Cognitive Computing for Big Data

Systems Over IoT Frameworks Tools

and Applications 1st Edition Arun
Kumar Sangaiah
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/cognitive-computing-for-big-data-systems-over-iot-fra
meworks-tools-and-applications-1st-edition-arun-kumar-sangaiah/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Intelligent Decision Support Systems for Sustainable

Computing Paradigms and Applications 1st Edition Arun
Kumar Sangaiah

https://textbookfull.com/product/intelligent-decision-support-
systems-for-sustainable-computing-paradigms-and-applications-1st-
edition-arun-kumar-sangaiah/

Big Data Analytics for Cloud IoT and Cognitive

Computing 1st Edition Kai Hwang

https://textbookfull.com/product/big-data-analytics-for-cloud-
iot-and-cognitive-computing-1st-edition-kai-hwang/

Big Data Analytics Tools and Technology for Effective

Planning 1st Edition Arun K. Somani

https://textbookfull.com/product/big-data-analytics-tools-and-
technology-for-effective-planning-1st-edition-arun-k-somani/

Big Data Analytics Tools and Technology for Effective

Planning 1st Edition Arun K. Somani

https://textbookfull.com/product/big-data-analytics-tools-and-
technology-for-effective-planning-1st-edition-arun-k-somani-2/
Cognitive Internet of Things: Frameworks, Tools and
Applications Huimin Lu

https://textbookfull.com/product/cognitive-internet-of-things-
frameworks-tools-and-applications-huimin-lu/

Big Data, IoT, and Machine Learning: Tools and

Applications (Internet of Everything (IoE)) 1st Edition
Rashmi Agrawal (Editor)

https://textbookfull.com/product/big-data-iot-and-machine-
learning-tools-and-applications-internet-of-everything-ioe-1st-
edition-rashmi-agrawal-editor/

Emerging Trends and Applications in Cognitive Computing

Pradeep Kumar Mallick

https://textbookfull.com/product/emerging-trends-and-
applications-in-cognitive-computing-pradeep-kumar-mallick/

Cognitive Computing in Human Cognition Perspectives and

Applications Pradeep Kumar Mallick

https://textbookfull.com/product/cognitive-computing-in-human-
cognition-perspectives-and-applications-pradeep-kumar-mallick/

EAI International Conference on Big Data Innovation for

Sustainable Cognitive Computing: BDCC 2018 Anandakumar
Haldorai

https://textbookfull.com/product/eai-international-conference-on-
big-data-innovation-for-sustainable-cognitive-computing-
bdcc-2018-anandakumar-haldorai/
Lecture Notes on Data Engineering
and Communications Technologies 14

Arun Kumar Sangaiah

Arunkumar Thangavelu
Venkatesan Meenakshi Sundaram Editors

Cognitive
Computing for
Big Data Systems
Over IoT
Frameworks, Tools and Applications
Lecture Notes on Data Engineering
and Communications Technologies

Volume 14

Series editor
Fatos Xhafa, Technical University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain
e-mail: fatos@cs.upc.edu
The aim of the book series is to present cutting edge engineering approaches to data
technologies and communications. It publishes latest advances on the engineering task
of building and deploying distributed, scalable and reliable data infrastructures and
communication systems.
The series has a prominent applied focus on data technologies and communications
with aim to promote the bridging from fundamental research on data science and
networking to data engineering and communications that lead to industry products,
business knowledge and standardisation.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15362

Arun Kumar Sangaiah ⋅ Arunkumar Thangavelu
Venkatesan Meenakshi Sundaram
Editors

Cognitive Computing for Big

Data Systems Over IoT
Frameworks, Tools and Applications

123
Editors
Arun Kumar Sangaiah Venkatesan Meenakshi Sundaram
School of Computing Science Department of Computer Science
and Engineering and Engineering
VIT University National Institute of Technology, Surathkal
Vellore, Tamil Nadu Mangalore, Karnataka
India India

Arunkumar Thangavelu
School of Computing Science
and Engineering
VIT University
Vellore, Tamil Nadu
India

ISSN 2367-4512 ISSN 2367-4520 (electronic)

Lecture Notes on Data Engineering and Communications Technologies
ISBN 978-3-319-70687-0 ISBN 978-3-319-70688-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70688-7
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017959915

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Foreword

Cognitive systems attract major attention in the new era of computing. In addition,
cognitive computing delivers an extended guidance towards building a new class of
systems with convergence of big data and Internet of Things (IoT). The human life
is driven by the smart electronic devices called IoT. Moreover, IoT devices generate
and exchange more amounts of data. Extracting the valid truth from this data
becomes a hectic task. Consequently, machine learning techniques have been
proposed to analyse large amounts of data and enhance decision-making. The
development of new techniques helps to provide relevant information to users with
high efficiency. Today’s world is driven by the era of digital data. People not only
look into conceiving information from the data but also perform exploratory data
analysis, thus, the area of big data analytics has emerged. Analysis of data sets can
find new correlations to spot business trends, prevent diseases, and combat crime,
etc.
In cognitive computing, new hardware or software devices mimic human brain
and take a decision appropriate to the situation. Moreover, cognitive computing is
used in numerous artificial intelligence (AI) applications, including expert systems,
natural language programming, neural networks, robotics and virtual reality. Fur-
ther, cognitive computing has lots of applications in every area of our lives, from
travel, sports and entertainment, to fitness, health and wellness, etc. In the business
domain, entrepreneurs from different industries have already created products and
services based on cognitive technologies. Cognitive computing helps them by
giving intelligent recommendation through data analysis. Cognitive computing is
not helping only humans, it is also helping veterinarians take better care of the
animals that come into their practices. In future, cognitive systems provide expert
assistance to a problem without the intervention of human beings. Self-learning
capability of human beings is adapted to the system by applying artificial intelli-
gence to it. Thus, the combination of big data analysis and cognitive computing
methodologies over IoT devices can change the world with new colour of
Intelligence.

v
vi Foreword

This book attempts to explicate the state-of-the-art research in cognitive com-

puting for big data systems and provide a comprehensive and in-depth coverage
of the key subjects in the field of IoT. The book is invaluable, topical and timely
and can serve nicely as a reference book for courses at both undergraduate and
postgraduate levels. It can also serve as a key source of knowledge for scientists,
professionals, researchers and academicians, who are interested in new challenges,
theories, practice and advanced applications of cognitive computing.
I am happy to inform the readers that this book titled “ Cognitive Computing for
Big Data Systems over IoT ” addresses important research directions in cognitive
computing and the development of innovative big data models for analysing the
data generated by IOT devices. It marks an important step in the maturation of this
field and will serve to unify, advance and challenge the scientific community in
many ways. I commend the editors and the authors on their accomplishment, and
hope that the readers will find the book useful and a source of inspiration for their
research and professional activity.

September 2017 Vijayan Sugumaran, Ph.D.

Rochester, MI, USA
Professor of Management Information Systems
Chair, Department of Decision
and Information Sciences
School of Business Administration
Oakland University
Preface

The paradigm shift in towards Internet of Things (IoT) is becoming the vital
component of Internet. Low-cost sensing and actuation are available to the whole
world, which enable seamless information exchange and networked interactions of
physical and digital objects. This interconnectivity together with large-scale data
processing, advanced machine learning, robotics and new fabrication techniques are
steadily bringing in innovation and business models of digital space into the
physical world. Further, IoT is expected to improve the intelligence, promote the
interaction between the human and the environment, as well to enhance reliability,
resilience, operational efficiency, energy efficiency and resource consumption.
Subsequently, many of the IoT systems and technologies are relatively novel, there
are still many untapped applications areas, numerous challenges and issues that
need to be improved.
Cognitive science has broad horizons, which cover different characteristics of
cognition. The field is highly transdisciplinary in nature, combining ideas, princi-
ples and methods of psychology, computer science, linguistics, philosophy, neu-
roscience, etc. In addition, cognitive computing is the creation of self-learning
systems that use data mining, pattern recognition and natural language processing
(NLP) to solve complicated problems without constant human oversight.
Cognitive computing will bring a high level of fluidity to analytics. The chapters
included in this book aim on addressing recent trends, innovative ideas, challenges
and cognitive computing solutions in big data and IoT. Moreover, these chapters
specify novel in-depth fundamental research contributions from a methodological/
application in data science accomplishing sustainable solution for the future per-
spective. Further, this book provides a comprehensive overview of constituent
paradigms underlying cognitive computing methods, which are illustrating more
attention to big data over IoT problems as they evolve. Hence, the main objective
of the book is to facilitate a forum to a large variety of researchers, where
decision-making approaches under cognitive computing paradigms are adapted to
demonstrate how the proposed procedures as well as big data and IoT problems can
be handled in practice.

vii
viii Preface

Need for a Book on the Proposed Topics

Data science techniques have been adopted to improve the IoT in terms of data
throughput, optimization and management. Moreover, the data science techniques
carry major impact on the future of IoT, allowing researchers to reproduce scenarios
and optimize the acquisition, analysis and visualization of the data acquired by IoT
devices. One of the most ambitious and exciting challenges in data science is to
model and replicate how people think and learn. This book explores domain
knowledge and reasoning of data science and cognitive methods over the IoT. The
idea of embodying this concept would be to extend existing data science approa-
ches by incorporating knowledge from experts as well as a notion of artificial
intelligence, and performing inference on the knowledge. The main focus is design
of best cognitive embedded data science technologies to process and analyse the
large amount of data collected through IoT and help for good decision-making.
Consequently, the cognitive data science research facilitates a platform to scientific
community to work for the best solution of challenges related with cognitive
methods and data science model issues to support IoT solutions towards smart
infrastructure and meet the requirement of modern world. This book addresses a
wide spectrum of cognitive computing paradigms, making decisions of an industry
or organization happened at all the levels of data science challenges. In addition,
this book aims to provide relevant theoretical frameworks and the latest empirical
research findings in the area. Solutions for big data over IoT problems have been
effectively handled through wide range of algorithmic and cognitive computing
frameworks, such as optimization, machine learning, decision support systems and
meta-heuristics. In addition, the main contributions to this volume address big data
over IoT problems in computing and information processing environments and
technologies, and at various levels of the cognitive computing paradigms.

