Chemistry 5070 Complete Handbook Vol 3.2

Table of Contents
S. No Chapter Page No
1 Rate of Reactions 1
2 Rate of Reactions Paper I 8
3 Rate of Reactions Paper II 24
4 Organic Chemistry 42
5 Hydrocarbons and Fuels 43
6 Alkanes 49
7 Alkanes Paper I 53
8 Alkenes 64
9 Alkenes Paper I 68
10 Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids 77
11 Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids Paper I 85
12 Organic Chemistry Exercise 96
13 Organic Chemistry Paper II 101
14 Polymers 155
15 Polymer Exercise 163
16 Polymer Paper II 168
17 Air and Oxygen 190
18 Air and Oxygen Paper I 197
19 Water 215
20 Water paper II 219
21 Air, Oxygen and Water Paper II 223
22 Past Papers 21 & 22 2019-20 237
Chemistry and Biology with Behroz Essani O/A Levels
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Rate of Reaction
Rate of reaction/Speed of reaction: It is the speed for a reactant to be used up or product to be

formed. It can be defined as the amount of products appeared per unit time OR the amount of
reactants disappeared per unit time
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠

Rate = or
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Ways to measure speed of reaction

Rates can be measured by plotting change in volume of gas evolved, mass of reaction mixture as
reaction proceeds and change of pressure of gas formed.
Measuring the amount of gas evolved.

Consider reaction of limestone with acid to produce carbon dioxide. A syringe is used to help in
measurement of gas produced in volume every time interval. The syringe mentions the volume
of product gas taken in the syringe while a stopwatch continuously measures time. A graph of
volume of gas against time is plotted.
1. Gradient largest at start indicating speed at its greatest.

2. Gradient decreases with time – speed decreases with time.
3. Gradient becomes zero, speed is zero. The reaction has finished.
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Measuring change in mass of reaction mixture.

In many cases rates of reactions can be measured by finding the changes in mass of the reactants. In
reactions when a gas is released, the gas is allowed to escape while the remaining mass in the flask
decreases. This decrease in mass is evaluated using a mass balance placed at the bottom of the flask.
Cotton wool allows the gas to escape but prevents the splashing of reactants. One very good example is
reaction of acids and carbonates in which carbon dioxide is released. Marble is reacted with acid in a flask
with cotton wool stocked at top to prevent splashing during reaction but it allows gas to be free.
The reading on balance is plotted on a graph on every time interval.
The Graphs of Reaction Rates

The graph used to study reaction rates are mostly carrying time on x-axis and the amount of product or
reactant on y-axis. It is reasonable to think that the Graphs with product volume/ amount/ concentration
will start from zero and reach a maximum. While graphs with reactant volume/ amount/ concentration
start from a maximum and then decrease with time.
The slope represents the rate of reaction. It means higher the slope, higher the rate of reaction. This
divides a general rate graph into three regions
1. Initial region where the slope is highest/ sharp curve which means rate is highest. It is because
there are maximum number of reactant molecules in the beginning which collide and form the
product
2. The middle region has a smaller slope/ more curved region. It means rate is a little lesser/ slower
as compared to the initial region. It is because there are less reactant molecules available as
compared to the beginning and thus reaction is a little slower
3. The final region has almost zero slope/ rate is almost zero. It means reaction has almost stopped
and now reactant molecules have ran out so the reaction sis also completed. Thus it has stopped.
Slope α rate of reaction
The straight line in the end signifies the reaction always tends to complete/ reactants have been used up
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Factors Affecting Speed of Reaction
1. Particle Size of Reactant
Powdered reactants react vigorously as compared to large pieces. Small particles creates larger
surface area for more collision frequency between reacting particles which increases speed of
reaction. The volume of gas at the end is the same for both reactions because the crushing/
powder does not change the total amount of reactants.
2. Concentration of Reactant
In the increase of concentration means there are more solute particles per unit volume of the
solution which favors for more effective collision resulting in an increase in speed of reaction.
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A comparison of the rates of Carbon dioxide release when the Limestone is same but the acids have
different concentration. We can see that higher concentration results in steeper graph/ faster rate
3. Pressure of Reactant
Only gaseous reactions are affected as gas is compressible.

At higher pressure, molecules are forced to move closely together, hence increasing the particles
per unit volume of gas and effectively increases the collision between reacting molecules so the
speed of reaction increases.
High pressure is used in industrial processes (e.g. Haber Process Plant) so that the reaction goes
faster.
4. Temperature of Reaction
Speed of reaction increases when temperature increases. Particles have more KE, they move
faster and collision frequency increases
With increase in temperature, particles absorb the energy and having enough activation energy,
they move faster and collide more effectively per second. Therefore, speed of reaction is
increased.
Usually, speed of reaction doubles for every 10 C rise in temperature.
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5. Effect of Catalyst
Catalysts lower the activation energy and provide alternate route for reaction.
Catalysts are chemical substances which alters speed of reaction without itself being used at the
end of a reaction. It can be reused and only small amount of catalyst is needed to affect a
reaction.
Transition metals (e.g. Titanium, Nickel, Iron, and Copper) are good catalysts. Most catalyst
catalyze one kind of reaction (except titanium)
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6. Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts. They are very specific. One enzyme catalyze one type of
reaction. Sensitive to temperature. They work best at 40oC. Too high or too low temperatures
destroy enzymes.
They are also sensitive to ph. They function within narrow range of ph.
Industrial uses of enzymes:
They are added to detergents from bacteria, and also to make tough meat tender. These
enzymes can be found in papaya fruit.
Yeast convert sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide by fermentation. Beer, wine and soy sauce
are made this way.
Fungal enzymes can be used to make antibiotics such as penicillin.
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Paper I Practice
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Paper II Practice
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5070/O/N/06/2/A3
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5070/21/M/J/10/A2
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5070/22/M/J/10/A3
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5070/22/M/J/11/B8
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5070/22/O/N/10/A3
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5070/21/O/N/11/A3
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5070/22/O/N/11/B7
5070/21/O/N/12/B10
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5070/22/O/N/12/A3
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5070/21/O/N/13/A5
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5070/21/O/N/15/B7
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5070/21/O/N/16/A4
5070/22/O/N/16/A4
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5070/21/M/J/17/A6
5070/22/M/J/17/A6
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5070/21/O/N/17/B9
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5070/22/O/N/17/B9
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Organic
Chemistry
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Organic Chemistry
The origin of oil and other fossil fuels
Crude oil is formed from organic material of the remains of plant and animal organisms that
lived millions of years ago. These remains form sediments e.g. at the bottom of seas,
and become buried under layers of sedimentary rock. They decay, without air (oxygen), under
the action of heat and pressure to form crude oil over millions of years.
1. Crude oil is a non-renewable energy resource taking millions of years to form from
degraded organic biomass
2. The vast majority of compounds found in crude oil are hydrocarbons, which is compounds
made up of carbon atoms combined with hydrogen atoms.
3. The majority of fossil fuels (e.g. oil and gas) are made of hydrocarbon compounds -
molecules composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms only
We can classify the natural sources of Hydrocarbons in two classes
Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil

