garden.

She approached him therefore, and he gazed indifferently and dull-eyed

upon her.

"Morning, Joe. They cabbages you gave me be all bolting* I'm sorry to
say, and Mr. Ford, my next door neighbour, tells me I can't do nothing."

* "Bolting"—running to seed.

"Ban't the only things that's bolting. Funny as you should be the one to
face me after what I've just heard."

"You'm down seemingly?"

"Down and out you might say without straining the truth. It's a blasted
world, though the sun do be happening to shine. I've had the hardest blow
of my life this morning. I'm still wondering if I ban't in an evil dream."

"Terrible sorry I'm sure. Good and bad luck don't wait for the weather. I
be in trouble, too—more or less. Jerry and Jane Bamsey have fallen out and
I'm in two minds—sorry for Jerry, and yet not all sorry, for father always
said she wasn't any good. Yet I don't know what Jerry will do if it don't
come right."
 Mr. Stockman seemed totally uninterested at this news. He still looked
before him and brooded. Melinda took a cane chair, which stood near his,
and mopped her face, for she was hot.

"Only a lovers' quarrel I dare say; but if it was broke off altogether I
reckon my brother might live to be thankful. And Orphan Dinah's gone to
find work somewhere. I hope she will this time. Jane thinks she's run away
to get married."

"Marriage—marriage!" he said. "Perdition take all this bleating about

marriage! I'm sick to death of it, as well I may be."

She was astonished.

"I never heard you talk against it for them so inclined. Marriage is a
good bit in the air this summer I believe. My sailor brother, Robert, be
coming home for a spell pretty soon. And he writes me as he'll wed afore he
goes back to sea, if he can find one. And I thought of Dinah. And Mr. Ford,
the gardener, next to me—I reckon he means to marry again. He's got a
great opinion of the state. Harry Ford's my own age to a day, strange to say.
Our birthdays fall together. He had no luck with his wife, but he's going to
try again I can see."

"I don't want to hear no more about him, or anybody else," said Mr.
Stockman. "'Tis doubtful manners mentioning him to me. If you knew what
I know, you'd be dumb with horror."

"Well, I can't be horrified if you won't tell me why I should. Where's

Soosie-Toosie?"

She received a shattering answer.

"To hell with Soosie-Toosie!" cried Joe.

"Man alive, what's got into you? Be you ill again, or is it Palk leaving?
If that's the trouble, lift your finger and he'll stay. You do that. I lay he
meant nothing but good, standing up for Susan. He's a clumsy, ignorant
creature; but you're always quick to forgive faults a man can't help. Pardon
the chap and let him bide. I've always told you it was going too far to sack
him on that. Don't be craking about it no more. It's your fault, after all, that
he's going."

He glowered at her.

"You're like cats—the pack of you—never do what a reasonable

creature wants, or expects. Put a bowl for 'em and they'll only drink out of a
jug. Call 'em to the fire, they'll go to the window. Ope the window for 'em
and they'll turn round and make you ope the door. And only a born fool
wastes time or thought to please a cat; and be damned if ever I will again."

"Be you talking about Susan, or me?" asked Mrs. Honeysett, with rising
colour. She did not know what was disturbing Joe's mind and began to feel
angry. He pursued his own dark thoughts a moment longer and then, as she
rose to leave him, he broke his news.

"Not an hour ago, when all was peace and I had been able to tell the
household I found myself well again, and was turning over an
advertisement for a new horseman, they crept before me, hand in hand—
like a brace of children."

"Who did?"

"Why, Susan and that blasted sarpent, Palk."

"Palk a sarpent!"

"Do, for God's sake, shut up and listen, and don't keep interrupting.
They came afore me. And Palk said that, owing to a wonderful bit of news,
he hoped we was going to part friends and not enemies, though he was
afraid as he might have to give me another jar. Then I told him to drop my
darter's hand that instant moment and not come mountybanking about when
he ought to be at work; and then he said that Susan had taken him, and they
hoped afore long to be married!"

"Mercy on us, Joe!"

 "That's what I heard this morning. And the woman put in her oar when I
asked Palk if he was drunk. She said she loved him well and dearly, and
hoped that I wouldn't fling no cold water over her great joy, or be any the
less a kind father to her. Got it all by heart of course."

"What a world! That's the last thing ever I should have thought to fall
out."

"Or any other sane human. It's a wicked outrage in my opinion and
done, of course, for revenge, because I cast the man away—cunning devil!"

"Don't you say that. You must take a higher line, Joe. Soosie-Toosie's a
good woman, and you always said Thomas was a good man."

"He's not a good man. He's a beast of a man—underhand and sly and
scheming. He's got one of them hateful, cast-iron memories, and when I
began to talk to them and soon had my daughter dumb, it was Palk, if you
please, opened his mouth and withstood me and flung my own words in my
face."

"What words?"

"And it shows kind speech to that fashion of man be no better than

cheese-cakes to a pig. I told him to think twice before he made himself a
laughing-stock to the parish, and then he minded me of the past and a thing
spoke when I sacked him, a fortnight ago. I've gone so weak as a mouse
over this job I can tell you."

"Take your time. What had you said to him?"

"I'd told him, when he dared to come afore me about my way with my
only child, that if there was anything in the world I could do for Susan to
make her home a happier place, he might rest assured she would tell me so
herself. And the sarpent remembered that and then invited the woman to
speak; which she did do, and told me that her life, without this grey-headed
son of a gun, wouldn't be worth living no more; and she hoped that I
wouldn't pay back all her love and life-long service—'service,' mind you—
by making a rumpus about it, or doing or saying anything unkind. And I've