Organization of the Book

The volume is organized into 15 chapters. A brief description of each chapter is

given as follows:
Chapter “Beyond Automation: The Cognitive IoT. Artificial Intelligence Brings
Sense to the Internet of Things” gives an overview of Intelligent IoT is named as
Cognitive IoT (CIoT) describes the convergence of IoT with artificial intelligence
techniques. In addition, this chapter introduces a preliminary idea of cognitive
computing that discusses several aspects of CIoT through different forms such as
Cognitive Network, Cognitive Devices and Cognitive Analytics.
Chapter “Cybercrimes Investigation and Intrusion Detection in Internet of
Things Based on Data Science Methods” introduces the principles of Digital
Forensics, Intrusion Detection and Internet of Things as well as exploring the data
science concepts and methods. The chapter authors highlight the need for
Preface ix

employing data science, data mining and big data analytics methods in cybercrime
investigation area because they have many advantages to support the digital
investigation.
Chapter “Modelling and Analysis of Multi-Objective Service Selection
Scheme in IoT-Cloud Environment” presents computational intelligent paradigm
based on fuzzy multi-criteria decision-making approaches (AHP and TOPSIS) to
select an optimal cloud for accessing different services of cloud. The offloading data
is evaluating the weights of important criteria’s and by calculating the final ranking
of alternative clouds. In addition, this chapter addresses the significance of the
proposed approach in better understanding of the whole evaluation process and
their efficiency of decision-making process in cloud path selection for offloading in
Mobile Cloud Computing (MCC) environment.
Chapter “Cognitive Data Science Automatic Fraud Detection Solution, Based on
Benford’s Law, fuzzy Logic with Elements of Machine Learning” presents com-
putational intelligence based heuristic approach for maximizing energy efficiency in
the Internet of Things (IoT). The authors present the Modified Multi-Objective
Particle Swarm Optimization (MMOPSO) algorithm based on the concept of
dominance to solve the mobile cloud task scheduling problem. Overall, this chapter
explores IoT and cloud computing as well as their symbiosis based on the common
environment of distributed processing.
Chapter “Reliable Cross Layer Design for E-health Applications—IoT
Perspective” illustrates cognitive data science automatic fraud detection solution,
based on Benford’ s law, fuzzy logic with elements of machine learning. Moreover,
proposed methodology gives solution for automatic seeking patterns within data
with focus on fraud detection.
Chapter “Erasure Codes for Reliable Communication in Internet of Things (IoT)
embedded with Wireless Sensors” provides a comprehensive overview of existing
erasure codes in the wireless sensor networks which are integral part of Internet of
Things communication. This chapter presents the construction methods of exten-
sively used Reed–Solomon codes and Fountain codes that are provided in addition
to decentralized erasure codes. Further, basic communication paradigm of infor-
mation transmission namely end-to-end transmission and hop-by-hop transmission
are discussed in detail with and without emphasis on erasure codes.
Chapter “Review: Security and Privacy Issues of Fog Computing for the Internet
of Things (IoT)” highlights the security and privacy issues of fog computing
through a comprehensive review of fog computing and suggests solutions for
identified problems. The chapter authors highlighted the areas that need attention in
fog computing research.
Chapter “A Review on Security and Privacy Challenges of Big Data” empha-
sizes on certain gaps in the literature to evaluate possible solutions to a rising
problem in various privacy and security issues in different areas of big data. The
chapter authors have addressed gaps in the literature by highlighting security and
privacy issues that big companies face with recent technological advancements in
corporate societies.
x Preface

Chapter “Recent Trends in Deep Learning with Applications” presents the

overview review of understanding the deep learning methods and their recent
advances in Internet of things. The deep learning methods are divided into four
classifications such as Convolutional Neural Networks, Restricted Boltzmann
Machines, Auto-encoder and Sparse Coding. The applications with respect to
Internet of things such as image caption, object detection and visual tracking are
also discussed in this chapter.
Chapter “High-Level Knowledge Representation and Reasoning in a Cognitive
IoT/WoT Context” presents an overview of the Generalized World Entities (GWEs)
paradigm, used to add a semantic/conceptual dimension to the ordinary IoT/WoT
procedures. This chapter have focused on development in effective SWOT
(Semantic Web of Things) applications via high-level Cognitive Science/Artificial
Intelligence techniques. It is necessary to overcome the shortcomings of the present
cognitive/conceptual IoT/WoT approaches.
Chapter “Applications of IoT in Healthcare” focuses on how Internet of things
(IoT) capabilities can be leveraged in providing better healthcare. This chapter also
discusses the key enabling technologies of the IoT (e.g., sensors and Wireless
Sensor Networks (WSN)), their characteristics and challenges.
Chapter “Security Stipulations on IoT Networks” discusses on various attacks
which are possible in the IoT connected network. This chapter will provide readers
with an understanding about the security policies and mechanisms in complex IoT
systems. Moreover, the chapter authors have illustrated the various security aspects
and its countermeasures were analysed and discussed.
Chapter “A Hyper Heuristic Localization Based Cloned Node Detection
Technique using GSA Based Simulated Annealing in Sensor Networks” presents
a Residual Energy and GSA based Simulated Annealing (RE-GSASA) for detecting
and isolating the cloned attack node in WSN. The chapter authors have proposed a
novel Residual Energy and GSA based Simulated Annealing (RE-GSASA) method
is introduced to reduce the energy consumption during data aggregation and
improve the packet delivery ratio.
Chapter “Review on Analysis of the Application Areas and Algorithms used in
Data Wrangling in Big Data” presents an extended review on the analysis of the
application areas and algorithms used in data wrangling in Big Data. This chapter
results show that data wrangling and clustering algorithm can solve medical data
storage issues.
Chapter “An Innovation Model for Smart Traffic Management System Using
Internet of Things (IoT)” discusses about an architecture which integrates Internet
of things and other moving components like data management techniques to create
a model for traffic management and monitoring. The model comprises of a single
platform where this platform will communicate with the large number of decen-
tralized heterogeneous components.
Preface xi

Audience

The intended audience of this book includes scientists, professionals, researchers

and academicians, who deal with the new challenges and advances in the specific
areas mentioned above. Designers and developers of applications in these fields can
learn from other experts and colleagues through studying this book. Many
universities have started to offer courses on cognitive computing, big data analytics
on the graduate/postgraduate level in information technology and management
disciplines. This book starts with an introduction to cognitive computing and data
science approaches, hence suitable for university level courses as well as research
scholars. Their insightful discussions and knowledge, based on references and
research work, will lead to an excellent book and a great knowledge source.

Vellore, India Arun Kumar Sangaiah

Vellore, India Arunkumar Thangavelu
Mangalore, India Venkatesan Meenakshi Sundaram
Acknowledgement

The editors would like to acknowledge the help of all the people involved in this
project and, more specifically, to the authors and reviewers who took part in the
review process. Without their support, this book would not have become a reality.
First, the editors would like to thank each one of the authors for their contri-
butions. Our sincere gratitude goes to the chapters’ authors who contributed their
time and expertise to this book.
Second, the editors wish to acknowledge the valuable contributions of the
reviewers regarding the improvement of quality, coherence and content presenta-
tion of chapters. We deeply appreciate the comments of the reviewers who helped
us to refine the context of this book. Most of the authors also served as referees; we
highly appreciate their double task.
Finally, our gratitude goes to all of our friends and colleagues, who were so
generous with their encouragement, advice and support.
Arun Kumar Sangaiah
Arunkumar Thangavelu
Venkatesan Meenakshi Sundaram

xiii
Contents

Beyond Automation: The Cognitive IoT. Artificial Intelligence

Brings Sense to the Internet of Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Pijush Kanti Dutta Pramanik, Saurabh Pal and Prasenjit Choudhury
Cybercrimes Investigation and Intrusion Detection in Internet
of Things Based on Data Science Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Ezz El-Din Hemdan and D. H. Manjaiah
Modelling and Analysis of Multi-objective Service Selection
Scheme in IoT-Cloud Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Chinu Singla, Nitish Mahajan, Sakshi Kaushal, Amandeep Verma
and Arun Kumar Sangaiah
Cognitive Data Science Automatic Fraud Detection Solution, Based on
Benford’S Law, Fuzzy Logic with Elements of Machine Learning . . . . . 79
Goran Klepac
Reliable Cross Layer Design for E-Health Applications—IoT
Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
P. Sarwesh, N. Shekar V. Shet and K. Chandrasekaran
Erasure Codes for Reliable Communication in Internet of Things
(IoT) Embedded with Wireless Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
C. Pavan Kumar and R. Selvakumar
Review: Security and Privacy Issues of Fog Computing for the
Internet of Things (IoT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Binara N. B. Ekanayake, Malka N. Halgamuge and Ali Syed
A Review on Security and Privacy Challenges of Big Data . . . . . . . . . . 175
Manbir Singh, Malka N. Halgamuge, Gullu Ekici
and Charitha S. Jayasekara

xv
xvi Contents

Recent Trends in Deep Learning with Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

K. Balaji and K. Lavanya
High-Level Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
in a Cognitive IoT/WoT Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Gian Piero Zarri
Applications of IoT in Healthcare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Prabha Susy Mathew, Anitha S. Pillai and Vasile Palade
Security Stipulations on IoT Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Sumod Sundar and S. Sumathy
A Hyper Heuristic Localization Based Cloned Node Detection
Technique Using GSA Based Simulated Annealing in Sensor
Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
D. Rajesh Kumar and A. Shanmugam
Review on Analysis of the Application Areas and Algorithms used
in Data Wrangling in Big Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Chiranjivi Bashya, Malka N. Halgamuge and Azeem Mohammad
An Innovation Model for Smart Traffic Management System
Using Internet of Things (IoT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Amardeep Das, Prasant Dash and Brojo Kishore Mishra
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Beyond Automation: The Cognitive IoT.
Artificial Intelligence Brings Sense
to the Internet of Things

Pijush Kanti Dutta Pramanik, Saurabh Pal and Prasenjit Choudhury

“The ability to interact with a computer presence like you would

a human assistant is becoming increasingly feasible.”
—Vint Cerf.

Abstract The Internet of Things (IoT) has already been infiltrated to our everyday
life in the forms of smartphones, smart TVs, fitness trackers, health monitoring
systems, smart watches, vending machines, smart meters, city traffic, building
security systems and much more like this. It has steered the automation to a new
high. But IoT alone has limited capability. To reap the actual benefit of IoT, it has to
be intelligent. In this chapter, we have reasoned why IoT needs Artificial Intelli-
gence (AI). The intelligent IoT that we discuss here, is termed as the Cognitive IoT
(CIoT) . Cognitive IoT uses a new computing paradigm called Cognitive Com-
puting, often popularly dubbed as the third era of computing. Cognitive Computing
will make IoT more sophisticated, more intelligent, and more interactive. This
chapter essentially focuses on the convergence of IoT with Cognitive AI. In
addition to introducing a preliminary idea of Cognitive Computing, the chapter
discusses several aspects of CIoT. It explains how Cognitive Computing has been
used in IoT through different forms such as Cognitive Network, Cognitive Devices,
and Cognitive Analytics. The desirable properties of the CIoT are mentioned.
A special discussion is presented on how CIoT has taken automation to a new level.
Realizing CIoT is not straightforward for the reason that it is a complex system and
is quite different from other computing systems we have been familiar with. The
implementation challenges along with the societal and ethical apprehensions of
CIoT have been identified and discussed in detail. The business world is showing
great interest in IoT and subsequently in CIoT. Considering that, we have high-
lighted the business values of CIoT and some prospective application areas along

Vint Cerf, a “father of the internet,” in “Your Life: Vinton Cerf” interview by David Frank
in AARP Bulletin (December 2016, Vol. 57, No. 10, p. 30.).