Crude oil is a finite resource found in rocks - its non-renewable, and will run out eventually.
Crude oil is an important raw material, and the source of many useful substances such as fuels
and a chemical feedstock for the petrochemical industry. Many useful materials on which
modern life depends are produced by the petrochemical industry, such as fuels, solvents,
lubricants, polymers, detergents and host of other specialized chemicals
The hydrocarbons may consist of molecules based on chains of carbon atoms (mostly 1 to 40),
sometimes linear ('straight') and sometimes branched (a side-chain of C atoms) and others are
based on rings of carbon atoms.
Process of Fractional distillation

At the bottom of the fractionating column the crude oil is heated in the absence of oxygen to
vaporize it (evaporated or boiled) and the vapor passed into the fractionating column
Up the fractioning column the temperature gradually decreases (temperature gradient), so the
highest boiling (least volatile) molecules tend to be at the bottom and the lowest boiling (most
volatile) hydrocarbons go to the top. The rest of the hydrocarbon molecules then condense out
in narrow temperature range
The higher the boiling point (the higher the condensation point) the lower down the column the
hydrocarbon condenses. So all of the hydrocarbon molecules separate out according to their
boiling/condensation point
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Molecular Size and Boiling points
The bigger the molecule, the greater the intermolecular attractive forces between the
molecules, so the higher the boiling point or condensation point
Uses of Fractional Distillation
The fractions are then further processed to produce fuels and chemical feedstock for the
petrochemical industry.
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Cracking
Petroleum components are rich in long chain hydrocarbons which are in less demand. It has low
amount of short chain hydrocarbon fuels. To meet the demand of fuel industry, cracking is done
In Cracking, the hydrocarbon passed over Aluminum Oxide (porcelain chips) at 350 C to make a
small alkane and alkene
A comparison of typical percentages we get, and what we want, from the

fractions of crude oil
Carbon atoms in Approx. % in Approx. %
Crude oil fraction
hydrocarbon crude oil required
Gas, LPG etc. 1-4 2-4 4
Petrol 5-10 6-13 20-26
Petrol 5-10 6-13 20-26
Naphtha 8-12 10 5
Paraffin, kerosene 9-16 13-15 8
Diesel, gas oil 15-25 13-20 20-25
Residue - heavy oils,
20-30+ 50 38
waxes, bitumen etc.
Process of Cracking
Cracking is done by heating some of the less used fractions to a high temperature vapor and
passing over a suitable hot catalyst (Mostly Aluminum Oxide) at high pressure.
Using different conditions i.e. by varying with/without steam, temperature, pressure or catalyst
you can control the composition of the mixture and make a variety of different hydrocarbon
products.
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Diversity in Organic Chemistry

Organic Chemistry has more compounds with Carbon and Hydrogen alone than all other
elements combined. This is because these two elements can combine in a wide variety of
structures and possibilities.
Catenation
Catenation is a property of Carbon to form a huge diversity of compounds among itself and
various other elements. Carbon can form single, double and triple covalent bonds with other
carbons and also make straight chains, branched chains and cycle structures. This results in a
wide range of organic compounds
Organic Compounds can be classified into various classes, but in CAIE 5070 syllabus, we shall
discuss only the straight chain aliphatic compounds
Organic Compounds
Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbon derivatives

have Hydrogen and Carbon Have other stoms like Oxygen,
atoms Only nitrogen also
Saturated Hydrocarbons Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

have no C-C double bonds have C-C double bonds
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Homologous Series
Homologous series is a series of organic compounds with gradually changing physical
properties and similar chemical structure and properties. Each member differs by the number
or repeating –CH2 units.
Each time in a homologous series, a –CH2 group is added to a simpler molecule and the chain
keeps on elongating. This results in a series of organic molecule with similar chemical and
physical properties
Properties of Homologous Series

Following are the properties of members of a Homologous series
1. They have similar set of chemical reaction
2. Each homologous series has a specific general formula
3. Each member has one more repetitive –CH2 unit and thus its molecular Mass increases
by 16 units. (C-12 + 2-H = 16) called methenyl group
4. The chain gradually elongates in a series due to addition of the repetitive units
5. Their physical properties change gradually
6. Melting, Boiling point and viscosity increase with longer chain lengths
7. Flammability decreases with longer chain lengths
8. With each increasing member, the chances of intermolecular attraction increases and
thus they are more tightly packed in longer chains
Common General Formulae

Alkanes Cn H2n+2
Alkenes Cn H2n
Alkynes Cn H2n-2
Cycloalkanes Cn H2n
Cycloalkanes Cn H2n-2
Cycloalkynes Cn H2n-4
Alcohols Cn H2n+2 O
Carboxylic Acids Cn H2n O2
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Alkanes
Alkanes are Hydrocarbons as they contain hydrogen and carbon atoms only in their molecules.
Alkanes have no C-C double bonds and all carbons are attached with single bonds between
them.
Alkane series has all the characteristics of a homologous series
Genera Formula: Cn H2n+2

Physical Properties
1. The name of an alkane ends with the suffix ‘ane’
2. The beginning of the name depends on the number of carbon atoms present in the alkane
molecule
3. Their m.p, b.p and viscosity increases as the number of carbon atoms increase in each
molecule
4. The flammability decreases with longer carbon chains
Chemical Reactions of Alkanes
Alkanes are very unreactive because of strong C-C single bonds and strong C-H single bonds.
These bonds are very strong and require a lot of energy to break them
However they give three reactions

1. Combustion
2. Substitution
3. Cracking
1. Complete Combustion
It is the reaction with excess oxygen/ air. It is an exothermic reaction and releases heat energy. It
is used to run power plants, vehicles and all industry by burning fossil fuels.
The products are carbon dioxide and water
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Name Formula Structure Mp Bp State

at RTP
Methane CH4 -183 -161 G
Ethane C2H6 -172 -88 G
Propane C3H8 -188 -42 G
Butane C4H10 -135 -0.5 G
Pentane C5H12 -130 36 L
Hexane C6H14 -95 68 L
Heptane C7H16 -91 98 L
Octane C8H18 -57 125 L
Nonane C9H20 -54 150 L
Decane C10H22 -30 174 L
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2. Substitution
In substitution, alkanes react with halogens in the presence of U.V light or sunlight to substitute
a hydrogen atom. It is a photochemical reaction.
The products are halogenoalkane (alkyl halide) and hydrogen halide. Each alkane can perform
multiple substitution reactions based on its number of hydrogen
3. Cracking
Cracking is the breakdown of a longer alkane to produce smaller alkanes and alkenes. It is used
to meet the demand of fuel industry
Alkane Isomers
Isomers are compounds with same chemical formulae but different molecular structures.
Isomers have same Isomers have different
Empirical formula Structures

