CUET-UG : Section-II (Domain Specific
Subject : PHYSICS) Entrance Test
Guide Rph Editorial Board
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R. Gupta's ®
Popular Master Guide
CUET-UG
Common University Entrance Test for
Under Graduate Courses/Programmes
DOMAIN SPECIFIC SUBJECT
PHYSICS
By
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EXAMINATION STRUCTURE
SECTION-II: DOMAIN SPECIFIC SUBJECTS
No. of Questions Subject Time
40 Questions Input text can be used for
45 minutes for
to be MCQ Based Questions
each Domain
attempted out MCQs based on NCERT Class XII
Specific Subjects
of 50 Syllabus only
Mode of the Test : Computer Based Test (CBT)
Test Pattern : Objective type with Multiple Choice Questions
Medium of Exam : 13 Languages (Tam il, Telugu, Kannada,
Malayalam, Marathi, Gujarati, Odiya, Bengali,
Assamese, Punjabi, English, Hindi and Urdu)
(iii)
CONTENTS
SAMPLE PAPER
CUET (UG) – PHYSICS ........................................................................................................ 1-4
SECTION-II: DOMAIN SPECIFIC SUBJECT
PHYSICS
1. Electrostatics ............................................................................................... 3-22
2. Current Electricity ...................................................................................... 23-39
3. Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism ........................................... 40-56
4. Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current .................................. 57-71
5. Electromagnetic Waves ............................................................................ 72-79
6. Optics ........................................................................................................ 80-99
7. Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation ................................................... 100-109
8. Atoms & Nuclei ..................................................................................... 110-116
9. Electronic Device .................................................................................. 117-130
10. Communication Systems ...................................................................... 131-140
(iv)
SAMPLE PAPER (SOLVED) Sample Paper 1
CUET-UG
PHYSICS*
SECTION-II : DOMAIN SPECIFIC SUBJECT
1. A point positive charge is brought near an isolated Which of the following is a useful way?
conducting sphere as shown in the following figures. A. He should measure l1 more accurately
The electric field is best given by which figure? B. He should change S to 1000 and repeat the
experiment
(i) (ii) C. He sho uld chang e S to 3 and rep eat th e
experiment
D. He should give up hope of a more accurate
measurement with a meter bridge
(iii) (iv)
6. Which of the following characteristics of electrons
A. Fig. (i) B. Fig. (ii) determines the current in a conductor?
A. Drift velocity alone
C. Fig. (iii) D. Fig. (iv)
B. Thermal velocity alone
2. A positively charged particle is released from rest in C. Both drift velocity and thermal velocity
an uniform electric field. The electric potential energy D. Neither drift nor thermal velocity
of the charge:
7. Biot-Savart law indicates that the moving electrons
A. remains a constant because the electric field is uniform.
(velocity v) produce a magnetic field B such that:
B. increases because the charge moves along the
A. B v
electric field. B. B | | v
C. decreases because the charge moves along the C. it obeys inverse cube law
electric field. D. it is along the line joining the electron and point
D. decreases because the charge moves opposite to of observation
the electric field.
8. An electron is projected with uniform velocity along
3. The electrostatic potential on the surface of a charged the axis of a current carrying long solenoid. Which
conducting sphere is 100 V. Two statements are made of the following is true?
in this regard: A. The electron will be accelerated along the axis.
S 1 : At any point inside the sphere, electric intensity B. The electron path will be circular about the axis.
is zero. C. The electron will experience a force at 45° to the
S 2 : At any point inside the sphere, the electrostatic axis and hence execute a helical path.
potential is 100 V. D. The electron will continue to move with uniform
Which of the following is a correct statement? velocity along the axis of the solenoid.
A. S1 is true but S 2 is false 9. A circular current loop of magnetic moment M is in
B. Both S 1 & S 2 are false an arbitrary orientation in an external magnetic field
C. S1 is true, S2 is also true and S1 is the cause of S 2 B. The work done to rotate the loop by 30° about an
D. S1 is true, S 2 is also true but the statements are axis perpendicular to its plane is:
independant MB
A. M B B. 3
4. Equipotentials at a great distance from a collection of 2
MB
charges whose total sum is not zero are approximately: C. D. zero
A. spheres B. planes 2
C. paraboloids D. ellipsoids 10. In a permanent magnet at room temperature:
A. magnetic moment of each molecule is zero
5. A resistance R is to be measured using a meter bridge.
B. the individual molecules have non-zero magnetic
Student chooses the standard resistance S to be 100 .
moment which are all perfectly aligned
He finds the null point at l1 = 2.9 cm. He is told to
C. domains are partially aligned
attempt to improve the accuracy.
D. domains are all perfectly aligned
*40 Questions to be attempted out of 50 1
2 Sample Paper
11. A paramagnetic sample shows a net magnetisation of 18. Which of the following combinations should be
8 Am –1 when placed in an external magnetic field of selected for better tuning of an LCR circuit used for
0.6 T at a temperature of 4 K. When the same sample communication?
is placed in an external magnetic field of 0.2 T at a A. R = 20 , L = 1.5 H, C = 35 µF
temperature of 16 K, the magnetisation will be: B. R = 25 , L = 2.5 H, C = 45 µF
32 2 C. R = 15 , L = 3.5 H, C = 30 µF
A. Am–1 B. Am–1 D. R = 25 , L = 1.5 H, C = 45 µF
3 3
19. An inductor of reactance 1 and a resistor of 2
C. 6 Am –1 D. 2.4 Am –1 are connected in series to the terminals of a 6 V (rms)
12. A square of side L meters lies in the x-y plane in a a.c. source. The power dissipated in the circuit is:
region , wh ere the m ag netic field is given by A. 8 W B. 12 W
B B0 2iˆ 3 ˆj 4 kˆ T , where B 0 is constant. The C. 14.4 W D. 18 W
20. One requires 11 eV of energy to dissociate a carbon
magnitude of flux passing through the square is:
monoxide molecule into carbon and oxygen atoms.
A. 2 B 0 L 2 Wb B. 3 B 0 L 2 Wb Th e minimu m frequ en cy o f the app ro priate
C. 4 B 0 L 2 Wb D. 2
29 B 0 L Wb electromagnetic radiation to achieve the dissociation
lies in:
13. A loop, made of straight edges has six corners at A. visible region B. infrared region
A (0, 0, 0), B (L, O, 0), C (L, L, 0), D (0, L, 0), E (0, L, L) C. ultraviolet region D. microwave region
and F (0, 0, L). A magnetic field B B0 iˆ kˆ T is 21. The electric field intensity produced by the radiations
present in the region. The flux passing through the coming from 100 W bulb at a 3 m distance is E. The
loop ABCDEFA (in that order) is: electric field intensity produced by the radiations
A. B 0 L 2 Wb B. 2 B 0 L 2 Wb coming from 50 W bulb at the same distance is:
C. 2 D. 4 B o L 2 Wb
2 B 0 L Wb E
14. Same as problem 4 except the coil A is made to rotate A. B. 2 E
2
about a vertical axis as shown in the following figure. E
No current flows in B if A is at rest. The current in C. D. 2E
coil A, when the current in B (at t = 0) is counter 2
22. The ratio of contributions made by the electric field
clockwise and the coil A is as shown at this instant,
and magnetic field components to the intensity of an
t = 0, is:
EM wave is:
A. c : 1 B. c2 : 1
C. 1 : 1 D. c :1
23. A short pulse of white light is incident from air to a
A. constant current clockwise glass slab at normal incidence. After travelling through
B. varying current clockwise the slab, the first colour to emerge is:
C. varying current counterclockwise A. blue B. green
D. constant current counterclockwise C. violet D. red
15. The self inductance L of a solenoid of length l and 24. A passenger in an aeroplane shall:
area of cross-section A, with a fixed number of turns A. never see a rainbow
N increases as B. may see a primary and a secondary rainbow as
A. l and A increase concentric circles
B. l decreases and A increases C. may see a primary and a secondary rainbow as
C. l increases and A decreases concentric arcs
D. both l and A decrease D. shall never see a secondary rainbow
16. If the rms current in a 50 Hz ac circuit is 5 A, the 25. Th e ph en om en a in vo lv ed in the reflectio n of
value of the current 1/300 seconds after its value radiowaves by ionosphere is similar to:
becomes zero is: A. reflection of light by a plane mirror
A. 5 2 A B. 5 3 / 2 A B. total internal reflection of light in air during a
mirage
C. 5/6 A D. 5 / 2 A C. dispersion of light by water molecules during the
17. To reduce the reasonant frequency in an LCR series formation of a rainbow
circuit with a generator: D. scattering of light by the particles of air
A. the generator frequency should be reduced 26. In a Young’s double slit experiment, the source is
B. another capacitor should be added in parallel to white light. One of the holes is covered by a red filter
the first and another by a blue filter. In this case:
C. the iron core of the inductor should be removed A. there shall be alternate interference patterns of
D. dielectric in the capacitor should be removed red and blue
2731 (SP)—1-II
Sample Paper 3
B. there shall be an interference pattern for red distinct 35. Heavy stable nuclei have more neutrons than protons.
from that for blue This is because of the fact that:
C. there shall be no interference fringes A. neutrons are heavier than protons
D. there shall be an interference pattern for red mixing B. electrostatic force between protons are repulsive
with one for blue C. neutrons decay into protons through beta decay
27. A particle is dropped from a height H. The de Broglie D. nuclear forces between neutrons are weaker than
wavelength of the particle as a function of height is that between protons
proportional to: 36. The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with
A. H B. H 1/2 increase in temperature because:
C. H 0 D. H –1/2 A. number density of free current carriers increases
28. The wavelength of a photon needed to remove a B. relaxation time increases
proton from a nucleus which is bound to the nucleus C. both number density of carriers and relaxation
with 1 MeV energy is nearly: time increase
A. 1.2 nm B. 1.2 × 10 –3 nm D. number density of current carriers increases,
C. 1.2 × 10 nm–6 D. 1.2 × 10 1 nm relaxation time decreases but effect of decrease in
relaxation time is much less than increase in
29. A proton, a neutron, an electron and an -particle number density
have same energy. Then their de Broglie wavelengths
compare as: 37. Hole is:
A. an anti-particle of electron
A. p = n > e > B. < p= n> e B. a vacancy created when an electron leaves a covalent
C. e < p = n > D. e = p = n = bond
30. Taking the Bohr radius as a0 = 53 pm, the radius of C. absence of free electrons
Li++ ion in its ground state, on the basis of Bohr’s D. an artifically created particle
model, will be about: 38. The output of the given circuit in Fig.