P. K. D. Pramanik (✉) ⋅ P. Choudhury

National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, India
e-mail: pijushjld@yahoo.co.in
S. Pal
Bengal Institute of Technology, Kolkata, India

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

A. K. Sangaiah et al. (eds.), Cognitive Computing for Big Data Systems Over IoT,
Lecture Notes on Data Engineering and Communications Technologies 14,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70688-7_1
2 P. K. D. Pramanik et al.

with a few prominent use cases. But, will excessive adoption of AI and tendering
human-like intellect to inorganic devices be a threat to the human race? Do we need
to be warned? A rational discussion on that has been presented before winding up.

Keywords Cognitive IoT ⋅Internet of things ⋅

Cognitive computing
Artificial intelligence ⋅
Machine learning ⋅ ⋅
Automation Cognitive automation
Business analytics ⋅ Cognitive analytics

1 Introduction

We wondered when in 1997, Deep Blue, a supercomputer from IBM, defeated

Garry Kasparov by 3,5: 2,5 in a most inciting showdown in the chess history. We
were awed how a machine can outperform a human brain! Since then, we have
witnessed the further revolution in computing as the machines have become more
intelligent day-by-day. Today we are on the verge of the era of the smart world
where everything is supposed to be done automated and proactively without or
minimal human intervention. And the technology that is supposed to take us to that
fairy world is known as Internet of Things (IoT) . IoT refers to a connected system
where anything that is addressable in the digital universe, can be connected via the
Internet. This omni-connectivity allows devices to share data effortlessly and
sharing data makes systems smart. For example, combining the traffic sensor data
can give an overall picture of the traffic status of a city. Similarly, the activities
going on in a smart home can be perceived by interpreting the data collected from
different sensors planted at the home. The pervasive presence of IoT devices has
made our life smart. For example, while returning home from office we can instruct
our micro oven, through our smartphone, to warm up the pizza; or a wearable
gizmo that has an embedded sensor for checking sugar level can remind us to take
the insulin dose when the sugar level is high. But we want more. For instance, the
room light will be off when we say good night; or on the way to our office, our car
radio should brief the morning headlines on its own. Moreover, if the morning flight
is delayed, the alarm clock will adjust itself accordingly, allowing us to slumber a
bit longer. Well, these are achievable, but not by IoT alone. We have to make IoT
more intelligent. We have to impulse cognition to the IoT as such that it becomes
the extended version of human. For that, we require infusing IoT with Artificial
Intelligence (AI). These two technologies can blur the line between sci-fi and a new
high-tech reality. In fact, without AI we cannot attain the full potential and vision of
IoT; we won’t be able to pluck the entire bunch of fruits from the IoT-tree. AI can
add more advanced control features and autonomous behavior to the smart world.
The AI which goes beyond normal machine intelligence to cognitive reasoning and
rationalizing problem solutions like human intelligence is cognitive AI. Cogni-
tive AI, a special arm of AI, in which a machine is loaded with the features of
human thought process, plays a vital role in bridging the gap between human and
Beyond Automation: The Cognitive IoT. Artificial … 3

machine. It turns the unintelligent machine to one with humanoid intelligence,

enabling machines to learn, reason and communicate with humans (and vice versa)
in natural language. Cognitive Computing that refers to the practical enactment of
Cognitive AI through computing model, adds a new layer of functionality to the
existing IoT architecture. This is known as Cognitive IoT (CIoT) that learns,
applies sense, and takes a decision and convey that to the humans. CIoT will allow
realizing the full potential of the IoT and will take the relationship between the
human and the physical things to an unforeseen echelon by making inorganic things
more intelligent, intuitive and interactive [1]. In short, CIoT will augment the
current IoT with the added cognitive ability very much similar to human cognition.
The rest of the chapter is organized as follows. The next section discusses how
IoT is related to automation and AI, in general, and the need for AI in IoT.
Section 3 discusses the basics of cognitive systems and Cognitive Computing with
a special discussion on how Cognitive Computing is different from automation.
Section 4 explores different aspects of CIoT including the properties and imple-
mentation challenges. Section 5 highlights the business values of CIoT. Sections 6
and 7 look at the prospective application areas and some use cases of CIoT
respectively. Section 8 brings up the hypothetical apprehensions about CIoT and
excessive adoption of AI. And at the end, Sect. 9 concludes the chapter.

2 IoT and AI

2.1 Internet of Things

The Internet is the interconnection of several computers in a global range. IoT has
extended the vision of Internet further. Here, not only computers are interconnected,
rather all the entities on the earth should be connected. The motto is that “Anything
that can be connected will be connected” [2]. The term ‘Internet of Things’ was first
coined by Kevin Ashton, a British technology pioneer, in 1999. The basic goal was
to capture and share data in an automated and pervasive manner. The ‘things’ in IoT
can include anything from a smart-watch to a cruise control system. But the
common factor is that every object is consisting of some type of sensors (e.g.
temperature, light, motion, etc.) or actuators (e.g. displays, sound, motors, etc.).
These sensors and actuators are often part of a larger ‘things’ where a number of
them are embedded. The other components of the IoT ecosystem include the
computing resources (to process the sensed data locally or remotely) and the com-
munication medium (Bluetooth, ZigBee, RFID, etc., for short range and the Internet
for long range). The IoT devices sense or read their surroundings or the environ-
ment where they are embedded. The sensed data are processed and analyzed to
acquire information and knowledge on the basis of which some definitive action
may be taken. Actually, the essence of IoT is to make any information available to
anyone and anytime across all the barriers [3]. IoT devices can do their work
4 P. K. D. Pramanik et al.

autonomously i.e. without any explicit external command. They independently

collect information and exchange them proactively with other IoT devices within
the network. The gathered data are analyzed in runtime or later either manually or
by the machine to infer information. The applications of IoT have been seen in the
wide range of domains such as manufacturing sector, logistic, transportation,
agriculture, medical and healthcare, home and building automation, smart grid,
service sector, etc. The advancements in technologies that have led to cheap sen-
sors, cheap processing, and cheap bandwidth with ubiquitous wireless coverage and
smartphones, have provided an effective ground for IoT to harvest information from
the environment and interact with the physical world [4]. This has abetted in
minimizing the gap between the physical objects and the cyber world, which has
made easier to control these devices. In short, by means of the ubiquitously and
universally connected devices, IoT has taken us to the new possibilities of a smart
world for a smart living.

2.2 IoT and Automation

Earlier, we stated that the motto of IoT is to connect everything wherever possible.
But why do we need to connect all the things? The answer is very clear and simple
—to automate. As we pointed out in the last section that improved relations
between the physical objects and the cyber world with intensified connectivity have
allowed us to control these devices better and more effortlessly. Indeed, a sense of
automation came into the picture.
The advantageous aspects of IoT have led industries/businesses to take IoT as a
new step towards automation empowering centralized controlling and management
[5]. The IoT-based automation can reduce the operational cost, as compared to the
manual procedure, through automated control and management of isolated and
independent devices by connecting and making them communicate with each other
[6].
In the manufacturing plants, IoT has immense potential for automation for more
responsive and effective operations. Smooth communication among devices like
sensors, actuators, analyzers, and robots enhances the manufacturing performance
and flexibility [3]. The data obtained from these devices can be used for governing
equipment status, energy management, condition monitoring, load balancing,
tracking and tracing systems, etc. [3]. Integrating these data with the ERP system
can take the automation in the organization to a ‘never achieved before’ level
through real-time observation of the overall operation and production process. If
required, machines communicate to each other to adapt to changed conditions even
without any centralized controlling [3].
IoT integration and tracking goods for delivery using GPS and RFID tech-
nologies automate the supply chain management. Logistic service can be automated
and controlled centrally through continuous monitoring of the location, expected
Beyond Automation: The Cognitive IoT. Artificial … 5

time to arrive, and the status of the product and environment (e.g. temperature,
humidity, etc.) while in transit ensuring the quality [7].
Connecting an equipment to the IoT will enable the manufacturer or the dealer of
that equipment to provide better preventative maintenance as they will be well
aware of the condition of the equipment through the stream of data that the
equipment sends with the help of IoT [8].
The retail sector also has huge advantages in inventory management by incor-
porating IoT. For instance, detecting low stock by smart shelves, notifying cus-
tomers about discount offers as they enter the store, tracking goods for smoother
supply-chain management, etc. [5].
Besides business and manufacturing, IoT-based automation has been adopted in
other segments such as automated home and building, cities, shopping mall,
transport etc. Automated homes and buildings will enhance the comfort and stan-
dard of living to a great extent. For example, temperature and luminosity of lights
will be automatically adjusted depending on the situation and peoples’ presence in
the room [5]. Likewise, building security systems can automatically detect any
unusual activities and irregularities, etc. IoT applications in transport can send the
information about a traffic jam and potential delay to the traveller’s smartphone by
assessing the real-time traffic condition automatically.

2.3 IoT Is Not AI

Going through all the wonderful stories about ‘smart’ness and automation, if you
get confused and think that IoT is nothing but AI only donning a latest fancy
technical jargon, you are surely not to be panned, particularly if you are a newbie in
the world of IoT. Yes, the promises IoT has offered very much sound like AI. In
fact, they are closely related, though not exactly same. To make things clearer, let
us refer to the standard definitions of the both.
AI is defined in Merriam-Webster as:
An area of computer science that deals with giving machines the ability to seem like they
have human intelligence.

Whereas, IoT is being defined by Gartner as:

Network of physical objects that contain embedded technology to communicate and sense
or interact with their internal states or the external environment.

The primary object of IoT is to connect the objects which are connectable. Here
the ‘intelligence’ (to be technically correct, we should state it as knowledge) come
from the sharing of data and streamlining these data to the proper channel. But the
purpose of AI is to program the machines such a way so that they can take decisions
independently without any human intervention as such that they have their own
intelligence to think and reason necessary for taking decisions. So, the emphasis in
IoT is the ‘connection’ whereas, in AI, it is the ‘intelligence’.
6 P. K. D. Pramanik et al.

In the perspective of Computer Science studies, AI is a stream of study having

many sub-branches such as Machine Learning (ML) , Neural Networks, Fuzzy
Systems, Genetic Algorithm, Natural Language Processing (NLP) and much more.
Every sub-branch of AI contributes to putting intelligence into the machines in
some way or other. Whereas IoT is a descendant technology which incorporates the
properties from many streams of Computer and Electronic Sciences such as
Computer Networks, Communication Technology, Wireless Technology, Sensor
Technology, Mobile Technology, Distributed Computing, Data Science and lots
more. To sum up, many fields of study diverge from AI whereas IoT is the outcome
of converging multiple fields of study.