Molecular Formula Functional groups
Molecular Mass Physical properties
Percentage composition by mass Chemical behaviors
Chain Isomers
In order to make chain isomers, a branch (methyl group) is attached in the chain. A branch
should not be added on the first or last carbon
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Alkenes – Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

The alkenes are a series of hydrocarbon molecules (made of carbon and hydrogen atoms). They
are referred to as 'unsaturated' hydrocarbons because they have a carbon – carbon C=C double
bonds
Most of the reactions of alkenes are due to the presence of C-C double bond. It is highly reactive
because the double bond can be broken easily.
General Formula Cn H2n

Test for Alkenes Add aqueous bromine, it decolorizes
Physical properties
They have similar trend of physical properties
Polyunsaturated Alkenes
The polyunsaturated alkenes are compounds with many C-C double bonds. They increase the
shelf life of many food products
Alkanes Alkenes
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons
Have no C-C double Bonds Have one or more C-C double Bonds
General Formula is CnH2n+2 General Formula is CnH2n
Do not decolorize bromine water They decolorize bromine water
The mp and bp are higher The mp and bp are lower
Give complete combustion reactions Give complete r incomplete combustion

reactions
Main reactions include substitution Main reactions include addition
Chemically less reactive Chemically more reactive
Can be converted to alkenes by racking Can be converted to alkanes by addition
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Reactions of Alkenes
Alkenes have the characteristic Double Bond which is the functional Group and affects the core
properties of alkenes in terms of chemical reactivity. They are highly reactive
Name of reaction Reagent Conditions Products
Addition of Halogen With Bromine water Aqueous bromine or Di-bromo alkane

Or Chlorine water chlorine Di-Chloro alkane
Addition of Steam With steam (acid 300 C and Phosphoric Alcohol

catalyst) Acid catalyst
Addition of Hydrogen With Hydrogen gas 200 C and Ni catalyst Alkane

(Over nickel
catalyst)
Combustion With Oxygen Oxygen/ air CO2 & H2O

(combustion)
Or CO produced in
limited oxygen supply
Addition Polymerization With other alkene Variable conditions A polymer molecule

molecules
1. With Bromine Water
Alkenes are unsaturated molecules, atoms can add to them via the C=C double bond, so a
reaction occurs. The double bond opens up and two new carbon – bromine bonds (C–Br) are
formed.
Example of bromine addition to a double bond giving a saturated dibromo compound.
The decolourisation of bromine is a simple and effective chemical test for an alkene – an
unsaturated hydrocarbon. The same reaction happens with chlorine (just but Cl instead of Br).
2. With Hydrogen Gas

Alkenes will react with hydrogen gas over a nickel catalyst. The corresponding saturated alkane
is formed.
Addition of hydrogen is the reaction process is used to make margarine from vegetable oils.
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3. With Steam
Ethanol can be made by passing ethene gas and water vapor (steam) over an acid catalyst at
300oC. The higher boiling ethanol and unreacted water can be condensed out as liquids and very
low boiling ethene gas recycled
This is an example of an addition reaction and a hydration reaction because it involves the
addition of water to another molecule.
4. Combustion
Alkenes readily burn, just like alkanes, to give carbon dioxide and water if combustion is
complete e.g.
C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O
They burn with a more smoky flame than alkanes due to less efficient, and more polluting
incomplete combustion, so the heat energy release is lower than for alkanes.
C5H10 + 5O2 2C + CO + 2CO2 + 5H2O
Two complete combustion products and two incomplete combustion products
2. Polymerization
Alkenes can react with many similar repetitive units and form a polymer chain. They open their
double bonds and join each other to form a longer chain
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Alkene Isomers
Alkene isomers can be made using chain isomers or position isomers
1. Chain Isomers
It can be made by adding a branch of methyl group in the middle of the chain
2. Position Isomers
Position isomers can be made using changing the position of C-C double bond
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Alcohols
What we call alcohol in everyday life is a substance whose chemical name is ethanol.
Ethanol is just one member of a family of substances, the homologous series we call alcohols,
which all have the C–OH 'hydroxy' functional group in their structure.
General Formula Cn H2n+2 O

Test for Alkenes Add acidified Manganate sol, it decolorizes
Physical properties of Alcohols
Members of the alcohol homologous series have similar physical properties such as appearance,
melting/boiling points, solubility etc. but show trends in them e.g. steady increase in
melting/boiling point with increase in carbon number or molecular mass or in the case of
alcohols, they become progressively less soluble in water.
It is important to realize that members of a given homologous series like alcohols have similar
chemical reactions because their molecules contain the same functional group (OH) and so you
can predict the chemical reactions and products of the other members of the alcohol series
1. The hydroxy functional group, C–O–H, is the group atoms common to all members of the
alcohol homologous series
2. The simplest homologous series of alcohols have the general formula CnH2n+1OH where n = 1,
2, 3 etc. i.e. the number of carbon atoms in the alcohol molecule
3. Alcohols are Colorless liquids, large alcohol molecules may be white waxy solids. Ethanol is
quite volatile and readily evaporates into the air.
4. Alcohols have a wide range from 65oC to over 500oC. Ethanol boils at 78oC
5. The first few alcohols like ethanol are completely soluble (miscible), after that they become
progressively less soluble in water
6. The first few alcohols are very useful industrial solvents e.g. methanol and ethanol dissolves
a wide variety of compounds including hydrocarbons
7. Ethanol is used to dissolve molecules used in the perfume and cosmetic industries. The
important point here is that ethanol will dissolve many compounds water can't
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Structure
Structure given below is the full displayed formula which you should definitely know, but you
also need to know the various abbreviated ways of writing the molecular structure of alcohols.
The simplest alcohol with the lowest carbon number of one is methanol (the 1st in the
homologous series of alcohols is shown below, followed by the next four in the series.
Or
Ethanol, discussed in detail above, is the 2nd in the series,
The next three are propanol (strictly speaking propan–1–ol, 3rd in series), butanol (strictly
speaking butan–1–ol, 4th in series) and pentanol (strictly speaking pentan–1–ol, 5th in series)
note all the alcohol names end in ‘ol’.
propanol CH3CH2CH2OH
butanol CH3CH2CH2CH2OH
pentanol CH3CH2CH2 CH2CH2OH
Chemical Properties of Alcohols