A. 53 pm B. 27 pm
C. 18 pm D. 13 pm
31. The simple Bohr model cannot be directly applied to
calculate the energy levels of an atom with many
electrons. This is because:
A. of the electrons not being subject to a central
force A. would be zero at all times
B. of the electrons colliding with each other B. would be like a half wave rectifier with positive
C. of screening effects cycles in output
D. the force between the nucleus and an electron C. would be like a half wave rectifier with negative
will no longer be given by Coulomb’s law cycles in output
32. O 2 molecule consists of two oxygen atoms. In the D. would be like that of a full wave rectifier
molecule, nuclear force between the nuclei of the two 39. A speech signal of 3 kHz is used to modulate a carrier
atoms: signal of frequency 1 MHz, using amplitude
A. is not important because nuclear forces are short- modulation. The frequencies of the side bands will be:
ranged A. 1.003 MHz and 0.997 MHz
B. is as important as electrostatic force for binding B. 3001 kHz and 2997 kHz
the two atoms C. 1003 kHz and 1000 kHz
C. cancels the repulsive electrostatic force between D. 1 MHz and 0.997 MHz
the nuclei 40. A message signal of frequency m is superposed on a
D. is not important because oxygen nucleus have carrier wave of frequency c to get an amplitude
equal number of neutrons and protons modulated wave (AM). The frequency of the AM wave
33. Two H atoms in the ground state collide inelastically. will be
The maximum amount by which their combined A. m B. c
kinetic energy is reduced is: c m c – m
A. 10.20 eV B. 20.40 eV C. D.
2 2
C. 13.6 eV D. 27.2 eV
41. A male voice after modulation-transmission sounds like
34. When a nucleus in an atom undergoes a radioactive that of a female to the receiver. The problem is due to:
decay, the electronic energy levels of the atom:
A. poor selection of modulation index (selected
A. do not change for any type of radioactivity
B. change for and radioactivity but not for 0 < m < 1)
-radioactivity B. poor bandwidth selection of amplifiers
C. change for -radioactivity but not for others C. poor selection of carrier frequency
D. change for -radioactivity but not for others D. loss of energy in transmission
4 Sample Paper
42. A basic communication system consists of: 48. Given below are two statements labelled as Assertion
(a) transmitter (b) information source (A) and Reason (R):
(c) user of information (d) channel Assertion (A) : An electron has a high potential energy
(e) receiver when it is at a location associated with a more
Choose the correct sequence in which these are negative value of potential, and a low potential
arranged in a basic communication system: energy when at a location associated with a more
A. (a), (b), (c), (d), (e) B. (b), (a), (d), (e), (c) positive potential.
C. (b), (d), (a), (c), (e) D. (b), (e), (a), (d), (c) Reason (R) : Electrons move from a region of higher
potential to region of lower potential.
43. Which of the following is NOT the property of
Select the most appropriate answer from the options
equipotential surface?
given below:
A. They do not cross each other
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct
B. The rate of change of potential with distance on
explanation of (A)
them is zero
B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the
C. For a uniform electric field they are concentric
correct explanation of (A).
spheres C. (A) is true, but (R) is false.
D. They can be imaginary spheres D. (A) is false and (R) is also false.
44. Three capacitors 2 µF, 3 µF and 6 µF are joined in 49. Given below are two statements labelled as Assertion
series with each other. The equivalent capacitance is: (A) and Reason (R).
A. 1/2 µF B. 1 µF Assertion (A) : A magnetic needle free to rotate in a
C. 2 µF D. 11 µF vertical plane, orients itself (with its axis) vertical at
45. Which statement is true for Gauss law? the poles of the earth.
A. All the charges whether inside or outside the Reason (R) : At the poles of the earth the horizontal
gaussian surface contribute to the electric flux component of earth’s magnetic field will be zero.
B. Electric flux depends upon the geometry of the Select the most appropriate answer from the options
gaussian surface given below:
C. Gauss theorem can be applied to non-uniform A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct
electric field explanation of (A)
D. The electric field over the gau ssian su rface B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the
remains continuous and uniform at every point correct explanation of (A).
46. An electric cu rren t is passed throu gh a circu it C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
containing two wires of same material, connected in D. (A) is false and (R) is also false
parallel. If the lengths and radii of the wires are in the 50. Given below are two statements labelled as Assertion
ratio of 3 : 2 and 2 : 3, then the ratio of the current (A) and Reason (R).
passing through the wire will be: Assertion (A) : On increasing the current sensitivity
A. 2 : 3 B. 3 : 2 of a galvanometer by increasing the number of turns,
C. 8 : 27 D. 27 : 8 may not necessarily increase its voltage sensitivity.
47. We use alloys for making standard resistors because Reason (R) : The resistance of the coil of the galvano-
they have meter increases on increasing the number of turns.
A. low temperature coefficient of resistivity and high Select the most appropriate answer from the options
specific resistance given below:
B. high temperature coefficient of resistivity and low A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct
specific resistance explanation of (A)
C. low temperature coefficient of resistivity and low B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the
specific resistance correct explanation of (A)
D. high temperature coefficient of resistivity and high C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
specific resistance D. (A) is false and (R) is also false
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A C C A C A A D D C
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B C B A B B B C C C
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
D C D B B C D B B C
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
A A A B B D B C A B
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
B B C B D C A C A A
1
PHYSICS
2731 (Physics)—1
2
3
CHAPTER
1
ELECTROSTATICS
distance between them and its direction is along the line
INTRODUCTION
joining the two charges.
The branch of physics, which deals with the study of charges q1 q2
at rest, the forces between the static charges, fields and
potentials due to these charges is called electrostatics or r
static electricity. q1q2 1 q1q2 kq1q2
F 2 = 2
r 4 0 r 2 r
ELECTRIC CHARGE
where, k is constant and also written as 1/4 0
The addition property of electrons, which gives rise to
electric force between two electrons is called electric charge. where 0 = Permittivity of free space
The SI unit of charge is coulomb (C). = 8.854 × 10–12C2N–1m –2.
Charge on electron (e) = 1.6 × 10–19 C. Coulomb’s Law in Vector Space: In Vector form of
There are two types of electric charge positive and Coulomb’s Law
negative commonly carried by protons and electrons kq q
F12 = 12 2 rˆ21
respectively. Like charges repel each other and unlike r
charges attract each other. kq1q2
or, = r
r3
CONSERVATION OF CHARGE where,
It states that for an isolated system, the net charge always F = Force between charges q1 and q2
remains constant. In any physical process, the charge it F12 = Force on q1 because of q2,
may get transferred from one part of the system to another, r = Distance between q1 and q2,
but net charge will always remain same. It means charge
can be neither be created nor destroyed.
r̂21 = Unit vector in the direction from 2 to 1
k = Constant of proportionality
In mechanics, the total linear momentum of an isolated
system always remains constant, the electric charge also = 9 × 109 Nm 2C–2
obeys a similar law. It is called law of conservation of Coulomb’s Law in Some Medium
charge.
1 q1q2
F=
COULOMB’S LAW FORCES BETWEEN 4 r 2
TWO POINT CHARGES where, = Permittivity of the medium = 0 r
r = Relative Permittivity of the medium
It states that the force of attraction or repulsion between If the medium is some insulating medium, then r is
two point charges is directly proportional to the product of also written as capital K and, then, it is called “Dielectric
the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the Constant” of the medium. The medium is called ‘dielectric’.
3
4
Notes:
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO
(i) This ‘K’ (Dielectric Constant) and the previous ‘k’.
(Constant of proportionality in the Coulomb’s Law)
A POINT CHARGE (q)
are different quantities. The first is capital K and the To find electric field at point P, place a vanishingly small
second is small k. positive test charge q0 at point p. According to Coulomb’s
(ii) Coulomb’s Law is a universal law, but it is applicable law, force on test charge q0 due to charge q0 is given by
only to point charges whether stationary or in motion.
Z
FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES
The force acting on a charge is directly proportional to the F
magnitude of the charge and inversely proportional to the q0
square of the distance between them. The force acting on p (x , y , z )
a point charge due to multiple charges is given by the r
+q
vector sum of all individual forces acting on the charges.
O Y
1 q1q2 ˆ q1q2 q1q2
i.e. Fin = 2 F12 2 rˆ13 ... 2 rˆln X
4 0 r12 r13 rln
q2 n
q1 1 q0
= r 2
rˆ1r F = 4 r 2 rˆ
4 0 j 2 1r
0
The magnitude of electric field at point p, is given by
SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE AND 1 q
CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION E= 2
4 0 r
It states that when a number of charges are interacting the
total force an a given charge is the vector sum of the forces kq
E=
acted on it by all other charges. r2
F0 F01 F02 F03 .... F0 n kq
Continuous Charge Distribution: The continuous or, E = 3 r
r
charge distribution may be one-dimensional, two
dimensional or three dimentional. The charge distribution Near a Plane Sheet of Charge
called linear, surface and volume distributions respectively.
E=
20
ELECTRIC FIELD
i.e., it does not depend upon the distance of the
It is the space around a charge in which if a test charge is
point from the sheet of charge.
placed, experiences some force which it would not have
experienced otherwise. So be sure, ‘electric field’ is the Near a Conducting Charged Plate
space around the charge in which any other charge is acted
E=
upon by an electrostatic force. 0
Electric Field Strength (E) : The electric field strength q
at a point is the electric force per unit charge which a small = Surface charge density of the sheet =
A
positive test charge will experience if placed there. It applies
Total charge on the sheet
only to a point. =
Total area of the sheet
F
E = Lim At a Distance r from a Charged Metal Sphere
q 0 q0
When the point is on or outside the sphere
where, kq
E=
E = Electric Field Strength r2
F = Force experienced by the test charge When the point is inside the sphere:
q0 = test charge E= 0
The SI Unit of E is NC–1 Due to a Charged Non-metal Sphere
5
When the point is outside the sphere where,
kq r = distance of the point from the centre of the
E= 2
r dipole
When the point is inside the sphere: p = dipole moment
kqr 2l = length of the dipole
E=
R3 If l << r, then
where, R = radius of the sphere 2kp 1
E= or, E 3
r3 r
On Equatorial Line of a Dipole
kp
E =
(r l 2 )3 / 2
2
In the direction parallel to the axis of the dipole,
from positive towards negative poles.
If r >> l, then
kp
E=
r3
O R r At a point lying on a line making an angle
with the dipole axis
On the Axis of a Uniformly Charged Circular Ring
kqr (3cos2 1)
E= = p
( R 2 r 2 )3 / 2 4 0
where, Force on the Surface of a Charged Conductor
R = radius of the ring
In a charged conductor, charge resides on its surface. As
r = distance of the point from the centre of the same nature charges repel each other, so the entire charged
ring surface experiences an outward force (F) all the time.