2.4 Need for AI in IoT

From the previous section’s discussion, we understood that IoT and AI are not
synonymous but far-off distinct. So why is it necessary for IoT to get married to AI?
The answer is very obvious—to get the best out of IoT. Initial IoT applications did
not possess any decision-making skill, which caused failure to achieve the desired
performance level. The word ‘intelligence’ was missing from the IoT. AI makes IoT
intelligent. AI has transformed IoT to an intelligent entity, capable of behaving
decisively on the basis of past data and events. Furthermore, it can automatically
train, learn and troubleshoot future issues up to some good extent. Automating IoT
incorporates AI so as the decision can be taken autonomously for the management
and controlling of IoT. IoT comprises a complex network that includes billions
devices and sensors. Managing this kind of system is very costly and gruesome
task. This demands automatic monitoring, management and self-* (self-configuring,
self-protecting, self-organizing, self-reliant, self-healing, self-aware, self-learning,
and self-adjusting) properties of IoT to minimize the human intervention and
thereby reducing operational cost [9]. For that, it is essential to imbue AI into IoT.
The increasing connected devices, demands for real-time adaptability and smartness
to manage up the intended service operations. AI incorporates reasoning and
decision making skills to IoT, leading to smart functioning. AI adds a new layer of
functionality to the existing IoT architecture, leading devices to decision making,
reasoning, and learning. Thereby transforming IoT into an intelligent entity capable
of behaving decisively over past data and events. Furthermore, it may automatically
train, learn, and troubleshoot future issues up to some good extent. AI enabled IoT
sense other things it needs when connected to the Internet or local network. It builds
up intelligence from the pattern it observes on various data it acquires from the
surrounding and the network and makes intelligent decisions. ML can be used to
improve efficiency. Using AI in IoT applications has manifold advantages:
• Enhance user experience.
• Learn pattern and behavior of an applied system automatically.
• Identifies anomalies and conflicting situation.
Beyond Automation: The Cognitive IoT. Artificial … 7

Only IoT devices themselves are not worthwhile, much like our body without a
brain. It is the data that IoT devices generate is valuable. The data that would help
doctors to have real-time information about a patient condition, enabling decision
making across the industry, managing home appliances, communication and nav-
igation in transportation, and other numerous applications. The rapid expansion of
devices, sensors, and connectivity produce sheer volume of data. But again, just to
capture the data is not sufficient. To utilize IoT to its full potential, the vast amount
of data generated out of millions of IoT devices are to be utilized judiciously. We
need to take out the actionable knowledge from the data. These data contain
valuable insights on what is working and what not. The big challenge is to analyze
the data to crave right information at right time. Maximum of the IoT data has
actually never been put to use. The traditional methods for data analysis are
incapable to handle the sheer amount of data IoT generate. AI can boost the
accuracy, quality and speed of data analysis. By applying intelligent algorithms,
human-like intelligence can be extracted from the IoT data [10]. Various AI, ML,
and other related algorithms like evolutionary algorithm, genetic algorithm, etc.,
have been found to be effective in achieving automated decision making skill.
Incorporation of intelligent algorithms/software in IoT data analysis combined with
data from other business sources breed statistical information and summarization,
reinforcing a future prediction scenario. This alleviates in new system plans,
resulting in increased productivity and operational efficiency, which was otherwise
unattainable before [6].
Besides sensing data for a situation, IoT must be quite aware of different
anomalies like faulty sensors, incorrect data acquisition, missing data, and data
ambiguity to keep the system integrated and sustained. Use of AI plays a crucial
role in monitoring sensors, network, and other devices using intelligent security
algorithms.
Unquestionably, AI leads to autonomous decision making and self-management,
but subjected to the question—to what extent intelligence should be applied to IoT?
Because of the scattered network architecture of IoT with varying heterogeneous
devices having a different energy level, it is quite reasonable to have reservations
about the degree of intelligence conferred to each IoT nodes. For the nodes are
enabled with limited AI, resulting in, autonomous decision making on what, when
and how much to process. This will restrict devices to over-process and be over-
active thus saving a significant amount of energy which is very crucial for IoT
devices that are typically energy scanty. Again, too much autonomy can make the
whole system unpredictable which may defy the system design goal. There is also
need to understand the trade-off between centralized and distributed intelligence.
Centralized intelligence is sophisticated and less complex while distributing intel-
ligence at the edges and nodes of network make IoT more autonomous and scalable
but at the cost of complexity in terms of implementation.
Nevertheless, AI is already being used in IoT for the better upshot and the future
offers incredible opportunities for us to look beyond horizons. We just need to make
sure to grab the right opportunity that transforms our lives.
8 P. K. D. Pramanik et al.

Various areas of IoT and AI enabled IoTs are evolving and require further
research. Various automation related opportunities in the field of IoTs are still in
their infancy and AI to resolve the challenges and issues. The current research area
is quite emphasizing to train things to perform as expected and furthermore on how
well they communicate. The future research may focus on how to make things
better and smarter.

3 Cognitive AI and Cognitive Computing

3.1 Cognition, AI, and Cognitive AI

The term ‘cognition’ has been derived from the Latin word cognito which means ‘to
think’. The Cambridge dictionary defines ‘cognition’ (noun) as “the use of a
conscious mental process” and ‘cognitive’ (verb) as “connected with thinking or
conscious mental processes”. Cognition emphasizes on the process how one learns,
remembers, and reasons rather than any particular fact that one has learned. Cog-
nition had been originated from philosophy and gradually transcended to psy-
chology. Cognition is a general term used in diverse disciplines. For example, the
psychologists use the term ‘cognitive psychology’ where they study how people
think and their behavioral process whereas the term ‘cognitive therapy’ is used by
the psychotherapists to refer the treatment of the people suffering from the mental
illness that tries to change the way they think.
‘Intelligence’ has come from the Latin word intelligere which means ‘to pick
up’. Fundamentally, AI refers to the capacity of a machine to learning or under-
standing and out of some given options, which action to be taken and when. AI can
perform only those tasks which are defined by clear-cut rules and are hard-coded by
the human. This means that the success of AI systems depends largely on the
perception and anticipation of the probable complex scenarios by human and their
ability to code the solution logic and assimilate it to the system. To get rid of this
restraint, the AI people have espoused cognition and propelled beyond the study of
human thinking and behavioral process. They termed this amalgamation as Cog-
nitive AI regarded as the natural extension of the present AI. The purpose was to
emulate the cognition process into the non-living objects, to be specific, the com-
puters and machines, to make them intelligent, really brainy which otherwise
cannot be possible through other conventional AI techniques. Cognitive AI plays a
vital role in bridging the gap between human and machine.

3.2 Cognitive Computing

Over the last hundred years, computing technologies have evolved dramatically.
Advancement in AI has lead machines to learn and empowers to reason,
Beyond Automation: The Cognitive IoT. Artificial … 9

transforming machines to a ‘thinking device’, to what we refer as cognitive device/

system. It is the evolution of software approach which mimics human cognition into
machines leading to the dawn of new era of computing a ‘cognitive era’ [11].
Cognitive systems are fundamentally different in comparison to other forms of
computing available or practiced in past. The cognitive system continuously learns
from its interaction with data (structured or unstructured), people, and situation and
thus eventually improves its learning and reasoning capabilities [12]. As the
learning of a human brain gradually evolves from birth to adulthood, a cognitive
system also learns over time through the experience and information it gains every
time it interacts with other systems [13]. The auto-learning features ensure that
cognitive system may never go outmoded but only get smarter with time. It reasons
with purpose, infers meaning and interacts with human, naturally. This paradigm
shift in computing approach from rule-based to learning and reasoning will change
the future computing [14].
Cognitive Computing profoundly applies agent-based technology. In situations,
intelligent agents comprehend high-level objectives and learn autonomously on
how to accomplish the objectives. The system interacts iteratively with outside
world to learn, purposefully reason, and consequently, update till the objectives are
not achieved [11]. By the processes of learning, Cognitive Computing gets better
over time and builds its own world of knowledge. With time, the error margin
reduces and the quality of analysis and prediction improves. As with time, Cog-
nitive Computing develops deep domain expertise, thus dependency in comparison
to the expert systems could lead to a better decision whether in healthcare, finance
or customer service [1].
Cognitive systems are not programmed in prior rather they are designed to
augment themselves by learning through training, interactions, previous experience,
and past reference datasets [13]. Thus, in contrast to conventional programmable
(von Neumann) computers, Cognitive Computing does not limit itself within the
deterministic boundaries. It brings a dynamic essence to the systems by continu-
ously sensing and learning from the surroundings and enhancing its
decision-making capabilities [15]. Cognitive technologies extend the capability of
computers in executing the tasks usually performed by humans such as handwriting
recognition, face recognition, and other tasks which require human cognitive skills
such as planning, reasoning, and learning from complete or incomplete data [16].
The fact that the applications that incorporate Cognitive Computing do not follow
any pre-programmed logic with specific rules raises the obvious question on the
performance, complexity, and effectiveness of these applications. The performance
of a cognitive system for a database with n records and m fields, essentially by
brute-force method it could be O(nm2). But for the system trained well, it could
perform close to the best case which asymptotes to O(n). The longer the system run,
the faster it performs [17].
Real world scenarios are random, chaotic, uncertain and ambiguous which leads
to problems that are dynamic, information-rich, changing and conflicting in nature.
Cognitive Computing apprehends the situation by taking into account the infor-
mation source, influencing factors, and contextual insights. Context includes
10 P. K. D. Pramanik et al.

features which describe what, when, where, and how an entity is engaged in its
environment and the specific process to which it is involved with. Context provides
serendipity to find suitable solution pattern in the massive and diverse collection of
information, which may be a suitable response to the need of the moment.
Cognitive Computing is the blend of different capabilities as ML, NLP, cogni-
tive vision, reasoning and learning, etc. Leveraging these capabilities, Cognitive
Computing unlocks the information from massive data to develop deep and pre-
dictive insights [18]. The output of Cognitive Computing may be prescriptive,
suggestive or instructive [19].
By exploiting past errors and success, cognitive systems help machines to learn
and teach humans new concepts and/or behaviors [20]. The unique combination of
analytics, problem-solving and communication with a human in the natural form
[21] redefines the relationship between human and machines, whereby machines
augment human in decision support and reasoning.

3.3 Beyond Automation

Is there really any difference between automated systems and the cognitive systems?
Or is it just another technological gimmick? Well, practically speaking, they are
different, fundamentally, by far. For instance, a sensor device can take some action
according to the data it senses. This is automation but not cognitive. Let us elaborate.
When we enter to our smart room the light is automatically turned on. This is
automation. If the light changes its incandescence and probably the color according
to time, weather and my mood, it is cognitive. When we step out of our room and
shut the door, the lights are off. This is automation. But when we go to bed and wish
good night to the room lights, they turn off. This is cognitive. Traditional automated
systems can not perceive or express humanly emotion. In contrast, cognitive systems
incorporate emotional behavior in their interaction [1]. The automated systems are
pre-configured and hard-coded by the human. They follow rigid definitions and
rules. Cognitive systems are soft coded and able to define their own rule. They make
themselves complete through continuous learning by experience. The automated
systems are good in operating on structured data, grasp it and organize into mean-
ingful and well-directed data whereas cognitive systems, in addition to these basic
chores, can handle unstructured data, learn and infer extra knowledge through each
process and reuse the learning [1]. They are able to filter out and focus on the
meaningful events only. Almost a century ago, when Ford introduced the assembly
line, the elementary form of early industrial automation, the purpose was to save
working hours from repetitive manual tasks. Since then, automation has been
adopted in several industries so that the lower level workers can concentrate on more
complex and creative tasks that machines can’t handle. It helped organizations to
reduce labor cost and time-to-market, eliminate inefficiency and augment overall
production process. The application of cognitive technologies is extending
automation to new areas that have never been thought of before. By adding cognitive
Beyond Automation: The Cognitive IoT. Artificial … 11

abilities to the existing automation, not only the basic processes will be executed
faster, but human aptitude and judgment can be emulated to the automated systems
quickly and at large scale [22]. Not only machine automation, it offers automation of
knowledge work that can help companies become more efficient and agile in their
businesses. It will take industries beyond mere automating processes at the lower
level to provide significant decision-making knowledge to all level of employees and
allow them to acquire high-end skills to take up and solve problems they previously
did not have the source and time to work on [23]. The original purpose of automation
was pure business oriented and that was to save operational cost. Though CIoT is
receiving significant attention from the business community, the primary purpose of
CIoT is to make people’s life smarter and chilled out by taking us way beyond the
unadorned and artless automation.