1. Reaction with Na Metal
Alcohols react with sodium to form hydrogen and an alkoxide ionic salt
Alcohol + sodium an alkoxide + hydrogen gas
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Normal 'hydrogen' gas fizzing is observed at a moderate rate, and the salt product is soluble in
the alcohol itself e.g.
Ethanol + sodium Sodium ethoxide + hydrogen
2C2H5OH + 2Na 2C2H5O–Na+ + H2
There is some similarity with the reaction of sodium with water
Sodium + water sodium hydroxide + hydrogen
2Na + 2H2O 2Na+OH– + H2

Both reactions give hydrogen gas, though the sodium reacts much faster with water. The
ethoxide and hydroxide are similar because on evaporation of the unreacted ethanol or water, a
solid white ionic compound is formed.
2. Oxidation of Alcohols
Ethanol can be oxidized to form ethanoic acid which is a useful organic chemical. BUT it is
this oxidation of ethanol that results in alcoholic drinks turning sour (e.g. cider, wine)
when exposed to air.
Ethanol + oxygen Ethanoic acid + water
CH3CH2OH + O2 CH3COOH + H2O
+ O2 + H2O
Ethanoic acid (old name 'acetic acid') is the basis of vinegar and
Oxidation here, is where a molecule gains one or more oxygen atoms.
This oxidation can also be done in the laboratory by heating the ethanol with a
mixture of sulfuric acid and potassium dichromate (VI) solution.
Other alcohols can also be oxidized to the corresponding carboxylic acid e.g.
Propanol + oxygen Propanoic acid + water
CH3CH2CH2OH + O2 CH3CH2COOH + H2O
Butanol + oxygen Butanoic acid + water
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CH3CH2CH2CH2OH + O2 CH3CH2CH2COOH + H2O
3. Combustion
When burned, ethanol, like any alcohol, on complete combustion forms carbon dioxide and
water
Ethanol + oxygen Carbon dioxide + water
CH3CH2OH (l) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (l)
(ii) Methanol + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
2CH3OH (l) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l)
(iii) Propanol + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
2CH3CH2CH2OH (l) + 9O2 (g) 6CO2 (g) + 8H2O (l)
(iv) Butanol + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
CH3CH2CH2CH2OH (l) + 6O2 (g) 4CO2 (g) + 5H2O (l)
Ethanol is used in sprit burners where it burns much more cleanly with a blue flame - using a
hydrocarbon in the same situation is more smelly and gives a more yellow Smokey flame - less
efficient combustion
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Carboxylic Acids – Chemistry & Uses

The molecular structure of carboxylic acids
Carboxylic acids form another homologous series and have the functional group –COOH.
General Formula Cn H2n O2
Physical properties
Carboxylic acids have Carboxylic functional groups. – CO2H. They are more water soluble
compared to other series. They show similar trends in mp, bp and flammability
Functional Group
he functional group (COOH) is a group of atoms common to all members of a homologous series
that confer a particular set of characteristic chemical reactions on each member of the series
e.g. in this series they all behave like acids with alkalis, carbonates etc., they all form compounds
called esters when reacted with alcohols.
Carboxylic acids have similar chemical reactions because their molecules contain the same
functional group (COOH) and so you can predict the chemical reactions and products of the
other members of the carboxylic series.
The properties and uses of carboxylic acids
1. This particular homologous series of carboxylic acids are colourless liquids with very strong
odours (pungent smell) and tastes.
2. The obnoxious smell of rancid butter and sweaty socks are due to the formation of carboxylic
acids.
3.
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Fatty Acids
It should be mentioned here that carboxylic acids with long carbon chains are called fatty acids,
because they are combined with an alcohol called glycerol to form large ester molecules
(glycerides/triesters) that make up most natural oils from plants and fat in animals.
Long chain carboxylic acids, known as 'fatty acids', are used to make soaps and detergents,
originally derived from plant oils.
Chemical Properties of Carboxylic Acids
1. Dissociation in water
Acids dissolve in water to behave as a weak acid and release a small proportion of Hydrogen ions
H+. Their pH values lie between 3 and 6
CH3CH2COOH(aq) CH3CH2COO–(aq) + H+(aq)
Ethanoic acid Ethanoate ion
2. Reaction with Metals
These acids react with metals and release Hydrogen gas. Since they react as weak acids the rate
of bubbling of hydrogen gas is very slow
2CH3COOH + Mg (CH3COO)2Mg + H2
2CH3CH2CH2COOH + Zn (CH3CH2CH2COO)2Zn + H2
2CH3COOH + Pb (CH3COO)2Pb + H2
3. Reaction with Metal Hydroxides

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Carboxylic acids react with soluble alkalis to form salt and water
Ethanoic acid + sodium hydroxide ==> sodium ethanoate + water
CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O
Ethanoic acid + potassium hydroxide ==> potassium ethanoate + water
CH3COOH + KOH CH3COOK + H2O
Propanoic acid + sodium hydroxide ==> sodium propanoate + water
CH3CH2COOH + NaOH CH3CH2COONa + H2O
4. Reaction with Metal Carbonates
Carbonate and hydrogen carbonate bases produce a carboxylic acid salt, water and carbon
dioxide gas e.g.
ethanoic acid + sodium hydrogen carbonate ==> sodium ethanoate + water + carbon dioxide
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
ethanoic acid + sodium carbonate ====> sodium ethanoate + water + carbon dioxide
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
propanoic acid + sodium carbonate ====> sodium propanoate + water + carbon dioxide
2CH3CH2COOH + Na2CO3 2CH3CH2COONa + H2O + CO2
ethanoic acid + magnesium carbonate ==> magnesium ethanoate + water + carbon dioxide
2CH3COOH + MgCO3 (CH3COO)2Mg + H2O + CO2
ethanoic acid + calcium carbonate ==> calcium ethanoate + water + carbon dioxide
2CH3COOH + CaCO3 (CH3COO)2Ca + H2O + CO2
5. Reaction with Alcohols – Esterification
Carboxylic acids are used to manufacture esters. Carboxylic acids react with alcohols to form
members of another homologous series called esters. Concentrated sulphuric acid acts as a
catalyst in this reaction.
General word equation: carboxylic acid + alcohol ester + water

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Ethanoic acid + ethanol ethyl ethanoate + water
1. It is a reversible reaction. At equilibrium, almost 2/3 of the reactants are almost

converted into products
2. The reaction needs some catalyst like conc. Sulfuric acid else the rate would be very slow
3. The reaction takes place under reflux which means acidic conditions and strong heating.
Esters have a pleasant fruity smell
4. The name of each ester has two words. The first word comes from the alcohols with a ‘yl’
and the other half comes from the acid with the suffix ‘oate’ for e.g. Ethanol and
Propanoic acid make an ester called Ethyl propanoate
5. The reverse reaction of Esterification is hydrolysis in which acidic conditions break the
ester bond and release a carboxylic acid and an alcohol
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Practice exercise
Organic Chemistry
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Hydrocarbons
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Saturated Hydrocarbons Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
……………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………….
Homologous Series
1. General Formula
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Chemical properties
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Molecular Mass
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Mp and Bp
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Viscosity
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. Flammability
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Number of Carbon Alkane Cn H2n+2 Alkene Cn H2n