E = 0, at the centre
2
R This force/unit surface area =
E is max. when r = ± 2 0
2
On the Axis of a Uniformly Charged Disc ELECTRIC FIELD LINES
r It is defined as the path straight or curved such that tangent
E=
20 1 2 2
(R r ) to it any point gives the direction of electric field intensity
at that point. Infact, it is the path along which a unit a
At a Point Due to an Infinitely Long Line of Charge positive charge actually moves in electric field, if free to
do so.
E=
2 0 r
E
where, Electric P
field line
= linear charge density i.e., charge per unit length.
r = perpendicular distance of the point
On the Axis of a Dipole ELECTRIC DIPOLE
2kpr
E= A system of two equal and opposite charges separated by
r 2 l 2 2 a certain distance is called an electric dipole.
6
Electric Dipole moment is defined as the product of 1 Q
the magnitude of either change and the length of the electric V=
4 0 r t1 r t2
dipole. 1 2
esu and emu units of electrical & magnetic quantities.
p q 2l
Dipole Placed in an Electric Field ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A DIPOLE
= torque on the dipole The direction of electric field due to an electric dipole at
a point on its axial line is same as that of the electric dipole
= pE
moment.
Potential Energy of the dipole Electric field on axial line of the electric dipole: At
= pE the point at a distance r from the centre of the dipole,
1 2 pr
Note: The electric dipole moment p is directed from E=
negative charge to the positive charge. 4 0 (r 2 a2 )2
For dipole of small length (2a << r),
Work Done in Rotating a Dipole in a Uniform
Electric Field 1 2p
E=
If the dipole is rotated through an angle from its 4 0 r 3
equilibrium position in the field (which will be when the Electric field on equitorial line of the electric dipole:
axis of the dipole, i.e. the direction from its negative charge At the point at a distance r from the centre of the elecric
to its positive charge is the direction of the electric field), dipole,
then the total work done, W will be
1 p
E = 2
4 0 (r a2 )3 / 2
W= pE sin d For dipole of small lengh (2a << r)
0
= pE (1 – cos ) 1 p
E= .
where, p = dipole moment 2 0 r 3
E = Electric field strength
If the dipole is rotated through 90° i.e., it becomes TORQUE ON A DIPOLE IN A
perpendicular to the direction of field, then
UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD
W 90° = p.E
If it is rotated through 180°, then Consider a dipole with charges +q and –q forming a dipole
W 180° = 2p.E since they are a distance d away from each other. Let it be
placed in a uniform electric field of strength E such that the
Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole Placed axis of the dipole forms and angle with the electric field.
in a Uniform Electric Field (U)
For an electric dipole of dipole moment p placed in
It is defined as the work done in bringing the dipole from
electric field E ,
infinity to inside the filed in the given orientation.
If dipole is parallel to the field, then, = pE
U = –p.E
If be the angle between the directions of p and E,
If it is at angle
the, = pE sin .
U0 = –p.E cos
If = 90°, ELECTRIC FLUX
U90° = 0
The electric flux through a small surface is defined as the
Electric field intensity and potential at a point (t1 + t2)
electric lines force passing through that area, when normally
distance away from a charge Q such that up to t1 distance
to the lines of force.
medium has a relative permittivity r1 and then in t 2
distance r2 . E ds = E ds cos is called the electric flux through
1 Q (or passing through or linked with or cutting across) the
E= surface ‘ds’, being the angle between ‘the normal to the
4 0 t t 2
r1 1 r2 2 surface ‘ds’, and ‘direction of electric field’.
7
The sign of these lines which are coming out of the
UNIFORMLY CHARGED INFINITE PLANE
closed surface is taken as (+) and of those going in as (–).
SHEET AND UNIFORMLY CHARGED
As far as counting, the number of lines is concerned,
q
THIN SPHERICAL SHELL
electric lines of the force are supposed to be emanating Electric Field due to an Infinite Plane Sheet of Charge:
0
from a charge q when placed in free space. Consider an infinite sheet thin plane sheet of positive
charge having a uniform surface charge density () on both
If there is no net charge placed within the closed sides of the sheet. By symmetry, it follows that the electric
surface, the total electric flux linked with the surface will
field is perpendicular to the plane sheet of charge and
be zero.
direction outward direction.
GAUSS’S LAW AND ITS APPLICATIONS Then, electric field, E =
2 0
It states that the surface integral of the electric field along
The magnitude of the electric field at a point due to
any closed surface is proportional to the charge contained
an infinite plane sheet of charge is independent of its
by the closed surface, i.e.,
distance from the sheet of charge.
q
E ds 0 Electric Field due to two Infinite Plane Parallel Sheets
of Charge: In case of two infinite plane sheets of charge
Hence, Gauss’s theorem may be stated as below: having equal and opposite surface charge densities, the
If a closed surface encloses a charges, then surface field is non-zero only in the space between the two sheets
integral of the electric field (due to enclosed charge) over and it is constant i.e., uniforms Further, the field is in
1 dependent of the distance between the infinite plane sheets
the closed surface is equal to times the charged enclosed. of charge.
0
The electric field is given by
Applications of Gauss’s Law
E=
(i) The electric field E is resulting from all charge, 0
both inside and those outside the Gaussian surface. Electric Field due to a Uniformly Charged Spherical
Shell:
(ii) The electric in E.d A is complete electric field. It
may be partly due to charge with in the surface and (i) When point P lies outside the spherical shell: Draw
the gaussian surface through point P. It will be a
partly due to charge outside the surface. However, if
these is no charge enclosed in the Gaussian surface, spherical shell of radius r and centre O. Let E be the
then electric field at point P due to charge of on the
spherical shell.
E.d A = 0 E
(iii) If a closed body is placed in an electric field (either +q
P
uniform or non-uniform) total flux linked with it ds
will be zero. Rr
Charged
Electric Field due to Infinitely Long Uniformly O Spherical
Shell
Straight Wire
Let us consider an uniformly charged wire of infinite length
Gaussian
having a constant linear charge density (). A cylinder of Surface
length (l), radius (r) closed at each end by plane caps
normal to the axis is chosen as Gaussian surface. Consider Total electric flux through the gaussian surface,
a very small area ds on the Gaussian surface. By symmetry, = E . 4r2
the magnitude of the electric field will be the same at all Since the charge enclosed by the gaussian surface q,
points on the surface
of the cylinder and directed radially
then from Gauss’ law.
outward E and ds are along the same direction.
1 q
By Gauss’s law, the field due to infinitely long straight E= (for r > R) [ q = 4R2]
wire is, 4 0 r 2
R2
E= = 2 (for r > R)
2 0 r 0 r
8
(ii) When point P lies on the surface of spherical shell: (ii) On the axis of a dipole
According to Gauss’s theorem kp
V= 2
1 q r
E= 2 (for r = R) (iii) A point on the equatorial axis of the dipole
4 0 R
V = zero
Since q = 4R2
(iv) At a point on a line inclined at an angle with the
Then, electrical field, axis of a dipole and passing through the mid-point
of dipole.
E = (for r = R) kp cos
0 V=
(r l 2 cos )
2
(iii) When point P lies inside the spherical Shell: The where, 1 = half the length of dipole.
gaussian surface through point P will not enclose
If r >> l, then
any charge and hence according to Gauss’s theorem kp cos
0 V=
E × 4r2 = 2 r2
r (v) On the axis of a charged ring
E = 0. (for r < R) kq
V=
Thus, at a point inside the charged spherical shell, (R r 2 )1/ 2
2
electric field is zero. where,
R = radius of charged ring
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND ITS r = distance of the point from the centre of
CALCULATION FOR A POINT CHARGE charged ring
The electric potential at a point is an elecric field is defined q = total charge on ring
as the amount of work done per unit positive test charge k = Proportionally constant of Coulomb’s Law.
in moving the test charge from infinity to that point against (vi) Due to uniformly charged conducting sphere
the electrostatic force due to the field. (a) This sphere behaves like a point charge placed
1 q at its centre for all points lying on it’s surface
i.e., V= and outside
4 0 r
kq
It is a scalar quantity. It’s unit is volt (V) and dimensions V=
r
are [ML2T–3A–1].
(b) For all points within the sphere, potential is
Potential Gradient: Potential gradient between two same and is
points is the rate of change of potential as we go from one
kq
point to another V=
R
dV
E = – Electric Field at its centre = zero.
dr where, R is the radius of the sphere.
Electric Field Strength at a point is equal to negative (vii) Due to uniformly charged non-conducting sphere
of the potential gradient at that point.
(a) This sphere too behaves like a point charged
(–) sign indicates that the direction of E is opposite to placed at its centre for all points lying on its
the direction in which potential is increasing, i.e., the surface and outside
direction of field is towards the point having smaller kq
potential. V=
r
Potential at a Point Due to Different Charges (b) For points within the sphere
(i) Due to a point charge (q) at a point at distance r kq(3R 2 r 2 )
V=
kq 2R 3
V= Potential at its centre.
r
where, 3kq
V=
K = Proportionality constant in the equation of 2R
Coulomb’s law. where, R is the radius of the sphere.
9
The work done in bringing the two charges to their
ELECTRIC DIPOLE AND
respective positions in stored as the potential energy of the
SYSTEM OF CHARGES configuration of two charges i.e.,
A dipole is a pair of opposite charges with equal magnitudes 1 . q1q2
separated by a distance ‘d’. The electric potential due to a U = 4 r
0 12
point charge q at a distance of r from that charge is given by
P CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
Conductors: The elements, in which the valence shell is
r filled less than half, are found to be good conductors. For
example, in metals such as copper, aluminium, silver etc.
N
the valence shell contains three or less electrons.
–q +q There is net flow of electrons through the metal. It is
A B found that as the strength of the applied electric field is
increased, more and more free electrons cross through a
M section of the metal. As such, the metals are termed as
a a
conductor for electricity.
1 p cos
V= Insulators: The materials which do not have free
4 0 (r 2 a 2 cos2 )
electrons in them are unable to conduct electricity and are
The electric potential due to the dipole in the following termed as insulators. An insulator may behave in the
two cases: following two ways.
(i) When point P lies on the axial line of the dipole: 1. It may not conduct electricity through it and as such
In this case, it is called insulator.
= 0° and cos = cos 0° = 1 2. It may not conduct electricity through it but on
1 p applying electric field, induced charges are produced
Vaxial = 2 (for a << r)
4 0 (r a 2 ) on its faces. Such an insulator is called dielectric.
1 p The dielectrics do not conduct electricity. On applying
= 2 electric field, induced charges of opposite kinds develop
4 0 r
on their opposite faces.
(ii) When point p lies on the equatorial line of the
dipole: In such case, DIELECTRICS AND ELECTRIC POLARIZATION
= 90° and cos = cos 90° = 0
Dielectrics: Dielectrics are insulating (non-conducting)
Vequi = 0.
materials which transmits electric effect without conducting.