4 Internet of Things and Cognitive Computing

4.1 The Cognitive IoT

The purpose of the IoT is to eliminate the boundary between human and the
physical world by personally connecting to our surrounding objects and sharing
information about them with us, as naturally as possible. But owing to the com-
plexity and the scale of IoT, that cannot be realized by the basic form of IoT [24].
To reap the absolute benefit from IoT, we need to employ Cognitive Computing as
an add-on what we call as Cognitive IoT (CIoT). CIoT is aimed at improving
performance and to achieve intelligence of IoT through cooperative mechanisms
with Cognitive Computing [25]. Today’s IoT generally focuses on sensing its
surroundings and act accordingly. The decisions taken by the devices connected to
IoT are generally based on pre-programmed models. They can infer based on the
sensed data available. But they are not full-fledged autonomous systems which can
take their decisions very much depending on the immediate context. By infusing
sense into IoT, Cognitive Computing enables IoT to interact dynamically with other
connected objects, as well as adapt to the present context through continuous
learning from the environment. They will be able to observe, filter, and recognize,
very similar to humans, and also assimilate that information to excerpt actionable
knowledge and meaningful patterns [1]. They will understand the context based on
the domain where IoT is applied and act accordingly [13]. Cognitive Computing
can be exercised, principally, in three different facets of IoT as described below.
1. Networking aspect: The networking aspect of CIoT is basically an extended
concept of cognitive radio [26] and cognitive networks [27, 28]. Cognitive
networks try to achieve the optimum performance by adapting to the present
condition of the network. Using cognitive networks, the CIoT can make intel-
ligent decisions through comprehending the current network condition and
analyzing the perceived knowledge [25]. Thus, CIoT can take up necessary
12 P. K. D. Pramanik et al.

adaptive measures to maximize network performance and minimize latency

which is crucial especially to the time-constrained applications. It also considers
the route that requires less energy for data communication because the sensor
devices normally have limited battery life. It helps saving energy also by
dynamically establishing demand-based connection and disconnection among
IoT devices. The cognitive network can increase network capacity through
intelligent multi-domain cooperation that will be a big boon as the volume of
IoT data is growing incredibly [25].
2. Behavioral aspect: Like humans, the IoT devices are also intended to sense the
inputs, in the ideal case, in the form of vision, sound, taste, smell, and touch.
The human mind is naturally capable of negotiating and collaborating with these
ecological inputs, process them, and reason the output [1]. Embedding cognitive
technologies to the IoT devices makes them intelligent and sensible much like a
human. In addition to their normal properties i.e. sensing the surroundings and
sharing this information, by mimicking human cognition capability, they will be
capable of learning, thinking, and comprehending, by themselves, both the
physical and social worlds [29]. The cognitive things can take actions on their
own and interact directly with humans by understanding and use their (human’s)
language [15]. To recognize and to differentiate among users are the precon-
ditions of learning. Cognitive devices should be able to recognize different users
through a variety identification attributes such as the face, fingerprints/touch,
voice, and usage pattern [1]. According to the learning from previous interaction
experience, they will be able to adjust their future interactions. CIoT not only
can sense but also learn to anticipate, along with time, different emotions and
respond accordingly [1]. They are able to adjust their response according to the
mood and the changing emotions of other systems they are interacting with.
3. Data analytics aspect: The extensive application of IoT is producing enormous
data and in the coming years, it will become the largest source of digital data in
the world. Processing and channelizing this huge amount of data into the right
direction and utilizing them for purposeful usage will become a challenge. In
most of the IoT applications, the maximum chunk of these data is discarded just
because of lack of capacity to handle the data of this size. Even if in some cases,
the Big Data platforms such as Hadoop are used to store all these data, they are
not being fully utilized due to the technical limitations of these platforms and the
computers [30]. The traditional approach of programming that is based on series
of conditional statements are not sufficient to handle this enormous amount of
data [24]. Something special is required to facilitate all the blended transactions
for the smooth functioning of these smart devices. Something special is required
to mine and understand the multifarious and unstructured data generated out of
these devices. Cognitive Computing is that special thing. The probabilistic
nature of cognitive systems enables us to square with the voluminous, complex,
and unpredictable IoT data [24]. IoT data can be converted into intelligent data
through cognitive techniques which should aid organizations in automating
tasks, designing better products, and innovate new customer-centric services
Beyond Automation: The Cognitive IoT. Artificial … 13

[31]. CIoT will recognize the organizational goals, accumulate, integrate, and
analyze relevant data to help businesses achieve those goals [24].

4.2 Properties of Cognitive IoT

CIoT is inherently distributed as well as pervasive in nature. Hence most of the

aspects of these two computing paradigms are expected to be engrossed by CIoT as
well. Apart from those, some other standard (and desirable) properties of CIoT are
mentioned below [19].
Self-learning: CIoT should require minimum explicit programming. It will
continuously learn from the environment, the dealing with other entities, and from
the events and continuously improve itself. Ideally, the learning should be unsu-
pervised rather than supervised i.e. they should learn by themselves without any
pre-set parameters. Cognitive Computing works based on continual hypotheses
formation. Every time CIoT learns something new it seeks approval from the
existing hypotheses [17]. Depending on the outcome it updates its memory.
Probabilistic: CIoT is not structured either deterministic i.e. it cannot be defined
by formal language. It interprets the input and the context probabilistically.
Deterministic systems are designed to follow the algorithms that are expected to
adhere to the pre-set pattern and support specific data sets. Whereas CIoT does not
follow any pre-set pattern. It sets out with a hypothesis, learns as it goes on, and
exercises statistical methods to find a correlation between the new findings and its
hypothesis. Based on the outcome it may change the previous hypotheses and
possibly will find a new course of operation.
Adaptive: It must adapt itself to changed conditions (both physical and logical)
[32]. It should also learn to adjust itself as information changes as well as when new
objectives and requirements develop and update the acquired knowledge in the case
of any modification [19].
Flexible: The self-learning and adaptive capabilities give CIoT a lot of flexibility
in ingestion and processing of input data. If, for example, while processing, an
unwanted data or variable comes up, CIoT will adjust its processing model to
incorporate that deviance, unlike the traditional IoT where the program may have to
be rewritten [17]. This becomes very expedient in the unpredictable environments,
especially where the content itself keeps evolving.
Dynamic: CIoT must be able to handle real-time (both soft and hard) data. It
should possess the dynamic capacity to process and analyze data on-the-fly.
Moreover, it must resolve ambiguity dynamically and also deal with
unpredictability.
Interactive: CIoT is designed to be interactive with people (users), machines,
and other automated services. CIoT is especially remarkable for its ability to
interact with people in a fully human way. Interacting capability using natural
language makes it very powerful. It can take input from natural language or
14 P. K. D. Pramanik et al.

unstructured text and give output in the same form [17] and mainly due to this,
CIoT has gained widespread applicability be it personal or business application.
Iterative: Self-learning is always an iterative process. CIoT also follows the
iterative pattern: make a hypothesis—learn further—update the hypothesis.
Stateful: CIoT has memory. It remembers the states of every transaction and is
capable to trek backwards and forward to locate something if needed [17]. Because
it is a self-learning, adaptive, and iterative system, it must retain the previous
interactions and acquired knowledge at on every occasion so that they can remi-
nisce whenever required.
Unstructured data friendly: CIoT can handle most of the unstructured data
types [11]. This has allowed it to be integrated with the majority of the data sources
in the world thus, increasing the scalability and the scope of knowledge acquiring.
Highly integrated: Though each individual device in CIoT works (sense and
learn) independently and most often autonomously, they all team up focusing to
contribute to a central learning system. In that sense, every device is closely bonded
to each other through continuous interaction, sharing information, and updating
own knowledge accordingly [33].
Scalable: Working range of an IoT can be confined within a small room or
expanded over a whole city. The pervasive and ubiquitous application of IoT makes
it essential to support appending (or removing) of mobile devices to (or from) the
system dynamically. Therefore, CIoT should support highly real-time scalability. In
this aspect, one thing goes in favor of CIoT that it makes fewer redundant calcu-
lations, which is very crucial for scalable systems [17].
Context- and situation-aware: The validity of IoT data and inferred knowledge
depends on the particular contextual and situational information such as time,
location, application and administrative domain, regulations, user’s profile, process,
task and goal [19]. CIoT is able to identify, read, and extract this information and
apply correspondingly.
Self-management: The extraordinary scale of CIoT makes it impossible to
manage manually or even using automated management tools. It is ought to be
self-managed. There are different elements of management of CIoT. Of them, some
important ones are:
• Diagnosis, troubleshooting, and maintenance. Ideally, CIoT should diagnose
and troubleshoot itself besides regular maintenance, without any human inter-
vention. It should be able to observe the behavior of its components, assess the
state, and predict likely trouble spots [1]. Through this proactive tricks, the
unnecessary interruptions can be avoided. For scheduled maintenance, which
includes battery replacement, network inspection, other hardware looking over,
etc., CIoT will automatically find a suitable slot for this so that the maintenance
downtime is minimum and least hurting for the business. The system will
intuitively decide when to repair parts and to replace in case of worn out.
• Fault tolerance. Since IoT devices are delicate and error-prone and generally
works over wireless networks, there is every possibility of frequent fault
occurrence. CIoT should be able to recover, if possible, or mask these faults.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The narrative of
a journey undertaken in the years 1819, 1820 and
1821 through France, Italy, Savoy, Switzerland,
parts of Germany bordering on the Rhine,
Holland and the Netherlands
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: The narrative of a journey undertaken in the years 1819,

1820 and 1821 through France, Italy, Savoy,
Switzerland, parts of Germany bordering on the Rhine,
Holland and the Netherlands
comprising incidents that occurred to the author, who
has long suffered under a total deprivation of sight; with
various points of information collected on his tour

Author: James Holman

Release date: September 3, 2023 [eBook #71556]

Language: English

Original publication: London: G. B Whittaker, 1825

Credits: Steve Mattern and the Online Distributed Proofreading

Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced
from images generously made available by The
Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE

NARRATIVE OF A JOURNEY UNDERTAKEN IN THE YEARS 1819,
1820 AND 1821 THROUGH FRANCE, ITALY, SAVOY,
SWITZERLAND, PARTS OF GERMANY BORDERING ON THE
RHINE, HOLLAND AND THE NETHERLANDS ***
 Wageman del. E. Finden sc.