Name Formula Name Formula
1 Meth
2 Eth
3 Prop
4 But
5 Pent
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6 Hex
7 Hept
8 Oct
9 Non
10 Dec
Structures
Alkane Alkene
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Reactions of Alkane
1. Combustion
CH4 + O2 ...........................................................
C2 H6 + O2 .........................................................
C3 H8 + O2 .........................................................
C4 H10 + O2 ..........................................................
C5 H12 + O2 .........................................................
C6 H14 + O2 .........................................................
C7 H18 + O2 .........................................................
C9 H20 + O2 .........................................................
C10 H22 + O2 ........................................................

2. Substitution (with Halogen atom)
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Reactions of Alkenes
1. Addition of Hydrogen (Ni catalyst and 120 C temperature)
C2 H4 + H2 .................................................
C3 H6 + H2 ..................................................
C4 H8 + H2 .................................................
C5 H10 + H2 .................................................
C6 H12 + H2 .................................................
C7 H14 + H2 .................................................
C9 H18 + H2 .................................................
C10 H20 + H2 .................................................
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2. Addition of Halogen
C2 H4 + Br 2 .................................................
C2 H4 + Cl 2 .................................................
C3 H6 + Br 2 ..................................................
C3 H6 + Cl 2 ..................................................
C4 H8 + Cl 2 .................................................
C5 H10 + Br 2 .................................................
C5 H10 + Cl 2 .................................................
C6 H12 + Br 2 .................................................
C7 H14 + Br 2 .................................................
C9 H18 + Cl 2 .................................................
C10 H20 + Br 2 .................................................
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Addition of Steam
C2 H4 + H2 O .................................................
C2 H4 + H2O .................................................
C3 H6 + H2 O ..................................................
C3 H6 + H2O ..................................................
C4 H8 + H2O .................................................
C5 H10 + H2O .................................................
C5 H10 + H2O .................................................
C6 H12 + H2O .................................................
C7 H14 + H2O .................................................
C9 H18 + H2 O .................................................
C10 H20 + H2O .................................................
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Isomers
Make isomers
Functional Group
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Name of Functional Group Formula of Functional Group Name of organic Compound
Carbon-Carbon Double bond
Hydroxyl
Carboxylic acid Group
Alcohol
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Methods of Making Alcohol
Fermentation method Addition of Steam in Alkene
Alcohol using alkenes
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Oxidation of Alcohols
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Esterification
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Paper I Practice
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Paper II Practice
5070/M/J/08/2/A4
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5070/M/J/08/2/B8
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5070/M/J/08/2/B8
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5070/M/J/05/2/A4
5070/M/J/05/2/B10
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5070/M/J/06/2/A3
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5070/O/N/07/2/B7
5070/O/N/06/2/A2
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5070/O/N/05/2/4
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5070/O/N/05/2/7
5070/O/N/08/2/B8
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5070/21/M/J/10/B7
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5070/22/M/J/11/A2
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5070/02/M/J/09/B9
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5070/21/O/N/10/B7
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5070/21/M/J/12/B7
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5070/21/M/J/16/B8
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5070/22/M/J/17/B10
5070/21/M/J/18/4
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5070/21/O/N/16/A3
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5070/21/O/N/17/B6
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5070/22/O/N/17/A4
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5070/21/O/N/18/4
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Introducing to polymerization
It is defined as the formation of a long chain polymer by the combination of many repetitive
units called monomers
Monomers
Monomers are small units that combine in a repetitive arrangement to make a polymer
Types of Polymerization
Addition Polymerization
C-C Double bond opens up between molecules and combines the nearby molecules
using single covalent bond
Forms between similar unsaturated molecules
No other small molecule (Like H2O or HCl) is released (no wastage of mass)
Mostly made by Alkene series like: Ethene (Polyethene), Chlorothene

(Polyvinylchloride - PVC), Propene (Polypropene)
Condensation Polymerization
A small group is released from the monomers and the monomers are joined to form
the polymer. A small molecule (Like H2O or HCl) is released
Formed between two different monomers, each has a functional group which is
removed and the monomers combine
A small molecule like Water is released (for e.g. H is released from one monomer and
OH from the other monomer)
Mostly made by ester or amide bond Like: Polyesters (Carboxylic acids and alcohols),
Nylon (Carboxylic acids and amine) and Terylene (Carboxylic acids and Alcohol)
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Addition Polymerization
When catalyzed and heated under pressure, unsaturated alkenes link together when 'half' of
the double bond opens. The spare bond on each carbon atom of the double bond are used
to join up the molecules. To form an addition polymer, the monomer molecule must have a
double bond.
... C=C + C=C + C=C ... etc. ... -C-C-C-C-C-C- ... etc.
(Hydrogen and other atoms ignored)
Attractive forces in Addition Polymers

The attractive forces between the molecules, the so-called 'intermolecular forces' or
'intermolecular bonding' are much weaker than the chemical bonds between the atoms, but
they are most important in determining the properties of the polymer
Most polymers (plastics) are made from alkene compounds containing the -C=C- bond
by addition polymerization.
Poly (ethene)
The equation for the formation of the polymer poly (ethene) from the monomer ethene is
shown below. It is often commercially called 'polythene' or written incorrectly as polyethene or
polyethylene.
The equation for the polymerization of ethene is shown in several ways below.
Synthetic Fibers like Nylon and Terylene - Condensation Polymers
Condensation polymerization involves linking lots of small monomer molecules together by

eliminating a small molecule. This is often water from two different monomers, an H from one
monomer, and an OH from the other, the 'spare bonds' then link up to form the polymer chain.
Condensation polymerization involves monomers with two functional groups (one at each end of
the molecule). When these types of monomers react they join together (polymerize), small
molecules such as water are eliminated in the process, and so the reactions are called
condensation reactions, hence the process is called condensation polymerization.
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Polyester
A polyester can be made from ethane diol (an alcohol with two hydroxy groups two -OH's)
and hexanedioic acid (a carboxylic acid with two -COOH groups).These are the two starting
monomers prior to polymerization and both must have a reactive group at each end.
1. Alcohols react with carboxylic acid to form esters with the elimination of water.
2. In this case the ester linkage is formed at both ends of each molecule with the
elimination of water molecules.
3. Polyesters are condensation polymers because of how they are formed - by this
condensation reaction that eliminates a small molecule to form the bond between the
monomers.
Nylon
Nylon (a polyamide) is formed by condensation polymerization, the structure of nylon represented below
where the rectangles represent the rest of the carbon chains in each unit. Nylon is made by condensation
synthesis between hexanedioic acid (6 Carbon alkane with two carboxylic groups on each end) and
hexane diamine (6 Carbon alkane with two amine group on each end)
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Natural Polymers
Natural polymers occur naturally and they are produced by living organisms using biological processes
inside living systems. All natural polymers are condensation polymers. Two bonds most common in
natural polymers are ester linkage and amide linkage
Carbohydrates/ Starch
Starch is made up of glucose monomers