These are two types
EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES
1. Polar dielectrics: A polar molecule has permanent
It is any surface on which potential is same everywhere.
Work done in moving a charge (any charge) from any point electric dipole moment ( P) is the absence of electric
to any point on the equipotential surface is zero. field. But polar dielectric has net dipole moment
Two equipotential surfaces never intersect each other. zero in the absence of electric field. In the presence
of the electric field polar molecules tends to line up
Electric lines of force, whether emanating from or
in the direction of electric field and the substance
entering into an equipotential surface, are always normal to
has finite dipole moment. CO2, NH3, HCl etc. are
the equipotential surface.
made of polar molecules.
Closer the two equipotential surfaces having the same
potential difference, more is the electric field between them. 2. Non-polar dielectric: In non-polar molecules, each
molecule has zero dipole moment in its normal state.
ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A Benzene, methane etc. are made of non-polar
molecules.
SYSTEM OF TWO POINT CHARGES IN
Electric Polarisation: Electric polarisation occurs,
AN ELECTROSTATIC FIELD when a non-polar substance placed between two parallel
The electrical potential energy of a system of point charges plates with an applied electric field. The electric field tends
is defined as the work required to be done to bring the to attract the negatively charged electron particles on clouds
charges constituting the system to their respective locations towards the positive plate and positive charge nucleus
from infinity. towards a negative plate.
2731 (Physics)—2
10
CAPACITOR (CAPACITANCES) q q
But C=
A capacitor is a combination of two conductors (with any V 1 q
geometry) isolated from each other so that they can be 4 0 R
given equal but opposite charge. The conductors of a = 40 R
capacitor are called plates. (Whether they are spherical,
cylindrical or even rolled sheets, the conductors are still Capacitance of Spherical Capacitor
called plates.) If the charge q is given to the inner spherical conductor it
A simple capacitor consists of a pair of parallel plates spreads over the outer surface of it and a charge –q appears
of area is separated by a small distance d. A capacitor is on the inner surface of the shell. The electric field is
represented by the symbol + – . produced only between the two. Here
The charge stored in a capacitor is given by q 1 1
Q = CV V=
4 0 a b
Where, V is the potential difference between two
plates. The constant C is called the capacitance of the q ab
or C= 4 0
capacitor. The capacitance depends on the particular V b a
geomerty of the two conductors consitituting the capacitor.
–q
Capacitance does not depend on the charge nor on the
potential difference V. +q
The unit of capacitance is the farad (F).
C a
1F = 1
V
Coulomb
Farad = b
Volt
In SI system, unit of capacitor is farad and its
dimensions is [A2T4M –1L–2]. COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS IN
SERIES AND PARALLEL
Capacitance of an Isolated Conductor
Series Combination of Capacitors: Let three capacitors
When a charge q is given to a conductor, it spreads over
are connected in series as shown in figure. Let their
the outer surface of the conductor. The whole conductor
capacitances be C1, C2 and C 3. The total potential difference
comes to the same potential.
across V between the point A and B is the potential
According to Coulomb’s law,
difference across each capacitor.
Potential charge
+Q –Q +Q –Q +Q –Q
1 A C1 C2 C3 B
or V q or V =
q
C
V1 V2 V3
Where C is a constant called capacitance of the
conductors. V
q The charge on each plate has same magnitude Q. A
q = CV or C =
V single equivalent capacitor that can be placed between
points A and B to maintain same potential difference would
Capacitance of a Spherical Conductor
have capacitance Ceq where,
When a charge q is given to a spherical conductor of radius
Q = Ceq. V
R, the potential on its is
+ +
+ V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 ...(i)
+
+
+
Q = C1V 1 = C2V 2 = C3V 3 = C4V 4.
+
+ + + +
+ + + +
So we substitute for V1, V2, V3 and V 4 and V into
equation (i), we get
R
+
Q Q Q Q Q
+
=
+
+ + + C eq . C1 C 2 C3 C 4
+ +
1 q
V=
4 0 R
11
1 1 1 1 1 +q –q
=
C eq . C1 C 2 C 3 C 4 + –
+ –
The equivalent capacitance Ceq. is smaller than the + –
smallest contributing capacitance. + Air –
Parallel Combination of Capacitors: Consider a + –
collection of three capacitors in parallel as shown in the
figure.
Q Q Q d
C1 = 1 , C 2 2 , C 3 3 B A
V V V
+Q 1 –Q 1
q 0 A
C1 C=
V d
If instead of air some other insulator of dielectric
+Q 2 –Q 2
A C2 B constant K is inserted between the plates then the
capacitance becomes K times that of air.
+Q 3 –Q 3 i.e., Cmedium = KCair
C3
Charges are not stored by a parallel plate capacitor but
V
only the electric energy is stored in the form of potential
The magnitude of charge on each plate of the
energy. The total charge in a capacitor is zero.
equivalent capacitor must be
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4 ENERGY STORED IN CAPACITOR
Ceq.V = C1V + C2V + C3V + C4V
Work has to be done in charging a conductor against the
Ceq. = C1 + C2 + C3+ C4 force of repulsion by already existing charge on it. The
The equivalent capacitance is the sum of the individual work is stored as potential energy in the electric field of the
capacitances. conductor. Let a conductor of capacity C is charged to a
potential V and let q be the charge on the conductor at this
CAPACITANCE OF PARALLEL instant.
PLATE CAPACITOR Hence, stored potential energy,
Let, A = Area of each plate, d = separation between plates, 1 1 q2 1
U = CV 2 qV
then its capacitance, 2 2 C 2
EXERCISE
1. n small drops of the same size are charged to V volt A. 80 units B. 100 units
each. If they coalesce to form a single large drop, C. 120 units D. 150 units
then its potential will be 4. An electric cell does 5 joule of work in carrying 10
V coulomb charge around the closed circuit. The
A. B. Vn electromotive force of the cell is
n
C. Vn 1/3 D. Vn 2/3 1
A. 2 volt B. volt
2. Two conducting spheres of radii r1 and r2 are equally 2
charged. The ratio of their potentials is C. 4 volt D. 1 volt
5. A tin nucleus has charge + 50 e. If the proton is at
r12 r22 10–12 m from the nucleus, then the potential at this
A. B.
r22 r12 position is (charge on proton is 1.6 × 10–19 C)
r1 r2 A. 14.4 × 104 V B. 7.2 × 104 V
C. r D. r C. 7.2 × 10 V8 D. 14.4 × 108 V
2 1
6. The electric potential at the surface of an atomic
3. If the electric field is given by 6iˆ 3 ˆj 4 kˆ, determine nucleus (Z = 50) of radius 9.0 × 10–15 m is
the electric flux through a surface of area 20 units A. 80 volt B. 8 × 106 volt
lying in yz plane. C. 9 volt D. 9 × 105 volt
12
7. A proton has a mass of 1.67 × 10–27 kg and charge 16. The radius of a charged metal sphere R is 10 cm and
1.6 × 10–19 C. If the proton be accelerated through a its potential is 300 V. Find the charge density on the
potential difference of one million volts, then the KE surface of the sphere.
is: A. 2 × 10–3 cgs esu B. 4 × 10–3 cgs esu
A. 1.6 × 10–15 J B. 1.6 × 10–13 J –3
C. 6 × 10 cgs esu D. 8 × 10–3 cgs esu
C. 1.6 × 10 J–25 D. 3.2 × 10–13 J 17. If a glass rod is rubbed with silk, it acquires a positive
8. Electrons are caused to fall through a potential charge because
difference of 1500 volt. If they were initially at rest, A. protons are added to it
their final speed is: B. protons are removed from it
A. 4.6 × 107 ms–1 B. 2.3 × 107 ms–1 C. electrons are added to it
2
C. 0.23 × 10 ms –1 D. 5.1 × 1.9 ms–1 D. electrons are removed from it
9. If the force exerted by a small spherical charged object 18. What is the area of the plates of a 2F parallel capacitor,
on another charged object at 8.00 cm is 2.0 N. What given that the separation between the plates is 0.5
will be the force exerted when the second object is cm?
moved to 4.0 cm? A. 0.53 × 108 m 2 B. 1.01 × 108 m 2
C. 2.13 × 10 m8 2 D. 1.13 × 109 m 2
A. 4 N B. 8 N
C. 16 N D. 2 N 19. The following figure shows contours of potential
10. In bringing an electron towards another electron, the distribution. At which point out of P, Q and R is the
electrostatic potential energy of system: electric field strength is minimum?
A. Increases B. Decreases
C. Becomes zero D. Remains unchanged
11. A spherical droplet having a potential of 2.5 V is
obtained as a result of merging of 125 identical P Q R
droplets. Find the potential of constituent droplet.
A. 0.4 V B. 0.5 V
C. 0.2 V D. 0.1 V 10 V 20 V 30 V 40 V
A. P B. Q
12. A hollow metallic sphere of radius 12 cm has been
C. R D. cannot be determined
given a charge 8 × 10 –7 coulomb. The electric
potential at a point 9 cm from the centre of the sphere 20. Two metal balls of radii 5 cm and 4 cm are charged
is to the same potential, the surface densities of charge
8 10 7 8 10 7 on the two spheres are in the ratio
A. 9 10 9 V B. 9 10 9 V A. 4 : 5 B. 5 : 4
0.09 (0.09) 2
C. 16 : 25 D. 25 : 16
8 10 7 21. If an electron has an initial velocity in a direction
C. 9 10 9 V D. zero
0.12 different from that of an electric field, the path of the
13. The insulation property of air breaks down at intensity electron is
of electric field 3 × 106 V/m. The maximum charge A. a straight line B. a circle
that can be given to a sphere of diameter 5 m is C. an ellipse D. a parabola
A. 2 × 10–2 C B. 2 × 10–3 C 22. To move a unit positive charge from one point to
C. 2 × 10 C–4 D. 2 × 10–5 C another on an equipotential surface
14. 1 g of solid, there are 5 × 1021 atoms. If one electron A. work is done by the charge
is removed from every one atom of the solid, the B. work is done on the charge
charge gained by the solid in 1 mg is C. no work is done
A. 0.08 C B. 0.8 C D. work done is a constant
C. –0.08 C D. –0.8 C 23. As one penetrates a uniformly charged conducting
15. The potential difference between two points if 2J of sphere, the electric field strength E
work must be done to move a 4 mC charge from one A. increases
point to another is B. decreases
A. 50 V B. 500 V C. remains the same as at the surface
C. 5 V D. 5000 V D. is zero at all points
13
24. The surface density on a solid steel sphere of radius 32. Four charges are arranged P Q
at the corners of squares –q +iq
r is . What is the electric field strength on its surface?