JAMES HOLMAN, R.N.-F.R.S.

“Total eclipse! nor Sun, nor Moon;
All dark amidst the blaze of noon.”

THE

Narrative
OF

A JOURNEY,
UNDERTAKEN

IN THE YEARS 1819, 1820, & 1821,

THROUGH

FRANCE, ITALY, SAVOY, SWITZERLAND,

PARTS OF GERMANY BORDERING ON THE RHINE, HOLLAND,
AND THE NETHERLANDS;
COMPRISING

INCIDENTS
THAT OCCURRED TO THE AUTHOR, WHO HAS LONG SUFFERED UNDER A

TOTAL DEPRIVATION OF SIGHT;

With various points of Information collected on his Tour.

BY JAMES HOLMAN, R. N. & K. W.

“Cæcus iter monstrare velit: tamen aspice si quid

Et nos, quod cures proprium fecisse, loquamur.” Hor.

FOURTH EDITION.

LONDON:
PUBLISHED BY G. B. WHITTAKER, AVE MARIA LANE.
1825.
 THE
Dedication.

TO

HER ROYAL HIGHNESS

THE

PRINCESS AUGUSTA.
Madam,

If there be any one circumstance peculiarly gratifying to myself, as

the Author of the present Narrative, it is the permission I have
received to dedicate it to your Royal Highness.

The kind manner in which this honour has been conferred, cannot
fail to increase the value of the boon, and strengthen the ties of
gratitude by which I felt bound to your Royal Highness, for the
flattering notice, and important favours, you had previously been
pleased to bestow upon me.

I beg to assure your Royal Highness, that it will ever be the

proudest feeling of my heart, that my very humble production should
have been ushered into public notice, under the auspices of a
Patroness, whose exalted virtues have secured her universal esteem
and respect, and made her the admiration of that sex, of which she
is the distinguished and presiding ornament.

With every sentiment of devotion, I am,

Madam,
 Your Royal Highness’s

Much obliged and very obedient Servant,

JAMES HOLMAN.
 PREFACE.
The very peculiar circumstances under which the Author professes
to obtrude the present volume upon public notice, appear to require
some explanation, were it only to obviate suspicions which might
arise, that the general detail of circumstances which it comprises,
has been the production of an active imagination, rather than a
relation of the occurrences of real life; for he is fully aware, that such
a construction might be put upon the apparent anomaly of the travels
of one, whose loss of sight, a source of information naturally
considered indispensable in such an undertaking, must greatly limit
his power of acquiring the legitimate materials, necessary to give his
work body and consistency.

On this account, it may not be superfluous, to enter upon a brief

history of his misfortune, as introductory to an explanation of the
motives which have influenced him in bringing forward the present
publication.

Destined to the naval service of his country, his exclusive

attention, for some years, was devoted to the attainment of that
professional knowledge, which he hoped might lead to honourable
distinction; how far these views were likely to have been crowned
with success, it will now be useless to state; it is sufficient to say, that
at the age of twenty-five, while in the very bloom of expectation, his
prospects were irrecoverably blighted by the effects of an illness,
resulting from his professional duties, and which left him deprived of
all the advantages of “heavens prime decree,”—wholly—and, he
fears, permanently blind.

“Total eclipse! nor sun; nor moon;

All dark amidst the blaze of noon.”
 After the distressing feelings which accompanied the first shock of
this bodily privation, had in some measure subsided, the active mind
began to seek occupation and amusement, amongst the many
resources which a beneficent Providence had still left uncurtailed.
These he has happily found, not only abundant, but apparently
inexhaustible; and the lapse of ten years, has not merely softened
down the sense of misfortune, but even reconciled him to an
affliction, which some view as the severest that can befal humanity.

“⸺though sight be lost,

Life yet hath many solaces, enjoyed
Where other senses want not their delights.”

Amongst the various pursuits which have served to cheer, and

sooth him throughout this protracted day of darkness, the book of
nature has been largely opened to his mental view; nor has he failed
to cultivate the pleasing fields of literature; and he may exclaim with
our admired poet, when he so pathetically bewails the loss of this
most precious organ:

“So thick a drop serene hath quenched their orbs,

Or dim suffusion veiled; yet not the more
Cease I to wander where the Muses haunt
Clear spring, or shady grove, or sunny hill.”

In time he began to acquire greater facility of locomotion than he

could have anticipated, and which was succeeded by an almost
irresistible inclination to visit different parts of his native country, in
quest of knowledge or amusement; notwithstanding the limited
information, which it may be imagined he would thus derive, he
found the impressions produced, afford him not only present, but
permanent gratification. To some, this may appear incredible; it must,
however, not be forgotten, that the loss of one sense, is uniformly
compensated by superior powers of those that remain unimpaired, in
consequence of their being more called into action; and it is well
known, that the sense of touch, in particular, acquires so great a
delicacy, as to afford degrees of information, which under ordinary
states it is incapable of: besides this advantage, he acquired an
undefinable power, almost resembling instinct, which he believes in a
lively manner gives him ideas of whatever may be going forward
externally.

In the year 1819, his health having for some time suffered from
causes which it is unnecessary to mention, the Author became
assured that nothing would tend more to re-establish it, than a visit to
the highly favoured clime of the southern parts of Europe: while at
the same time, and which was, perhaps, paramount to all other
considerations, he would be gratifying his desire of obtaining
information; he therefore, with this double view, determined to
undertake the journey which forms the subject of the present pages;
—and is happy to say, that in neither of these objects has he met
with disappointment.

It may be more difficult to assign satisfactory reasons, for laying

before his readers the various incidents which befel him, in this
pursuit of health and occupation; for he is not vain enough to
imagine, that they could feel interested in his acquisition of the one,
or participate with him in the enjoyment of the other.

The compilation was, in the first instance, entered upon as a

matter of employment and selfish pleasure. None but those who
have travelled through countries, and amidst circumstances novel to
them, can appreciate the delight experienced from recalling in this
way the interesting points of an interesting journey, and fighting as it
were, their battles over again. On shewing a portion of the notes thus
collected to his friends, their too kind partiality (for such he fears it
has been) induced them to think that if published, they might not
prove wholly unacceptable to the public, and their solicitations and
assurances at length determined him to adopt their suggestions.

The Author will not profess to be ignorant of the presumptuous

nature of his attempt; or unconscious of the numerous deficiencies
and inaccuracies with which his work abounds; many of these are
necessarily attributable to the disadvantages under which he has
laboured; his very outset was amidst unfavourable circumstances, as
he was then almost wholly unacquainted with that language, which
could alone enable him to acquire the information he was seeking
for: this must be his apology for the want of observation and incident,
which are more particularly manifest throughout the first months of
his residence in France.

The want of vision must frequently make his observations and

descriptions imperfect; to compensate for this, he has availed
himself of such intelligence as he could derive from others; and, for
the same reasons, has introduced a variety of extracts from
interesting authors, which appeared desirable to elucidate or enliven
his narrative.

He rests his chief hope of the approbation of the public, upon

having given a plain and faithful statement of a journey, which must
be regarded as possessing a degree of originality, arising from the
peculiar circumstances under which it was accomplished.

He now concludes his prefatory matter, by soliciting the indulgence

of his readers, and entreating them not to criticise with too much
severity, a work which, he trusts, has some claims upon their
forbearance; and which, if it happens to repay their perusal by any
pleasurable emotion, or to excite a kind sympathy for his own
situation, will have answered the fullest expectation of its author.
Windsor,
May 1st, 1822.
 THE
NARRATIVE,
&c.

CHAP. I.
DEPARTURE FROM ENGLAND, AND JOURNEY
TO PARIS.

My friends expressed considerable surprise, when I announced

my actual determination to undertake a continental tour, and I
believe many of them, to the last moment, were inclined to doubt
whether I seriously intended it; they did not fail to question how I
proposed, with my personal defects, to make progress through a
strange country, unaccompanied by even a servant to assist and
protect me, and with an almost total ignorance of the languages of
the various people I was about to visit. I urged in reply, that the
experience of more than twenty years, during which I had been, as it
were, a citizen of the world, and a great part of which had been
spent in foreign climes, would be sufficient to direct me through the
common occurrences and incidents, to which the traveller is
exposed; that for the rest, I was content to leave it to God, upon
whose protection, in the midst of dangers, I had the most implicit
reliance, and under whose providential guidance, I doubted not to
attain the completion of the various objects of my journey,
remembering, as Cowper happily expresses it, that

“To reach the distant coast,

The breath of Heaven must swell the sail,
Or all our toil is lost.”
 It may be difficult to say, under what description of traveller I
proposed to class myself. Sterne enumerates the following species
of the wandering tribe. “Idle travellers; inquisitive travellers; lying
travellers; proud travellers; vain travellers; splenetic travellers;
travellers of necessity; the delinquent and felonious traveller; the
unfortunate and innocent traveller; the simple traveller; and last of all
(if you please), the sentimental traveller.” Now I do not think any of
these titles strictly applicable to myself; I shall not, however, attempt
to determine the point, but leave it to the courteous reader to apply
that which he may consider most appropriate.

I reached Dover on the evening of the 14th of October, 1819, and

on the following morning embarked with a fair wind for Calais. This
day is the more remarkable to me, as being, in addition to the
present incident, the anniversary of my birth, as well as the same
day of the year in which, after my loss of sight, I first set out for
Edinburgh, to commence a course of studies at that celebrated
university. In little more than three hours we arrived off the harbour of
Calais, when the tide not answering for our making the pier, a boat
came out for the mail, and I availed myself of the opportunity of
going on shore; for this earlier accommodation I was charged five
francs, a sum nearly equal to half the fare across the channel.

Behold me, then, in France! surrounded by a people, to me,

strange, invisible, and incomprehensible; separated from every living
being who could be supposed to take the least interest in my
welfare, or even existence; and exposed to all the influence of
national prejudice, which is said to prompt this people to take every
advantage of their English neighbours. To counteract these
disadvantages, I had nothing but the common feelings of humanity,
assisted by the once boasted politesse of the great nation, and
which might be expected to operate in favour of an afflicted stranger.

My commencement however proved auspicious, for I found an

English valet-de-place, or commissionaire, on the pier, who assisted
me through the ceremonials of the Custom-house, where they did
me the favour to take two francs as a remuneration for their trouble
in inspecting my luggage. He then conducted me to the Grand Cerf
Hotel; and after I had taken refreshment, went with me to facilitate
my inquiries respecting the diligences to Paris, for which place I
proposed setting off on the following morning. After this, we
extended our walk through the town, and visited the ramparts and
banks of the canal to St. Omer.

On returning to the Hotel, I partook for the first time of a French

dinner; and, the commissionaire having left me, had the advantage
of being waited upon by Paul the garçon, who did not understand
one word of English; I had no little difficulty in getting through the
routine of this important repast. Afterward I repeated my walk
through the town, and on my return was surprised to learn that a
person had been enquiring for me. It proved to be the waiter of the
Hotel where I had breakfasted at Dover, who had crossed the
channel in pursuit of a French gentleman who had taken his
breakfast at the same table with me, and whom a friend of mine had
endeavoured to interest in my favour. This gentleman had received
from the waiter a ten pound note in exchange instead of a smaller
one, and the latter was anxious to recover his lost property. I was
sorry that I could give him no satisfactory information, for
notwithstanding he had promised to shew me all possible attention
before leaving Dover, and even regretted he could not give me a
place in his carriage to Paris, he kept himself quite aloof after getting
on shipboard, so that in short I heard no more of him.