It is a natural condensation polymer which has glyosidic linkages
It is slightly water soluble. It can be hydrolyzed using heating under diluted HCl
Proteins
Proteins are made up of amino acids monomers

Amino acids combine using amide linkages (also known as peptide linkages) when
each amino acid removed amine group from one end and a carboxylic group from the
other end
Proteins can be hydrolyzed using heating with diluted HCl
Lipids/ fats
Lipids are made up of fatty acids (long chain carboxylic acids) and glycerol (a 3-Carbon
alcohol) using ester linkage
Lipids are called saturated and unsaturated or polyunsaturated depending on the types of
fatty acids
Lipids are water insoluble. They can be hydrolyzed by heating with diluted HCl or NaOH
Starch (Carbohydrates)
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Proteins
Fats/ Lipids
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Comparison of Natural and Synthetic polymers
Natural Polymers Synthetic Polymers

The occur naturally and can be synthesized/ They are produced artificially in laboratory/
obtained from inside living organisms like plants and industries
animals
Natural polymers are all condensation polymers Synthetic Polymers can be condensation or addition
polymers
They are biodegradable i.e. they can be decomposed They are not biodegradable like plastics i.e. they
by living organisms like bacteria. Thus they are not cannot be decomposed by living organisms like
harmful for environment bacteria. Thus they cause pollution
Common natural polymers are Carbohydrates Common synthetic polymers are plastics (polyethene
(starch), proteins, fats and DNA and polyvinylchloride), polyesters and nylon
Advantages of Synthetic Polymer

1. Light weighted
2. Easily molded into various shapes
3. Availability of shapes, textures and colors
4. Cheap and economical
5. Does not need raw materials from living organisms
Disadvantages Synthetic Polymer
1. Non-biodegradable
2. Cannot be decomposed by microorganisms
3. Cause littering
4. Can produce harmful gases upon combustion like Sulfur dioxide which can cause air pollution and
acid rain
5. Can be harmful for aquatic life
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Practice Exercise
On the space at right of each polymer, draw the structure of monomer used to make it
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Draw addition polymers by representing at least two monomer units
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Make condensation polymers in the given box (also make sure not to miss the important linkages,
encircle them using a pen)
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5070/02/M/J/09/A7
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5070/21/O/N/10/B8
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5070/21/O/N/11/B7
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5070/22/M/J/14/A3
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5070/21/O/N/13/B7
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5070/21/O/N/15/B9
5070/22/O/N/15/B9
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5070/22/M/J/17/A5
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Air and Oxygen

Air is a mixture of gases and its composition changes from place to place and also, as the
atmosphere altitude changes. The composition of typical sample of air is given as follows
Gases in the air Percentage Composition
Nitrogen 78
Oxygen 21
Argon 0.93
Carbon dioxide 0.04
Neon 0.002
Helium 0.005
Krypton 0.001
Xenon 0.000008
Air also consists of water vapors. The concentration of vapors changes with temperature,
altitude and location.
Fractional Distillation of Air

The various components of air can be separated into pure gases by the process of Fractional
Distillation. This process cannot be performed inside the laboratory and it requires a complete
set up for proper separation of gases.
The Process involves cooling the air and then allowing the air to liquefy. The liquid air is later
allowed to vaporize at the respective boiling points of each gas and thus gases are separated on
the basis of their boiling points
Removal of Carbon dioxide and Water
Carbon dioxide and water are both separated in the beginning because both these substances
can solidify during the cooling process and thus block the pipes of air. Water vapors are removed
by using drying agents and carbon dioxide is removed using sodium hydroxide.
Cooling of Air
Air is cooled using a series of compressions and expansions that are performed using high
pressure pumps. Air is compressed under high pressure and then allowed to escape through tiny
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hole that expands the air. Through continuous compressions and expansions, air is cooled to a
temperature of – 200 C. At such low temperature, all gases of the air are liquefied.
Separation of Gases
Once air is liquefied, the air is allowed to gradually warm up again. As the temperature
increases, the various gases in the liquid air vaporize according to their boiling points. Nitrogen
boils first at -196 C and Oxygen boils later at -183 C.
Uses of Gases in the Air

Nitrogen
Nitrogen is used in the synthesis of Ammonia by the Haber process. Nitrogen is an inert gas and
that is why it used to provide inert food packaging. It is also used as a cooling agent.
Oxygen
Oxygen is the most important gas to keep life driving on earth. Oxygen is used in respiration and
oxidation of food molecules inside biological living cells to produce energy. Oxygen is also
necessary for combustion. Combustion of various organic compounds is used in daily life for
example, combustion of fuels help to run machines and vehicles. Oxygen is also used to produce
Sulfur trioxide in the Contact process for the production of Sulfuric acid.
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Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is an essential gas for plants on the earth. Plants use carbon dioxide in a
biological process known as photosynthesis to produce carbohydrates using sunlight. Carbon
dioxide is the essential source of all the food chains. Carbon dioxide fixed by the plants millions
of years ago by plants turned into coal and other fuels through pressure and temperature.
Carbon dioxide is also used to make dry ice and as a coolant
Argon
Argon is a very inert noble gas. It is used in light bulbs
Oxygen
Oxygen gas makes up 21% of the atmosphere which is roughly 1/5 th of air. Oxygen is used in
respiration by all living organisms except few bacteria which respire without oxygen. Oxygen is
also used in combustion to burn the hydrocarbon fuels like coal, crude oil and natural gas. The
combustion of these fuels releases energy which runs all the major industries and
transportations.
Oxides
Oxygen reacts with various elements to produce their oxides. This reaction is called combustion.
The products of combustion may slightly vary depending on the availability of oxygen. There are
three kinds of oxides depending on the element that combusts and the nature of the product
Acidic oxide Oxides of non-metals, usually gases which reacts with water to
produce acids, e.g. CO2, NO3, P4O10, SO2
Basic oxide Oxides of metals, usually solid which reacts with water to
produce alkalis, e.g. CaO, K2O, BaO
Amphoteric oxide Oxides of transition metals, usually solid, which reacts with
acids/alkalis to form salt and water, e.g. Al2O3, FeO, PbO
Neutral oxide Oxides that don’t react with either acids/alkalis, hence do not
form salts, e.g. H2O, CO, NO
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Test for Oxides Acidic/ Alkaline Nature