PQRS, as shown in fig. The
A. k B. force on the positive
0 r 0
charge kept at centre O is
2 A. along the diagonal QS
C. D. –iq +q
0 r 0 B. along the diagonal PR S R
25. Two free protons are kept at a distance of 1Å. and C. perpendicular to side
released, then the K.E. of each proton when at infinite PQ
separation is D. Zero
A. 5.6 × 10–12 joule B. 11.5 × 10–19 joule 33. On moving a charge 20 C by 2 cm, 2J of work is
C. 23 × 10 –19 joule D. 46 × 10–19 joule done, then the potential difference between the points
is
26. A system has two charges q A = 2.5 × 10 –7C and
A. 0.3 V B. 0.1 V
qB = –2.5 × 10–7 C are located at a points A (0, 0,
C. 0.8 V D. 0.4 V
–15 cm) and B (0, 0, + 15 cm) respectively. The
electric dipole moment of the system is 34. If the force between the electron in the first Bohr orbit
A. 7.5 × 10–8 cm B. 3.5 × 10–7 cm and the nucleus (proton) in hydrogen atom is F, then
–8 the force between them, when the electron is in the
C. 1.5 × 10 cm D. 0.15 × 10–8 cm
second orbit is
27. An oil drop of 12 excess electrons is held stationary
under a constant electric field of 2.55 × 104 NC–1 in F F
A. B.
millikan’s oil drop experiment. The density of oil is 12 16
1.26 gcm –3. Find the radius of the drop F F
(Given g = 9.8 m/sec2, e = 1.6 × 10–19 C) C. D.
2 4
A. 3.57 × 10–7 m B. 9.81 × 10–7 m
–7 35. Two charges q and –3q are placed fixed on X-axis
C. 1.81 × 10 m D. 0.81 × 10–7 m
separated by distance ‘d’. Where should a third change
28. The potential difference applied on X-ray tube is 5kV zq be placed such that, it will not experience any
and connect through it is 3.2 mA. Then, the number force
of electrons striking the target per second is d
A. 1 × 1016 B. 4 × 1017 A. 1 3 to the left of q
16
2
C. 2 × 10 D. 3 × 1015
B. d 1 3 to the right of q
29. Two equal point charges are fixed at x = –a and
d
x = ±a on the x-axis. Another point charge Q is placed C. 1 3 to the right of q
at the origin. The change in electrical potential energy 4
d
of Q. When it is displaced by a small distance x-along D. 1 3 to the left of q
the x-axis is near proportional to 3
A. x –2 B. x 2 36. Two copper balls each weighing 10 g are kept in air
C. x D. x 1/2 10 cm apart. If one electron from every 10 6 atoms is
30. The ratio of the coulomb forces between two small transferred from one ball to the other ball, the coulomb
sphere carrying constant charge when placed at a force between them is (atomic wt. of copper is 63.5)
given distance (a) in air (b) in a medium of dielectric A. 2 × 106 N B. 2 × 108 N
C. 2 × 10 N7 D. 2 × 109 N
constant k
A. l : k2 B. k : 1 37. Three charges each of magnitude q are placed at the
C. 1 : k D. k2 : 1 corners of an equilateral triangle, the electrostatic
31. Under the influence of the coulomb field of charge force on the charge placed at the centroid is (each
+Q, a charge –q is moving around in it an elliptical side of triangle is L)
orbit. Find out the correct statement (s) 1 q2 1 2q 2
A. The linear momentum of charge –q is constant A. B.
4 0 L2 4 0 L2
B. The angular momentum of charge –q is constant
C. The linear speed of the charge –q is constant 1 2q 2
D. The angular velocity of the charge –q is constant C. D. Zero
6 0 2 L2
14
38. A particle ‘A’ having a charge of 2 × 10–8 C and a 46. The ratio of electrostatic and gravitational force acting
mass of 100 g is fixed at a bottom of smooth inclined between electron and proton separated by a distance
plane of inclination 30°. Where should another 5 × 10–11 m, will be charge one = 1.6 × 10–19 C, mass
particle , having same charge and mass be placed on of electron = 9.1 × 10–31 kg, mass of p+ = 1.6 ×
the inclined so that it remains in equilibrium? 10–27 kg and G = 6.7 × 10–11 Nm 2/kg2
A. 27 cm B. 22 cm A. 1.37 × 1037 B. 1.76 × 1019
C. 26 cm D. 31 cm C. 2.98 × 10 22 D. 3.54 × 1016
39. Two identical conductors of Cu and Al are placed in 47. Four point charges –Q, –q, 2q and 2Q are placed, one
an identical electric field. The magnitude of induced of the each corner of square. The relation between Q
charge in the Al will be and q for which the potential at the centre of the
A. equal to Cu B. zero square is zero is
C. less than Cu D. greater than Cu
1 1
40. Two identical particles each of mass 10 g and carrying A. B.
a charge 2.0 × 10–4 C each are kept at a seperation of q q
10 cm and then released. What would be the speed C. q D. –q
of the particles, when separation becomes large? 48. A ball with charge –50 e is placed at the centre of
A. 500 m/s B. 300 m/s hollow spherical shell which carries a net charge of
C. 600 m/s D. 400 m/s –50 e. The charge on the shell in outer surface is
41. Two identical charges repel each other with a force A. –100 e B. –50 e
equal to 10 mg wt, when they are 0.6 m apart in air, C. +100 e D. 0
g = 10 m/sec2. The value of each charge is
49. A ring of radius r carries a charge Q uniformly
A. 3 µC B. 5 µC
distributed over its length. A charge q is placed at its
C. 2 µC D. 6 µC
centre will experience a force equal to
42. If a body gives out 109 electrons every second, how qQ
much time is required to get the total charge of 1 C A. 0 B.
4 0 r 2
from it?
A. 132.32 years B. 198.18 years 2 qQ qQ
C. D.
C. 215.05 years D. 98.34 years 3 0 r 2
6 0 r 2
43. Two point charges placed at a certain distance r in air 50. An infinite number of charge, each of charge 1µC are
exert a force F on each other. Then the distance r at placed on X-axis with co-ordinates x = 1, 2, ..... If
which these charges will exert the same force in a a charge of 1C is kept at the origin, then the net force
medium of dielectric constant k is given by acting on 1C charge is
r
A. r k B. A. 1 × 104 N B. 3.5 × 104 N
k 4
C. 1.2 × 10 N D. 4.0 × 104 N
r 51. A polythene piece rubbed with wool is formed to
C. r D.
k have a negative charge of –3 × 10–7 C. The number
44. Two particles of equal mass m and charge q are palced of electrons transferred from the wool to polythene is
at a distance of 16 cm. They do not experience any A. 1.8 × 1012 B. 1.9 × 1015
q C. 1.5 × 1013 D. 1.8 × 1010
force. The value of is
m 52. A copper ball 1 cm in diameter is immersed in oil
A. 4 0 G B. 2 0 G with a density 800 kgm –3. What is the charge of ball,
if the ball moves downwards with constant speed
C. 3 0 G D. 5 0 G with homogeneous electric field it is applied in oil?
45. Equal charges q are placed at each of A, B, C, and D The electric field is directed vertically upward and its
of a square of side length ‘a’. The magnitude of force intensity E = 36000 V/m and density of Cu = 8600
on the charge at B will be kgm –3.
A. 3.6 × 10–6C B. 3.2 × 10–7C
1 2 2 q2 1 q2 C. 2.1 × 10 C–9 D. 1.1 × 10–8C
A. B. 1
2 4 a2 2 4 0 a2
0 53. Two point charges repel each other with a force 100 N.
q 2
q 2 One of the charges increased by 10% and other is
C. 1 2 2
D. 2 2 reduced by 10%. The new force of repulsion at the
4 0 a 4 0 a2 same distance would be
15
A. 101 N B. 100 N K 2
C. 99 N D. 110 N A. zero B.
0 g
54. The two charges identical metal spheres A and B
2 2 (K 1)
repel each other with a force 3 × 10 –5N. Another C. K g D.
identical uncharged sphere C is touched with A and 0 K 0 g
then placed at the mid point A and B, Net force on 59. A capacitor of capacitance 1F withstands a maximum
C is voltage of 6 kV, w hile another capacitor of
A. 3 × 10–5 N B. 1 × 10–5 N capacitance 2 F, the maximum voltage 4 kV. If they
C. 2 × 10 N–5 D. 11.5 × 10–5 N are connected in series, the combination can with
55. Two point charges +3 µC and +8 µC repel each other stand a maximum of
with a force of 40 N. If a charge of –5 µC is added to A. 6 kV B. 4 kV
each of them, then the force between them will become C. 10 kV D. 9 kV
A. 20 N B. 15 N
60. The capacity of a parallel plate air capacitor is 10 F
C. 18 N D. 10 N
and is given a charge of 40 C. The electrical energy
56. A parallel plate capacitor is connected to a battery. stored in the capacitor (in erg) is
The plates are pulled apart with uniform speed. If x A. 500 B. 800
is the separation between the plates then rate of C. 900 D. 200
change of electrostatic energy of the capacitor is
61. An air capacitor is given a charge of 2 C raising its
proportional to
potential to 200 V. If on inserting a dieletric medium,
A. x 2 B. x
its potential falls to 50 V, what is the dielectric
1 1 constant of the medium?
C. D.
x x2 A. 1 B. 2
57. The charge on C1 capacitor and potential difference C. 3 D. 4
across points A and B is 62. An electric dipole is formed by + 6 C and –6 C
+ – 10 V charges at 5 mm distance. The dipole moment is
A. 2 × 10–7C m B. 3 × 10–8C m
–6
C. 2.5 × 10 C m D. 4 × 10–7C m
C2 = 4F
C1
63. An electric dipole of dipole moment 4 × 10–5C m is
A B
placed in a uniform electric field of 10–3 NC–1 making
5 F
an angle of 30° from the direction of electric field.
C3 = 6F Then, the torque exerted by the electric field on the
50 33 10 100 dipole is
A. C, V B. C, V A. 1.5 × 10–7 Nm B. 0.5 × 10–8 Nm
6 9 3 3
C. 2 × 10–8 Nm D. 2.8 × 10–7 Nm
C. 50C, 5V D. 0, 0
64. The electric potential at 0.1 m from a point charge is
58. A parallel plate capacitor of plate area A and
50 V. What is the magnitude of the charge?
separation between the plates d, is submerged into a
non-conducting liquid of dielectric constant K, and 5 9 1 8
A. 10 C B. 10 C
density . If the capacitor plates get charges of charge 9 3
density , then for the idealized situation shown in 3 7 5 8
C. 10 C D. 10 C
figure, the height h of the level of liquid that rises in 7 9
the capacitor is: 65. A box encloses an electrical dipole consisting of
charge 5 C and –5 C and of length 10 cm. What
is the total electric flux through the box?