In the evening Virginie, the fille de chambre, attended to put me to

bed, and appeared literally to have expected to assist in the various
operations of disrobing, &c. I was, however, enabled, through the
medium of the commissionaire, to assure her, that it was quite
unnecessary to give her that trouble. So, dismissing my attendants
with the candle, I secured the door, and retired to rest.

In the morning I arose early, and inhaled the fresh breeze upon the
pier, a wooden structure, which extends itself for a considerable
distance into the sea. At the extremity near the town, is a pillar,
erected by the loyal people of Calais, in commemoration of the
landing of Louis xviii. immediately after the first subjection of
Napoleon, and near to it a brass plate, with the figure of a foot cast in
it, fixed upon the very spot where this monarch first trod the French
ground, after so long an absence from his affectionate subjects.

Breakfast was scarcely concluded, when it became necessary to

take my place in the diligence for Paris; I occupied a seat in the
cabriolet, which, in this coach, was unusually large, being sufficiently
commodious to accommodate six persons, and where I had the
pleasure of finding two of my countrymen, each with a son,
proceeding to some school near Paris.

It may be worth while to mention, that upon the information of my

commissionaire, I had paid forty-five francs for my fare. This was
indeed the regular charge, but I have found, by taking advantage of
certain opposition carriages, the expense might have been materially
lessened. One of my companions, in fact, had bargained for forty
francs for himself and his son; and the other had secured his two
places for thirty-five only.

The usual hour for the departure of the diligence was ten o’clock;
but we anticipated this time, and set out at half-past nine, in
consequence of its being a fête day, when the gates of the town are
closed from ten till noon, during the performance of high mass.

About two o’clock we reached Boulogne, where we dined, and

took into our vacant place a journeyman bootmaker, who was going
to Paris. We now proceeded without stopping, except to change
horses, until midnight, when we reached Abbeville. On arriving at
this place, the passengers in the body of the coach, which,
cumbrous as it was, had but two wheels, hastily and unexpectedly
jumping out, without apprising the cabriolet, the whole weight of
ourselves and the carriage was thrown forward, to such excess,
upon the backs of the horses, that, unable to sustain the pressure,
they sunk under it, and were with difficulty raised again.

We were at this place thankful for a refreshment of cold meat and

wine, as we had tasted nothing since leaving Boulogne, except some
sour apples, which our young gentlemen had knocked down on the
sides of the road; it was necessary, however, to disturb three or four
houses before we succeeded in procuring it.

The morning gave us “token of a goodly day.” At eleven o’clock we

halted for breakfast at Beauvais, and were apprised that an excellent
one, a la fourchette, was prepared at the hotel where our carriage
rested; but the party agreeing to give the preference to coffee, the
bootmaker offered to conduct us where we should get it both good
and cheap. We consented to follow him, and were regaled with a
large bowl of coffee, with as much milk, sugar, and toasted bread, as
we pleased; for which they charged us at the extraordinary rate of
five sous per head.

At noon we pursued our journey, and at seven in the evening

arrived at Paris. When the business of the coach was arranged, the
conducteur walked with me to the Hotel de Suede, near the Palais-
Royal, to which I had been recommended.
 CHAP. II.
PARIS.

While supper was in preparation, I walked to the Rue de la Paix, to

call upon a lady whom I had known in England, and was at first
surprised to learn, it being Sunday evening, that she was gone to a
ball; but it is the custom in France to participate in amusements on
Sunday more than on any other day in the week. It rejoiced me,
however, to know, that my friend was in Paris.

At supper, the maitre d’hotel, a Swede, but acquainted with the

English language, waited upon me himself, and enumerated with
such encomiums his fine stock of wine, that I could do no less than
order a bottle of Burgundy, which I found deliciously refreshing; and
thought it economical enough, as it was charged only two francs.

In consequence of the fatigue which I had experienced on my

journey, I was glad to retire early to bed. On entering my chamber, I
could not but be impressed by its cold comfortless feel; the floor was
of stone, the tables marble, the wash-hand basin long, oval, and
shallow, like an old fashioned salad dish, and all the furniture of
correspondent antiquity. But I had determined not to give way to
gloomy reflections; therefore, I wished my host a good night, and
being left to myself, soon regained that contented frame of mind,
which is indispensable to those who mean to pass smoothly, and
happily, through this scene of mortality. On the present occasion I
convinced myself that I had every reason to be grateful to that
Power, which had so far conducted me in safety through my journey,
and whose blessings and mercies have been so largely, I may say
incessantly, extended over me.

A part of the succeeding morning was appropriated to calling upon

friends for whom I had letters. The one I first inquired for was gone to
the south of France; but I had the pleasure of meeting with my old
shipmate L⸺ and a friend of his, both of whom had been fellow
students with me in Edinburgh. I then repeated my visit to Miss L
⸺, at whose house I had called on the preceding evening, and
found she had returned that call during my absence; she expressed
much surprise and pleasure at seeing me, and engaged me to dine
with her on the following day.

I returned to our table d’hôte dinner, and had the unexpected

pleasure of finding there a friend whom I had left in Bath the previous
spring. There was also another English gentleman at table, who
invited me to walk with him to the Palais-Royal. We accordingly took
our coffee at one of the numerous caffés, with which that quarter
abounds. My companion was a stranger in Paris as well as myself; in
consequence of which we contrived to lose our way, and had
considerable difficulty in regaining our hotel; we escaped, however,
all the dangers, and supercheries, of this very notorious place.

On Tuesday morning, my friend L⸺ called, for the express

purpose of accompanying me to inquire after the conveyances to
Bordeaux. We were informed, that two coaches leave Paris daily for
that place; one at three o’clock, from the Messagerie-Royal, running
by way of Tours, where it rests on the second night for a few hours,
and occupying four days, and as many nights, in the journey, the fare
sixty francs; the other taking the route of Orleans, five days on the
road, and the fare fifty francs. The former is considered the best
appointed, and the roads and hotels, with which it is connected,
much preferable.

But, as it cannot fail to be irksome to travel three or four hundred

miles at one sitting, with the exception of the short rest at Tours, I
would recommend the English traveller to accomplish some part of
his journey in a voiture de voyage, and then rest for a day or two; or
perhaps he might, in the first instance, take a place in a regular
coach, termed a jumeaux, which travels to Tours in two days; after
which the journey may be prosecuted to Poitiers in a voiture or
diligence, where the chance must be taken of being carried forward
to Bordeaux in the same manner.

After this inquiry, I had to keep my appointment for dinner with

Miss L⸺, where I met a young lady, her niece, who resided with
her, and Colonel M⸺, a gentleman to whom my friend was on the
point of marriage. I enjoyed my visit much, but took leave at an early
hour, under the promise of breakfasting with her, at twelve in the
morning, a la fourchette.

This lady was anxious that, instead of leaving Paris immediately

for Bordeaux, as I had intended, I should place myself for a week in
a boarding-house, with a view of gaining, before I commenced so
long a journey, some slight acquaintance with the French language.
This advice appeared so excellent, that I determined to follow it; and
after breakfast, Miss L⸺ was kind enough to accompany me to a
house which she recommended, and where I immediately took up
my residence.

I should feel myself inexcusable, if I neglected, in this place, to

express the lively sense I entertain, of the many kind attentions,
which I received from this amiable lady, and which rather indicated
the affectionate regards of a sister, than the notices of an accidental
acquaintance. I regretted that this was the last opportunity I had of
seeing her in Paris, as she was obliged immediately to leave town
for Fontainbleau, and did not return before my departure.

“Sweet friendship, solace of mankind,

Come! with thy presence warm my heart,
And when a kindred soul I find,
Oh never, never let us part.
They call thee changing, sordid, vain,
On earth scarce known, and rare to see;
And when they feel base treach’ry’s pain,
They lay the heavy blame on thee.
’Tis true there are whom interest blind,
That prostitute thy sacred name;
Their souls to narrow views confined,
They never felt thy noble flame.”

During the week I remained in Mr. Fetherstone’s boarding-house,

the weather was wet and cold, so that we were much confined within
doors; but as our party consisted of twenty individuals, there was no
want of amusement, and the continued intercourse necessarily kept
up amongst us, tended materially to promote my object of acquiring
the language. The following anecdote will serve to shew, how much I
was in need of improvement in this respect.

On the morning after my entrance into this family, I rang the bell of
my bed-chamber, and requested a French servant to bring me hot
water; in answer to this he replied, “toute a l’heure,” with the
meaning of which I was at the time totally ignorant: after waiting a
quarter of an hour, I rang again, and received the same reply, “toute
a l’heure,” but with no better result: I again repeated my application,
it was still “toute a l’heure:” at length, after, the lapse of an hour, he
brought the water. At breakfast, I took the opportunity of inquiring the
signification of this convenient expression, requesting to be
informed, whether it implied any specific time, when they told me it
meant “immediately.” I thought, however, in the present instance,
that the action did not suit the word.

It may be expected, that I should make some remarks concerning

the Parisian theatres, and other places of amusement; however my
ignorance of the language, and want of vision, as well as the state of
the weather, diminished the ardour of the desires which I possessed,
on entering Paris, to visit these scenes; however, the many recent
accounts that have been published, leave me no cause to regret the
omission. For similar reasons I am prevented from attempting any
description of this grand city; and, therefore, in lieu of it, beg leave to
offer the following laconic and popular petite chanson.

LE PORTRAIT DE PARIS.

Amour; marriage; divorce;

Naissance; mort; enterrement;
Fausse vertu; brillante écorce;
Petit esprit; grand sentiment;
Dissipateurs; prèteurs sur gages;
Hommes de lettres; financiers;
Financiers; créanciers; maltotiers, et rentiers;
Tiedes amis; femmes volages; riches galants;
Pauvres maris. Voilà Paris! Voilà Paris!

Là des commères qui bavardent;

Là des viellards; là des enfans;
Là des aveugles qui regardent
Ce que leur donnent les passant;
Restorateurs; apoticaires; commis; pedants;
Taileurs; voleurs; rimailleurs, ferrailleurs;
Aboyeurs; juges de paix, et gens de guerre;
Tendrons vendu, quittè, repris.
Voilà Paris! Voilà Paris!

Maints gazetiers; maints impostures;

Maints enneuyeux; maints ennuyés;
Beaucoup de fripons en voitures;
Beaucoup d’honnêtes gens à pied;
Les jeunes gens portent lunettes;
Le vieux visage rajeuni;
Rajeunis bien garnis, bien garnis de vernis;
Acteurs; ventes; marionettes; grand melodrames;
Plats ecris. Voilà Paris! Voilà Paris!