Three step process:
1. Dissolve the oxide in water by adding and stiring rapidly

2. Then test the solution pH using a pH meter or a universal Indicator paper
3. If the solution pH is acidic (less than 7), oxide was acidic, if the solution pH is alkaline
(more than 7), oxide is alkaline
Major Air Pollutants
Following the major air pollutants along with their sources and their harms
Acidic oxide Oxides of non-metals, usually gases which reacts with water to
produce acids, e.g. CO2, NO3, P4O10, SO2
Basic oxide Oxides of metals, usually solid which reacts with water to
produce alkalis, e.g. CaO, K2O, BaO
Amphoteric oxide Oxides of transition metals, usually solid, which reacts with
acids/alkalis to form salt and water, e.g. Al2O3, FeO, PbO
Neutral oxide Oxides that don’t react with either acids/alkalis, hence do not
form salts, e.g. H2O, CO, NO
Test for Oxides Acidic/ Alkaline Nature

Three step process:
1. Dissolve the oxide in water by adding and stiring rapidly

2. Then test the solution pH using a pH meter or a universal Indicator paper
3. If the solution pH is acidic (less than 7), oxide was acidic, if the solution pH is alkaline
(more than 7), oxide is alkaline
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Major Air Pollutants
Sources Hazards Prevention
When fuels like petrol and Combines with - Install catalytic

1) Carbon diesel are burnt in an hemoglobin when converters in cars
monoxide, internal combustion engine, inhaled, which - Reduce number of
CO the amount of oxygen produces cars on road
present is limited, so carbon carboxyhaemoglobin - Create efficient
monoxide gas is formed, that reduces engines in cars to
instead of carbon dioxide efficiency of ensure complete
gas. hemoglobin to hydrocarbon
- Unburnt hydrocarbons transport oxygen. combustion
- forest fires - Cells then die.
- Combustion of fossil fuels - Lung irritant - Prevent using fuels

2) sulfur containing sulfur impurities - eye irritant containing sulfur
dioxide, SO2 - volcanic eruptions - acid rain impurities, e.g. coal
The oxides of sulfur and - acid rain causes - Reduce the sulfur
nitrogen are acidic gases and serious damage to impurities inside fossil
are water-soluble. They human and plant fuels
dissolve to form acid rain. health, cause skin - Spray exhaust gases
The main source of these infections and from factories with
pollutant gases is from the damage, growth of water/hydrated
burning of fuels, especially trees is stunted. CaO/alkalis to absorb
those in petrol and diesel - acid rain causes sulfur dioxide before
engines. damage to marble it’s released into the
work and buildings atmosphere
All oils and fuels contain based on stone work - Add CaO to soil and
sulfur, and when they are - acid rain alters the rivers to neutralize acid
burnt, sulfur dioxide gas is concentration of rain
formed. In power stations, water reserves,
large quantities of this gas rivers and pounds
are produced, which dissolve and affect the
in water in the atmosphere aquatic life as
to form sulfurous acid waters become
(sulfuric acid) more acidic
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) --> H2SO3

(aq)
3) oxides of - Lightning activity - Eutrophication - Install catalytic

nitrogen, NO - forest fires - lung damage converters in cars
- internal combustion - acid rain - Design car engines
engines (as nitrogen oxides which run at lower
are formed by oxygen and temperatures
nitrogen under high
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temperature) --> Poisonous

oxides of nitrogen are also
formed from the electrical
spark which passes through
the air/petrol mixture.
- power stations
- Decomposition of vegetable - highly flammable - Cattle and other
4) Methane matter - greenhouse gas ruminant animals
- rice field should be given
- cattle ranching improved diet
- natural gas - Animal manure and
- mines rotting vegetation can
be used as biomass
fuel
5) Unburnt - Internal combustion - Carcinogenic - Install catalytic

hydrocarbons engines - forms converters in cars
- Because of the limited photochemical smog - Reduce number of
supply of air inside the - can act as cars on road
engines some of it remains greenhouse gases - Create efficient
unburnt and escapes as contributing to engines in cars to
gaseous hydrocarbons. global warming. ensure complete
hydrocarbon
combustion
6) Ozone - It is formed when an - It reacts with - Don’t use

electrical spark passes unburnt CFCs/replace it with
through air. This is because it hydrocarbons to HCFCs which destroys
reacts with the UV radiation form photochemical faster.
in sunlight to produce a smog that causes
'photochemical smog'. headache, eye, and
- It is an allotrope (two/three nose and throat
different forms of a pure irritation.
element) of oxygen having - It corrodes and kills
structural formula O3 having plants and trees
characteristic odor.
- High up in the atmosphere
ozone is beneficial as it helps
to filter out high levels of UV
radiation
7) Dust and - Building work - irritate lungs,

Smoke - mining activities causing bronchitis
- forest fires and other lung-
- The larger, - incomplete combustion of related diseases.
heavier dust fuels.
particles will
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settle quickly
but the
smaller
particles may
remain
suspended in
the air for a
long time.
- Combustion of leaded - when breathed in - Ban on lead

8) Lead petrol in car engines can build up inside compounds
compounds - lead compounds are added the body and are - Use of catalysts other
to petrol to make it heavier toxic and poisonous than tetraethyl Lead
so that it does not ignite too - Causes lead for reforming organic
soon. poisoning which reactions
leads to brain
damage
Catalytic Converter
Many cars are fitted with a catalytic converter now that helps to reduce the air pollution.
Catalytic converters are fitted in cars and help to manage the amount of the gaseous products
that are released from the car exhaust.
Structure of the Catalytic Converter
It has a honeycomb like sieve that greatly enhances its surface are. High surface area allows
more space for the very important Platinum and Palladium metal catalysts. Due to high surface
area and the presence of catalysts, the reaction speeds up
Redox Reaction in Catalytic Converter
Inside the converter, the catalysts help in the oxidation of very poisonous carbon monoxide to
produce carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide is very poisonous as compared to carbon dioxide
which is less toxic and a greenhouse gas. Meanwhile Nitrogen oxides are reduced to form
molecular nitrogen. Nitrogen oxides could cause acid rain while molecular nitrogen is inert and
not a harmful gas
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Water
Testing for Water
The vapors and liquid water is colorless. Following tests can be used to ensure the presence of
water/ moisture
Chemical Test Positive Observation (If Conclusion