+ A. 0 B.
C. 10 D. 100
d
66. The electric flux through each face of a hollow cube
h of side 10 cm, if a charge of 8.854 C is placed at its
centre is
–
A. 2.13 × 105 Nm 2C–1 B. 1.67 × 105 Nm 2C–1
C. 0.13 × 106 Nm 2C–1 D. 3.05 × 104 Nm 2C–1
16
67. A capacitor charged from a 50 V dc supply is found
to have a charge of 10 C. What is energy stored in
a capacitor? E E
A. 1.2 × 10–4 J B. 2.0 × 10–3 J C. D.
–4
C. 2.5 × 10 J D. 4.0 × 10–3 J
68. The potential at a point 0.1 m from an isolated point R r Rr
charge is +100 V. What is the nature and magnitude
70. A uniformly charged this spherical shell of radius R
of the point charge?
carries uniform surface charge density of per unit
A. 1.11 × 10–9C (Positive)
area. It is made of two hemispherical shells, held
B. 2.11 × 10–9C (Negative)
C. 0.14 × 10–8C (Negative) together by pressing them with force (in fig.), F is
D. 2.51 × 10–9C (Positive) proportional to
69. In a uniformly charged sphere of total charge Q and
radius R, the electric field E is plotted as a function
of distance from the centre. The graph which would F F
correspond will be
E 1 1 2 2
E
A. R B. R
A. B. 0 0
1 1 2
C. R 2 D. 2
R R r 0 0 R
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D D C B B B B B B A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
D C B B B D D D B A
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
D C D B B A B C B B
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
B A B B A B D A A C
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
C B B A A B D A A C
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
A D C A D D A D D B
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
D B C A A B C A C B
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
4 4 q
1. As, n r 3 = R 3 , R = n1/ 3 r 2. As, V1 =
3 3 4 0 r1
q
V= ; q
4 0 r and V2 =
nq nq 4 0 r2
V = V1
40 R 40 n1/ 3r r
= 2
V2 r1
V = n2/3 V
17
11. We have, V.n2/3 = 2.5
3. Given, E = 6iˆ 3 ˆj 4 k̂
or, V.(125)2/3 = 2.5
The area vector denoted the surface of area 20 units
or, 25V = 2.5, or V = 0.1 V
is yz plane.
12. We have, Vinside = Von
S = 20 iˆ
1 q 8 10 7
Electric flux, = E . S = = 9 × 109 × V
4 0 r 0.12
= 6iˆ 3 ˆj 4 kˆ .20 iˆ
13. As, E=
Q
= 120 units. 4 0 R 2
4. We have, W = QV Q 9 10 9 Q
3 × 106 = = 2
1 4 0 R 2 5
5 = 10 × V V = volt
2 2
25 3 10 6
1 Q Q= = 2 × 10–3 C
5. Potential = 4 9 10 9
4 0 r
14. As, Q = ne = 5 × 1021 × 1.6 × 10–19 × 10–3C = 0.8 C
9 10 9 50 1.6 10 19 15. As, dW = qdV
= V
10 12 2 = 4 × 10–3dV
= 7.2 × 104 V 2
dV = 10 3 500 V
4
Q
6. As, V= 16. We have, 300 V = 1 stat volt
4 0 r
Q Q
Ze = =1 { K = 1 in CGS esu}
= R 10
4 0 r Q = 10 stat coulomb
Q 10
As, =
9 10 9 50 1.6 10 19 4 R 2
4 (10)2
= V
9 10 15 1
= 8 × 10–3 c.g.s. esu.
= 8 × 106 V 40
1 2 17. When electrons are removed from metal plate, it
7. As, KE = mv = eV becomes deficit of electrons and hence positively
2
charged Q must be negative.
= 1.6 × 10–19 × 106
= 1.6 × 10–13 J. 18. Given, C = 2F, d = 0.5 cm = 0.5 × 10–2 m
0 A
1 2 As, C=
8. Use eV = mv d
2
Cd 2 0.5 10 2
or A= =
2eV 0 8.854 10 12
v=
m = 1.13 × 109 m 2
19. The electric field lines are perpendicular to
2 1.6 10 19 1500 equipotential surfaces. Hence, one of them will be
= m/s
9 10 31 somewhat as shown by dotted line. Further,
= 2.3 × 107 ms–1.
9. Distance changes from 8 cm to 4 cm, i.e., distance is
halved force becomes 4 times, hence new force is A B C D
8 N. P R
Q
10. Work has to be done agaist the force as repulsion in
bringing an electron towards another electron. This
increases the electrostatic potential energy of system. 10 V 20 V 30 V 40 V
2731 (Physics)—3
18
dV Electric dipole moment
E= P = Charge × AB
dr
10 = 2.5 × 10–7 × (30 × 10–2) = 7.5 × 10–8 m.
EP =
AB 27. Given, n = 12, E = 2.55 × 1014 V/m
10 = 1.26 gcm –3 = 1.26 × 103 kg/m 3
EQ =
BC As the drop is stationary
10 Weight of droplet = force due to electric field
ER =
CD 4
As BC > AB as well as CD, = Ene
3r 3g
EQ is minimum.
3 E ne 3 2.55 10 4 12 1.6 10 19
q1 q q1 5 r3 = =
20. As, = 2 = 4g 4 3.14 1.26 10 3 9.8
5 4 q2 4
r = 9.8 × 10–7 m.
1 q1 q2
= q ne i t 3.2 10 3
2 4 (5)2 4 (4)2 28. As, i = n= = 2 × 1016.
t t e 1.6 10 19
q1 42 5 42 4 16
= 2 2 = Q
q2 5 4 5 5 25 29. q q initial position
x = –a x = +a
21. Uniform motion in one direction and uniformly
Q
accelerated motion at right angles to it gives a q q
parabola. x = –a x x = +a
22. dW = qdV Final position x = –a
V = constant, dV = 0 2Qq
PE at Q, Ui = ...(i)
dW = 0 4 0 a
23. Electric intensity at a point distant d from a dipole is Final PE of Q is
inversely proportional to the cube of the distance. Qq 1 1
Uf =
kQ 1 4 r 2
4 0 a x a x
24. As, E = = =
r2 4 0 r2 0 Qq a x a x
=
25. P.E. of protons at 1Å = K.E. of 2 protons at . 4 0 a 2 x 2
(e)(e) 2Qqa
= (K.E. of each proton) × 2 Uf = ...(ii)
4 0 r 4 0 (a2 x 2 )
9 10 9 (1.6 10 19 ) 2 2Qq a 1
K.E. of each proton = Now, U = Uf – Ui =
2 1 10 10 4 0 a 2 x 2 a
= 11.5 × 10–19 joule.
2Qq a 2 a 2 x 2
26. Two charges q A and q B are located at point =
4 0 a( a 2 x 2 )
A(0, 0, –15) and (0, 0, 15) on z-axis shown in Fig.
z 2Qq x2
= ,
4 0 a(a x 2 )
2
B (0, 0, 15)
2Qqx 2
–qB U =
4 0 a3
x
U x 2
+qA q1 q2
y 30. Given, Fa = ...(i)
A (0, 0, –15) 4 0 r 2
q1q2
q = qA + qB Fb = ...(ii)
= 2.5 × 10–7 – 2.5 × 10–7 cm = 0 k 4 0 r 2
= AB = 15 + 15 = 30 cm = 30 × 10–2 m From (i) & (ii), we get Fa : Fb = k : 1
2731 (Physics)—3-II
19
31. A torque about Q of charge –q is zero, then angular Q = 9.48 × 1016 × 1.6 × 10–19 = 0.015C
momentum of charge –q is constant but distance Force of attraction between the two balls
between charges is changing, so force is changing.
(0.015) 2
Therefore, the velocity and speed are also changing. F = 9 × 109 × 2 108 N.
(0.1) 2
32. There is positive charge at O. The resultant force due
to the charges placed at P and Q is zero and resultant 37. From the figure, we see F FB FC and are
force due charge at Q and S is towards S along the
equally inclined with each other. Thus, the resultant
diagonal QS.
force will be zero.
33. The potential difference between two points in an
Aq
W
electric field is VA – VB =
q0
Where, W is work done by moving charge q0 from the
FB FC
point A to B.
Given, W = 2J, q0 = 20 C q
B C
VA – VB = = 0.1 V FA
20
38. The forces acting on charge B are shown in fig.
1 q1q2 1 q1q2 Resolving perpendicular and parallel to the inclined
34. As, F= and F1 =
4 0 r12 4 0 r22 plane,
Where, r2 is the radius of 2nd orbit N
Fe B q
rn2 n 2
r2 = 4r1
mg sin 30°
1 q1q2 F
F1 =
4 0 (4r1 )2 16
mg cos 30° 30° q
A
35. On the charge 2q placed at p.
N = mg cos 30° ...(i)
Force due to q is to the left and that due to –3q is to Fe = mg sin 30° ...(ii)
the right From (i) and (ii)
2q 2 6q 2 kq 2 mg
2
= 2 =
4 0 x 4 0 ( d x ) x 2 2
(d + x) = 3x 2
2
Using the given value and solving, we get
2q p q d
–3 q 2kq 2
d x= = 27 cm.
mg
2x2 – 2dx – d2 = 0 39. Since Cu and Al are both metals, equal amount of
d 3d d charge will be induced on them.
x= = (1 3) to left of q.
2 2 2 40. When the separation of particles becomes large, the
entire PE is converted into KE.
10
36. No. of atoms in given mass = 6.02 10 23 q1q2
63.5 1
2 mv 2 =
= 6.48 × 1022 2 4 0 r
e
–
9 10 9 (2 10 4 ) 2
10–2v2 = = 3600
10 1
+A B– 3600
v2 = = 36 × 104
10 10 2
v = 600 m/sec.
Transfer of electrons between balls
9.48 10 22 1 q1q2
= = 9.48 × 1016 41. As, F=
10 6 4 0 r 2
Magnitude of charge gained by each ball. q1 = q2 = q
20
46. Electrostatic force
9 10 9 q 2
(10 × 10–3) × 10 = 1 e2
(0.6)2 9 10 9 (1.6 10 19 )2
Fe = 2 =
q2 = 4 × 10–12 4 0 r (5 10 11 )2
q = 2 × 10–6 C = 2 µC. = 9.22 × 10–8 N
and gravitational force.
42. Given, n = 109 electrons/sec Gme m p
q = ne = 109 × 1.6 × 10–19C FG =
r2
= 1.6 × 10–10C
6.7 10 11 9.1 10 31 1.6 10 27
Since total charge = 1C FG =
(5 10 11 )2
Q 1 = 5.24 × 10–27 N
Time required = s
q 1.6 10 10 Fe 9.22 10 8
= = 1.76 × 1019
= 6.25 × 109s FG 5.24 10 27
47. Consider the side of square b ‘a’, then potential at
6.25 10 9
= year centre O is
3600 24 365
–Q –q
= 198.18 years.