The week now drawing to a close, I prepared to quit Paris; in

particular, I had my passport arranged, a point frequently attended
with much trouble, as it must in the first instance be procured from
the police, then presented for the signature of the English
ambassador, after which it is returned to the police, and some other
office, for their definitive signatures, before the individual is permitted
to depart.
 CHAP. III.
JOURNEY TO BORDEAUX.

Having engaged a place in the diligence, which took the way of

Tours, in the afternoon of the 27th of October, I commenced my
journey to Bordeaux, after bidding farewell

“To the few, I might leave with regret.”

In order to guard against the same irregularity of meals, which I had

suffered from on my way to Paris, I took care to be provided with a
tongue, fruit, and a bottle of wine. My companions were three
Frenchmen, and of course I could anticipate little conversation, at
least they were sure soon to find me a dead letter; but
notwithstanding, I doubted not but that I should derive occupation
and amusement from my own reflections, and determined to avail
myself of all the opportunities of social intercourse which might offer
themselves. As may be imagined, the afternoon passed off very
silently on my part: at night I contrived to dose a little, and my
companions accorded with me perfectly in this respect.

On the following day we dined at Blois, where they gave us some

of the finest grapes I had yet partaken of in France. In the evening
the weather proved rainy; at midnight we arrived at Tours, from
whence, after resting a few hours, we proceeded on our journey at
five o’clock in the morning; at eight o’clock we halted at a small town
for breakfast, where I derived some gratification from meeting with a
person who could speak English, an Irish horse-dealer, travelling
with his string of horses from Rochelle to Paris.

We reached Poitiers for dinner, at the late hour of eight in the

evening, but my companions did not appear to be annoyed at this
late postponement of their favourite repast. It appears very
immaterial to a Frenchman when he gets his meals, he is not only
toujours prêt, but endures fasting with better grace by far than an
Englishman. On the following day we passed through Limoges and
Angoulême. In the afternoon of this day, we took up a woman and
her daughter, aged about seventeen, with a child; these were the
only females I had yet met with in a diligence in France, and I could
not but feel irritated at the ungallant treatment they received from
their countrymen. The young lady having placed herself in the seat
of one of them, he very rudely insisted upon her restoring it: I
regretted that I was unable to advocate her cause: but possibly this
feeling might be dictated by some selfish motive, as a desire to
resent certain indignities to which I had been subjected by the same
individual, who frequently annoyed me with the fumes of his segar,
and once had the impudence to puff them in my face; I felt not a little
inclined to give him personal chastisement, but prudence restrained
me.

About nine o’clock on the following morning, being Sunday, the

31st of October, one of our company exclaimed, “Voilà Bordeaux!”
The sound revived me exceedingly, for I was become irritable and
impatient, from the length and fatigue of the journey. At twelve
o’clock the coach halted, and my fellow-passengers immediately
jumped out, leaving me to shift for myself. Of course I concluded that
we had arrived at the coach-office, and began to call loudly for the
conducteur to come and assist me in getting out. He immediately
presented himself, uttered the now well-known “toute a l’heure,” and
left me. Although I perfectly recollected the unlimited signification of
this word in Paris, what could I do? Had I jumped out, I should not
have known what step to have taken next, and the rain was falling in
torrents. There appeared no remedy, but to sit patiently until it might
please some one to come to my assistance. In a while I heard at
least thirty people around the coach, talking a loud and unintelligible
gibberish, quite unlike any language of the country which I had
hitherto heard; soon afterwards I perceived the carriage undergoing
an extraordinary, and irregular kind of motion; the people
occasionally opened the door, and made me move from one side to
the other, as if they were using me for shifting ballast; I inferred that
they were taking off the wheels, with a view of placing the carriage
under cover. After this I became sensible of a noise of water
splashing, as if they were throwing it from out of hollows, where it
had collected in consequence of the rain. It was in vain that I
endeavoured to gain an explanation of my being thus left behind in
the coach, the only satisfaction I could derive was “tout a l’heure,”
and the conviction that nothing remained for me but to be patient.

“But patience is more oft the exercise

Of saints, the trial of their fortitude.”

At length the motion began to increase, and to my great surprise,

after an hour’s suspense, I heard the horses again attaching to the
carriage; the passengers re-entered the coach, and we once more
proceeded on our journey!

It was afterwards explained to me, that these unaccountable

proceedings arose, on our having arrived on the banks of the river
Dordogne, which enters the Garonne, near Bordeaux, from the
necessity, at this point, of transporting the carriage on a raft for some
distance down the stream; that the passengers had crossed the river
in a ferry-boat, to a coach waiting for them on the other side, leaving
me to float down with the carriage on the raft, or sink to the bottom
as fate might determine; in short, I found that, while I supposed
myself sitting in the coach-office yard at Bordeaux, I had actually
travelled four miles by water, without having entertained the least
idea of such an adventure.

In a quarter of an hour after this, we actually arrived at the coach

office. On alighting, I was accosted by a man, who in the English
language informed me, that he was a traiteur (or the keeper of an
eating and lodging-house), and who did me the favour of
recommending to me, in very strong terms, both his house and his
wife; the latter, he said, was an American, spoke English well, and
would provide me an excellent bed, as well as every thing else I
might wish for; but as I had a particular introduction to a friend, I
determined to decline these tempting offers, until I had consulted
him: taking the traiteur’s card therefore, and requesting him to
procure a hackney-coach, I drove straightway to the house of my
friend, who recommended me to take lodgings in preference. I lost
no time in adopting his suggestion, and taking immediate possession
of my apartments, experienced the great luxury and refreshment of
changing my dress, after four days’ uninterrupted travelling.

After this, my friend accompanied me to dine at a traiteur’s, first

bargaining that we should be allowed to select any four dishes from
the carte, for which, with a small bottle of wine, and pain a discrétion,
we were to pay about fifteen-pence each. In the first place, we were
served with soup in silver basins; then came an entré of ragoûts, and
afterwards a roast chicken, followed by a dessert. When we had
done, we gave the waiter three or four sous, with which he appeared
highly satisfied.

On the following morning, at the urgent instance of my friend, I

consulted an eminent oculist of this place, respecting my eyes, who
appeared to entertain the same opinion as most of my medical
attendants in England; namely, that a cataract existed, but not
sufficiently matured, to be operated upon, with advantage, for the
present. My friend, however, was not satisfied with this opinion, and
insisted upon taking me to the wife of an umbrella-maker, famous for
her skill in restoring sight, and who recommended a long course of
herb medicines, and other nostrums; but I wanted faith in her power
to serve me, and moreover, was satisfied with the opinions, in which
my medical friends had concurred, as well as reconciled to my
deprivation, and resigned to the will of Providence.

“Who finds not Providence all good and wise,

Alike in what it gives, and what denies.”—Pope.

My next attention, was to ascertain the modes of conveyance to

Toulouse. We found that the diligence sets out every other day at ten
in the morning, occupying two days, and two nights on the road, the
fare forty-five francs; there was, however, also a voiture from Paris,
leaving on the following morning, and which would be five days on
the journey, resting always at night; and by the recommendation of
my friend, I determined to give it the preference; in short, I was
pleased with the idea of this new mode of travelling. An agreement in
writing was drawn up, to which the proprietor affixed his signature,
and according to which, amongst other stipulations, I was to be
taken up from my lodgings, and provided, during my journey, with a
bed-room to myself every night. We were informed that an officer
and his wife were to be of the party, and the latter happening to be
present, offered to render me every assistance in her power; this, I
must admit, was an additional inducement with me, for the attentions
of the softer sex are peculiarly acceptable under my present
affliction; and it is but a just tribute to their kindness, to say, that I
have abundantly experienced them; and farther, I am convinced that
the sympathy I have so often met with, is perfectly congenial with the
innate principles of the female character.

“Man may the sterner virtues know,

Determined justice, truth severe;
But female hearts with pity glow,
And woman holds affliction dear.”—Crabbe.
 CHAP. IV.
JOURNEY TO TOULOUSE.

My stay in Bordeaux was too brief to enable me to acquire any

knowledge of this ancient and celebrated city, nor indeed, had it
been prolonged, do my inclinations, or powers, qualify me for
topographical description; the chief object of the present narrative,
being to relate the incidents of a journey, which at the time greatly
interested me, and to give as faithful representations of men and
manners, as the opportunities which presented themselves, and my
personal disadvantages would admit of; in short, to

“Eye nature’s walks, shoot folly as it flies,

And catch the manners living as they rise.”

I was apprised by a porter, at three o’clock, that the voiture was in

readiness, and after bustling to be in time, was by no means pleased
to find that I had been disturbed an hour too soon; nor was my
dissatisfaction diminished, when the porter, by signs, gave me to
understand, that I must traverse the greater part of the city with him
to the coach-office; it was in vain to remonstrate with a person who
could not understand me, and insist upon the fulfilment of my
agreement; at length, however, to cut short the argument, my
conductor, with a mixture of passion and impatience, seized my
portmanteau, and gave me to understand, that I had no alternative
but to accompany him, or lose my passage. In fine, I was obliged to
submit, and after half an hour’s walk, we reached the voiture in
safety. The next measure was to place my portmanteau in security,
and which, unless I had interfered, would have been exposed on the
outside of the voiture. Travellers in France should always
superintend the stowage of their luggage, as it is not unusual to have
it stolen from the exterior of the carriage. Dr. O⸺, a gentleman,
whom I had the pleasure of meeting in the summer of 1820, at Aix in
Provence, in travelling from Lyons to Geneva, lost his trunk,
containing valuable collections he had made in Italy, and other
property, worth some thousand francs, from the outside of the
diligence. He was induced to commence an action against the
proprietors, either to stimulate them to recover his property, or to
make them compensate his loss; but finding that, after a tedious and
expensive process, the utmost he could recover, would be a
thousand francs, he thought it most prudent to abandon it.

At length our arrangements being completed, the voiturier made

the customary signal with his whip, and we bade adieu to Bordeaux.

One of the earliest, and most obvious attentions of the traveller in

a public stage, is to reconnoitre his companions, and endeavour to
ascertain whether it be possible to elicit information or amusement
from them; the group with which I was now thrown into collision, was
not unlikely to be productive of interest; I was soon convinced, from
the nature of their conversation, that my companions were not of the
genteelest stamp. The women were at home in speaking patois, and
the only one who could not join in this, was the person who, I
suppose from his wearing a large cocked-hat, had been taken for an
officer, but who, I afterwards found, had been a bootmaker in one of
Bonaparte’s cavalry regiments.

At ten o’clock we halted, and were regaled with a breakfast a la

fourchette, consisting of soup bouillè, ragoûts, roasted fowls, and
little birds; the compliments of the table were paid me; my
companions did not sit down until I had nearly finished; and the
voiturier placed himself by my side, serving me with every dish as it
was brought in, and appearing to expect me to partake of all of them.
I confined myself chiefly to the soup and rôti; the little birds would
have relished well, had not a slice of bacon placed on the breast of
each, destroyed their natural flavour.

At one o’clock we recommenced our journey, and at six in the

evening, reached our resting place for the night. After a delay of two
hours, a profuse supper was served up in regular courses, and
concluded by a dessert of grapes, pruins, apples, pears, nuts, and