water/ moisture is present)
A blue Cobalt Chloride The blue Cobalt Chloride

(CoCl2) paper is brought close paper turns Pink
to the colorless vapors/
colorless liquid
Water/ Moisture is present
The colorless vapors/ The white anhydrous CuSO4
colorless liquid is passed over turns Blue
white powder of anhydrous
copper sulfate
Importance of Water
1. Water is used in Drinking, cooking, washing and other domestic purposes because it
contains dissolved Oxygen and salts which are important to sustain the living organisms
2. Water is used for the irrigation of crops
3. Water is used in Hydroelectric power plants to produce electricity
4. Water is used as coolant in industries including nuclear power plants to cool down the
reactors
Water Pollution
Water is an excellent solvent. It dissolves almost all the chemicals and thus it is very much prone
to pollution by various pollutants
Pollutant Source of Pollutant Harmful Effects
Fertilizers Leaching from the soil as Causes the phenomenon of

water passes through Eutrophication
(Dissolved Nitrates farms and agricultural
and Phosphates) lands Causes the small algae to multiply. This
results in the removal of Oxygen from the
water as they respire
This also causes the blockage of sunlight

from reaching deep waters as the algae
cover the surface of water. This causes
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harm to the aquatic life like fishes, plants

etc.
Industrial Wastes Many industries uses Mercury, Cadmium and Lead cause the
various chemicals in poisoning of the aquatic animals like fish
Industrial Effluents production, solvents and which can be eaten by humans and cause
other processes. These poisoning in them.
chemicals might be
discharged in the water The polluted water can be drunk by
without neutralization humans
and proper treatment
These chemicals include

Metal Compounds of
Mercury, Cadmium and
Lead
Industrial Effluent Phosphate compounds Phosphates cause the phenomenon of

containing are used in detergent eutrophication and has same
phosphates industries. These can be consequences as above
dumped in the sea if the
industries do not look
after waste treatment
Oil spillage Oil supertankers can This results in harm to the aquatic life
collide during trade and including fish, plants and sea birds
cause spillage of large
amounts of water in the
sea.
Sewage The wastes from human The sewage could contain various harmful
domestic usage which bacteria/ virus and can cause infections
contains human sewage/ upon consumption
human waste
Purification of Water
Waterworks is defined as a water purification plant where water is made safe from drinking. It
has the following stages
Stage 1 – Screening
In screening, water is passed through sieves/ screens which helps to remove the large impurities
and litter like twigs, sticks, leaves, litter etc.
Stage 2 – Settling Agent
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A settling agent/ Flocculent is added which causes the small particles to clump together and
them settle down. For e.g., Aluminum Sulfate is added which helps in the clumping of impurities.
The water is held in a Sedimentation tank, where the insoluble clumped impurities settle down
Stage 3 – Filtration
Water is passed over layers of sand and Gravel and also activated charcoal. These substance
absorb fine solid particles from water and make the water free of unwanted tastes, odors and
tiny particles
Stage 4 – Chlorination Disinfection

In order to kill harmful bacteria, chlorine is added which helps to kill harmful bacteria which
cause Diarrhea, cholera etc. Chlorine is added in a minute quantity to ensure that the Chlorine
levels are not above the allowed limits in drinkable water.
Stage 5 – Fluorination
Fluorine salt is added in water to maintain the levels of fluorine. This helps to prevent tooth
decay.
Desalination (Making Sea water safe for drinking)

It is define as the removal of undesired salts from water to make it drinkable. Sea water contains
many salts which make it unfit for drinking and cooking purpose. Water can be desalinated by
Distillation.
Following two kinds of Distillation plants work to make water purer
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Name of Distillation Working Advantages

technique
Flash Distillation It involves the heating of water at It is fast and efficient

reduced pressure so that it evaporates at process
lower temperature. The vapors of water
are then condensed. But since it involves
large scale heating. It is
The condensed liquid is free of unwanted fit for countries that
excess salts have cheap sources of
energy
Solar Distillation These plants use Solar energy (sunlight) It is slow process but it is
to evaporate water. The vapors of pure cheap because it uses
water are condensed over plastic sheets less fuel and energy
and trickle down.
Solar Distillation Plant
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Chemistry 5070 Complete Handbook Vol 3.2

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Table of Contents

Rate of reaction/Speed of reaction: It is the speed for a reactant to be used up or product to be

𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠

Ways to measure speed of reaction

Measuring the amount of gas evolved.

1. Gradient largest at start indicating speed at its greatest.

Measuring change in mass of reaction mixture.

The reading on balance is plotted on a graph on every time interval.

The Graphs of Reaction Rates

Slope α rate of reaction

Factors Affecting Speed of Reaction

1. Particle Size of Reactant

Only gaseous reactions are affected as gas is compressible.

We can classify the natural sources of Hydrocarbons in two classes

Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil

Process of Fractional distillation

Molecular Size and Boiling points

Uses of Fractional Distillation

A comparison of typical percentages we get, and what we want, from the

Diversity in Organic Chemistry

Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbon derivatives

Saturated Hydrocarbons Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

Properties of Homologous Series

1. They have similar set of chemical reaction

2. Each homologous series has a specific general formula

5. Their physical properties change gradually

7. Flammability decreases with longer chain lengths

Common General Formulae

Alkane series has all the characteristics of a homologous series

Genera Formula: Cn H2n+2

Chemical Reactions of Alkanes

However they give three reactions

The products are carbon dioxide and water

Name Formula Structure Mp Bp State

Ethane C2H6 -172 -88 G

Propane C3H8 -188 -42 G

Butane C4H10 -135 -0.5 G

Pentane C5H12 -130 36 L

Hexane C6H14 -95 68 L

Heptane C7H16 -91 98 L

Octane C8H18 -57 125 L

Nonane C9H20 -54 150 L

Decane C10H22 -30 174 L

Isomers have same Isomers have different

Empirical formula Structures

Alkenes – Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

General Formula Cn H2n

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons

General Formula is CnH2n+2 General Formula is CnH2n

Do not decolorize bromine water They decolorize bromine water

The mp and bp are higher The mp and bp are lower

Give complete combustion reactions Give complete r incomplete combustion

Main reactions include substitution Main reactions include addition

Chemically less reactive Chemically more reactive

Can be converted to alkenes by racking Can be converted to alkanes by addition

Name of reaction Reagent Conditions Products

Addition of Halogen With Bromine water Aqueous bromine or Di-bromo alkane

Addition of Steam With steam (acid 300 C and Phosphoric Alcohol

Addition of Hydrogen With Hydrogen gas 200 C and Ni catalyst Alkane

Combustion With Oxygen Oxygen/ air CO2 & H2O

Addition Polymerization With other alkene Variable conditions A polymer molecule

1. With Bromine Water

Example of bromine addition to a double bond giving a saturated dibromo compound.

2. With Hydrogen Gas