43. F = F
Q1 Q 2 Q1Q 2 O
=
4 0 r 2
4 0 r 2 k
2Q 2q
r
r = k ( Q) k ( q) k (2q) k (2Q)
k V= =0
a a a a
44. Here, when Fa Fe 2 2 2 2
G m2 1 q2 –Q – q + 2q + 2Q = 0 Q + q = 0 Q = –q.
=
(16 10 2 ) 2 4 0 (16 10 2 ) 2 48. From Fig, total charge on outer surface
= –50e – 50e = –100e
q
= 4 0 G ++++++
m ++
++
++
++++++
+++
45. FC
++++++
FD –50e
+++
+q +q F AC
–50e
++
++
A FA ++
B ++++++
Induced charge on inner surface of shell = +50e
Induced charge on outer surface of shell = –50e
D C 49. The electric field at the centre of the circular charged
+q +q
ring of radius R is zero.
kq 2 kq 2 Force = qE = 0
FA = FC = and FD =
a a 2 2 50. The distribution of charges on X-axis shown in fig.
1µc 1µc 1µc 1µc 1µc
2 kq 2 kq2
Fnet = x=1 x=2 x=4 x=8
a2 2a2
Total force acting on 1C charge is given as
kq 2 1 1
= 2 2 F=
a 2 4 0
q2
2 2 1 1 10 6 1 1 10 6 1 10 6 1 1 10 6
= 1
2 = 2
2
2
2
....
4 0 a 2 (1) (2) (4) (8)
21
10 6 1 1 54. There is same charge q on the sphere A and B
= 1 ... 1 q2
4 0 4 16 F= = 3 × 10–5 N
4 0 r 2
1
= 9 × 109 × 10–6 1
Now, on touching the sphere A and C
1 q
4 Final charges on these spheres qA = qC =
c
4 FB FA
= 9 × 109 × 10–6 ×
3 A B
C
4
= 9 10 3 = 1.2 × 104 N. Net force on C, F = FA FB
3
q q q
51. Total charge q = –3 × 10–7 C 1 2 2 1 q
2
Charge on the electron = –1.6 × 10–19C F= 2 2
4 0 r 4 0 r
As, q = ne
2 2
q 3 10 7
or, n= 1 q
e 1.6 10 19 = 2 3 10 5 N
4 0 r
= 1.8 × 1012.
4 3 55. Given F = 40
52. Here, mass of Cu ball, m = r
3 k (3)(8) 24 k
F= 2
...(i)
F B = qE F B = m g / r r2
k (3 5)(8 5)
6 k
F = 2 ...(ii)
r2 r
From equation (i) & (ii), we get
F 6 k r 2 1
= 2
F r 24 k 4
F 40
mg F = = –10 N (attractive)
4 4
The ball is immersed in oil and a uniform electric
field exists in the upwards direction. 1 1 0 AV 2
56. As, U= qV
Here, three forces acts on the ball. 2 2 x
For the equilibrium of Cu ball dU 1 1 dx
2
mg = FE + FB = qE + mg = 0 AV 2
dt 2 x dt
mg
q= 1 1 1
E = 0 AV 2 v 2
2 x
r 3g dU 1
= 1
3 E
dt
2
x
4 (0.5 10 2 )3 (8600 9.8) 800 57. The effective capacitance of the parallel combination
= 1 of C2 and C3 is 10F and that of the entire combination
3×36000 100 8600
= 1.1 × 10–8C. 50
C 1, C 2 , C 3 is F. Thus the charge on the
1 q1 q2 15
53. As, F = equivalent capacitor is
4 0 r 2
110 90 50 100
For the new force q1 q2 q1 q2 Q = CV 10 C
100 100 15 3
99
Thus, new force F is times of F The same charge appears on C1 capacitor,
100
99 Q 100 10 6 10
× 100 = 99 N. Now, VAB = V
100 C AB 3 10 10 6 3
22
58. Surface charge on liquid surface 65. Since, net charge enclosed by the box is zero, electric
1 flux through the box is also zero.
= A 1
K 66. Total electric flux through each face of the cube
The upward force of attraction q 8.854 10 6
1 = = = 10 Nm 2C–1
= E A 1 0 8.854 10 12
K Electric flux through each face of the cube.
with E= 1 1
K 0 = 10 6
6 6
This is balanced by mg = Ahg = 1.67 × 105 Nm 2C–1
2 1 2 q 10
59. Here, C= F 67. As, C= 0.2F
2 1 3 V 50
As, Q = CV 1
Energy stored, U = CV 2
2 2
Q= E
3 1
Q 2
= 0.2 10 6 (50) 2
V1 = E 6 kV 2
C1 3 = 2.5 × 10–4 J
3 1 q
or E< 6 68. As, V= .
2 4 0 r
i.e., E < 9kV
0.1 100
Q 2 (40 10 6 )2 or q = 40rV =
60. As, Energy = 9 10 9
2C 2 10 10 6 = 1.11 × 10–9 (Positive)
40 40 10 12 69. For uniform charge sphere
= J
2 10 10 6 kqr
= 80 × 10–6 × 107 erg E= (r R)
R3
= 800 erg
kq kq
61. The potential between the plates of the capacitor = 3 (r R) = 3 (r R)
R r
decreases by a factor equal to dielectric constant
V 200
k= 4.
V 50
62. Given, q = + 6C = ± 6 × 10–6 C R
2a = 5 mm = 5 × 10–3 m Hence graph is, E
1
r2
Electric dipole moment x r
P = q(2a) = 6 × 10–6 × 5 × 10–3
= 3 × 10–8C m. R r
63. As = P E sin 70. Since equilibrium of hemispherical shell,
= 4 × 10–8 × 10–3 sin 30°
2
= 2 × 10–8 Nm. we have, F= R 2
2 0
1 q
64. As V= 2 2
4 0 r F = 2 R
0
q = 40 Vr
2 R2
1 5 F
= 9
50 0.1 = 10 9 C. 0
9 10 9
_______________
23
CHAPTER
2
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
on them) and constitute current. If there is not net (i.e.,
ELECTRIC CURRENT (I)
external) field acting on these free or conduction electrons,
Electric current is rate of flow of charge. Charge carriers then they do move in irregular random motion, striking
can be electrons, ions, holes (as in semi-conductors), etc. If other electrons/atoms/molecules in the process. Then their
dq be the net charge transported at a section of the conductor speed is given by:
in time dt, then, current,
3kT
dq vrms =
I= m
dt
10+5 m/s.
where q = charge
Here
t = time
vrms = Root mean square velocity
Electric Current Density (J): It is the current flowing
per unit area of cross-section of the conductor. k = Boltzmann constant and
I T = Absolute temperature
J=
A
DRIFT VELOCITY
For irregular shapes of cross-sections,
When some electric field is applied between the ends of a
I = J dA conductor, its free electrons start drifting in a direction
according to the direction of the applied field, though they
Although I, J and A are all scalar quantities, they can still keep on colliding with their neighbouring fundamental
be so defined as to be represented as vector quantities for particles, Order of the drift speed is only 10–4 m/s.
the limited purpose under consideration.
eV eE
Free Electrons: Valence shell and conduction shell in vd = or
the atoms of conductors, overlap. Thus, the electrons in the ml m
valence shell can also be considered as of conduction where,
shell. Now, the electrostatic-cum-gravitational pull of the vd = Drift speed
nucleus on the electrons is felt only upto the conduction
E = External field applied to the conductor
shell. As soon as an electron comes in the conduction shell
level (which is the shell next and outer to the valence e = Charge on electron
shell), it becomes free of the nucleus pull of any particular V = Potential difference applied between the two
atom. Hence, it becomes free to travel from one atom to ends of the conductor
another within the body of the conductor. It is then called l = Length of the conductor
a free electron. m = Mass of an electron
In almost all cases, these free electrons flow from one The electric current (I) will be:
direction to another (because of some electric field acting I = neAv d
23
24
where, (iv) Ohm’s law is not followed under following
A = Area of cross-section conditions:
n = No. of electrons per unit volume 1. At very high temperatures
2. At very low temperatures
Distribution of Electrons as per their Velocities 3. At very high potential differences
(v) V-I Curves
Nv I I
–V V –V V
O v
–I –I
where,
v = velocity For Semi-conductors For Diode Junction
Nv = No. of electrons, having a particular velocity V.
I
OHM’S LAW
It states that the physical conditions (temperature) –V O V
mechanical strain etc. remain same, then current (I) flowing –I
through the conductor is proportional to the potential
difference (V) applied between its ends.”
For Thyrister
I V
V
or = a constant, R
I I
The constant ‘R’ is called the resistance of the
1 O V
conductor. It’s reciprocal is called Conductance (G).
R
From the Ohm’s law the variation of potential difference
(V) and current (I) through a conductor is straight line.
For Vacuum Tube
I
A
I
O V
Validity of OHM’s Law
For Semi-conductor Diode
(i) Ohm’s Law is not a universal law.
(ii) Ohm’s Law is followed by ohmic conductors (metals) ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
only under normal working conditions.
It is defined as the ratio of the potential difference applied
(iii) The following materials/devices do not follow Ohm’s across the conductor to the current through it.
Law
V
1. Vacuum Tubes i.e., R=
I
2. Crystal Rectifiers The SI unit of electrical resistance is ohm. It is denoted
3. Thermisters, Thyristors by .
4. Transistors 1 volt
1 (ohm) = = 1VA–1
5. Super-conductors 1 amp
25
The electrical resistance of a conductor is said to be Non-ohmic Conductors: The conductors which do not
1 , if 1 A of current flows through it, when a p.d. of 1V obey Ohm’s law are called non-ohmic conductors. The
is applied across it. resistance such conductors is not constant even at a given
temperature, rather it is current dependent. It may be
RESISTANCE OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS following types.
These are classified into three parts. (i) The straight line V-I graph does not pass through the
1. Conductor: The materials which conductor electric origin.
current fairly well are called conductors. Metals are good (ii) V-I relationship is non-linear.
conductors. They have low resistivities in the range of
(iii) V-I relationship depends upon the sigh of V for same
10–8 to 10–6 . Copper (Cu) and aluminium (Al) have
absolute value of V.
lowest resistivities while nicrome has a resistivity of about
60 times that of copper. (iv) V-I relationship is non-unique.
2. Insulators: The materials which do not conduct V Non-ohmic
electric current are called insulators. They have high behaviour
resistivity more than 104 m. Insulators like glass, mica,
bakelite and hard rubber have very high resistivities in the
range of 104 m to 106 m. I
3. Semiconductor: Those materials whose resistivities Non-Ohmic conductor
lies between conductors and insulators i.e., between
10 –6 m to 10 4 m. Germanium and silicon are The V-I characteristics of non ohmic conductor is given
semiconductors. alongside.
V-I CHARACTERISTIC OF OHMIC AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND POWER
NON-OHMIC CONDUCTORS Electrical Energy: Electrical energy is the total work done
by an electric current in a given time. It is equal to the total
Ohmic Conductors: The conductors which obeys Ohm’s energy consumed in an electric current in a given time. The
law are called Ohmic conductors. For these conductors, the SI unit of electrical energy is joule (J). The commercial unit
linear relationship between voltage and current (V I) of electrical energy is kilowatt-hour (kWh) or Board of
V Trade Unit (BTU).
holds good. The resistance R = is independent of the
I One kilowatt-hour is the amount of electrical energy
current I through conductor. The V – characteristics graph consumed, when an electrical appliances having a power
for VI ohmic conductors is a straight line passing the rating of 1 kW is used for 1 hours.
origin. The metallic conductor of small currents and 1 kWh = 1 kilowatt × hours
electrolyte like CuSO 4 solution with copper electrodes are = 3.6 × 106 watts
Ohmic conductors.
1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J
I
Pure Electrical Power: The rate at which electrical energy
metal
dissipated into other forms of energy is called electrical
power i.e.,
–V +V
W V2
O P= Vi i 2 R
t R
It’s SI unit is joule/s or watt (W) watt is a small unit,
so some bigger units are used. In domestic or commercial
+I purposes kilowatt unit is used
CuSO4 solution
with Cu 1 kW = 1000 W
electrodes In Mechanics, the unit of power is often written in
horse power (HP)
–V +V
O 1 HP = 746 W
If work is done, an equal amount of energy is consumed.
When an electrical appliance consumes electrical energy at
–I the rate of 1 joule/sec, its power is said to be 1 watt.
2731 (Physics)—4
26
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY l2 l2
R2 = = from eq (1)
The resistance of a conductor depends upon the following: r22 l1r12
l2
(i) It is directly proportional to the length of the
conductor l22
i.e., R l ...(i) = ...(3)
r12 l1
(ii) It is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section
Dividing (3) by (2), we get,
of the conductor i.e.,
2
R
l
...(ii)
R2 l22 l2
A R1 = l12 or R2 = R1
l1
Combining (i) & (ii), we get
or as r12 l1 = r22 l2
l
R
A l2 2
r1
l1 = r2
l
R= (where is constant)
A
4
r
where is called electrical resistivity or specific R 2 = 1 R1
resistance. Its SI unit is ohm m (–m) r2
Electrical conductivity: The reciprocal of resistivity If l2 = 2l1, then R2 = 4R1
() is called electrical conductivity.
1 COLOUR CODE FOR RESISTANCES
R = The value of resistances used in electric and electronic
A
circuits vary over a very wide range. Such high resistances
where, are marked on them according to colour code.
R = Resistance (unit: ohm, )
= Resistivity (unit: ohm meter, m) Colour Code for Carbon Resistors
l = Length of the conductor The colour code is used to indicate the resistance value of
A = Area of cross-section of conductor a carbon resistor and its percentage accuracy. The colour
code is given in table.
1 1
G= = Co lo ur Letter as an Figure Multiplier
R old to memory
where, G = Conductance Black B 0 100
[unit mho which is ohm written in reverse order); also Brown B 1 101
siemens, s] Red R 2 102
= Conductivity (unit mho–1 m –1) Orange O 3 103
Yellow Y 4 104
Stretching of a conductor wire and change in its Green G 5 105
resistance Blue B 6 106
Violet V 7 107
If a conductor wire of length l1, radius r1 and resistance R1
Grey G 8 108
is stretched to length l2, then its new resistance R2 can be
White W 9 109
calculated as below:
To read the value of carbon resistance:
As volume remains same, B B R O Y Great Britain Ve r y Good Wife
r12 l1 = r22 l2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
l1 The systems of marking the colour codes:
or r2 = r1 × l ...(1)
A set of coloured coaxial rings or bands is printed on
2
the resistor which reveals the following facts:
l1 1. The first band (A) indicates—the first significant
Now, as R1 = ... (2)
r12 figure.
27
2. The second band (B) indicates— the second If two resistances are parallel, then,
significant figure. R1 R 2
Req =
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 6, 7, 8, 9 R1 R 2
3. The third band (C) indicates—the power of ten with
which the above two significant figures. TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE
i.e., 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109. OF RESISTANCE
4. The fourth band (D) indicates— the tolerance The variation of resistance of a conductor, an alloy, a
variation in per cent of the indicated value. In case, semiconductor or an insulator with increase in temperature
there is no fourth band, then its tolerance value is is not same in the all case.
20%.
D
A
Resistance
B
A B C D
C
Consider the carbon resistance, for which the bands
Temp.
A, B, and C are colours brown, green and orange
respectively and fourth band (D) is silver colour. RT = R0 [1 + (T – T0)]
The corresponding to colours bands A and B, which where,
are brown or green, the fig. are 1 and 5. The RT = Resistance at temperature T
corresponding to third band of orange colour, the R0 = Resistance at temperature T0
multiplier is 10 3. Therefore, resistance is of the = Temperature Coefficient of Resistance. (It is a
15 × 103 . Since silver colour of the fourth band constant for a given metal).
corresponds to a tolerance of 10%, the value of = (+) for metals,
given resistance, R = 15 × 103 ± 10%. = (+) but very small for alloys like manganin,
nichrome, constantan, eureka;
SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATION = (–) for semiconductors and insulators.
OF RESISTORS A = For conductors
(i) Resistances in series B = For alloys, e.g., manganin
The such type combination, same current passes C = For semiconductors and electrolytes
through all the resistances. D = Insulators
V This means that when temperature is increased then,
i i i
A B S.No. In case of Resistance Conductivity
R1 R2 R3 1. Metals Increases Decreases
RAB = R1 + R2 + R3 2. Insulators Decreases Increases
slightly slightly
(ii) Resistance in parallel
3. Semi- Decreases Increases
In this type of combination, potential difference across conductors appreciably appreciably
each resistance is the same and is equal to the potential 4. Alloys like Increases but Decreases but
difference between connecting point A and B. constantan, negligibly negligibly
R1 manganin,
eureka etc.
i1 i 5. Super- Increases Decreases
2
Conductors abruptly at abruptly at
i A i3 R2 B i transition or transition or
critical temp. critical temp.
R3
v Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity ()
1 1 1 1 For conductors:
=
R AB R1 R 2 R 3 r = 0 [1 + (T – T0)]
28
For Insulators: E
Eg The internal resistance, r = 1 R.
T = 0 e kT V
where, Cells provide e.m.f. to the circuit. Combination of
Eg = Energy gap between conduction and valance cells is called a battery.
bands EMF (Electromotive Force) of Cell: The potential
difference (P.d.) between the two poles of the cell in an
open circuit. (when no current is drawn from the cell) is
called the emf of the cell.
P
It is concerned with the energy required to move charge
Meals carries around the circuit again and again. It’s definition is
‘energy required to move I unit of charge around the circuit
T
once.’ There are other definitions as well e.g., “potential
difference between the terminals of a cell in open circuit”.
e.m.f. = electromotive force, but emf is not a force.
P
This ‘energy’ to move the charge carriers (generally
Alloys Like Maganin
electrons) is always supplied by some external agency
which converts some other form of energy into electrical
T energy and supplies it to the circuit. For instance, electro-
chemical cells (the ordinary cells), photo cells, generators,
dynamos etc.
P
Simplest Electric Circuit
Super-Conductors R
0 2 4 6 8
T I I
Insulators
+ –
, r
P Carbon, Semiconductors,
Electrolytes
e = emf of the cell
r = Internal resistance of the cell
R = External resistance
T The guiding formula is:
k = Boltzmann constant Total e.m.f. applied to the circuit
T = Absolute temperature Circuit current =
Total resistance of the circuit
Here R and r are connected in series, therefore
ELECTRICAL CELL AND ITS equivalent resistance is (R + r)
INTERNAL RESISTANCE Total emf applied to the circuit =
Electrical Cell: The device which converts chemical energy
Circurt current, I =
into electrical energy is called electric cell. Electric cell is (R r )
a source of constant emf but not constant current. A battery
is one or more cells, connected. This cell is also known as POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE AND
electrochemical cell. Electrical cell has two terminals, which EMF (E) OF A CELL
are made up of metal, one terminal is positive, while other Potential Difference: The voltage across the terminal of a
one is negative. It two terminals are connected to an cell, when it is supplying current to external resistance is
electrical device, electric current flows through it. called potential difference. The potential difference (pd) is
Internal Resistance of a cell (r): When cell is connected equal to the product of current and resistance. i.e. V = iR.
in a circuit, it drives the charge in the circuit. The rate of
flow of charge is termed as current. If the current flows COMBINATION OF CELLS
through the cell, its electrolyte offers resistance to the flow IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL
of current. The resistance offered by the electrolyte of the (i) Cells in Series
cell, if the electric current flows through it, is known as Let n cells each of emf () and internal resistance (r)
internal resistance of the cell. It is denoted by r. are connected in series as shown in Fig.
29
.r It is based on the principle of conservation of electric
n cells charge. It says, “the sum of all the currents entering any
junction point is equal to the sum of all the currents leaving
that point.”
I2
R I1
Total emf = n
Total resistance = nr + R
n
Circuit current, I =
nr R I3
n I5
If R >> r, then I = = n times the current which a
R I4
single cell will give. So, it is good.
Sum of currents entering = I1 + I3
n and Sum of current leaving = I2 + I4 + I5
If R << r then I = = the current which a single
nr r I1 + I3 = I2 + I4 + I5
cell alone can provide. (of no use)
(ii) Cells in parallel Kirchhoff’s Second Law (Loop Law)
Let n cells of emf () and internal resistance (r) are connected It is based on the law of conservation of energy. It states
in parallel as shown in Fig. that, “The algebraic sum of changes in potential around
any closed loop must be zero.”
. r
i.e., IR = 0
Note: IR is the potential drop across the resistance R
through which current I is flowing.
Important Points in Applying Second Law
Different authors use different methods and conventions.
R
They are all correct but thoroughly confusing in the sense
that they clash with each others notations. Hence, be
Circuit emf = forwarded, use the following method and conventions which
r r nR are most rational and can be applied even mechanically.
Circuit resistance = R =
n n
n Closed Circuit
Circuit current, I = It means, when current flows through the circuit.
r nR
n
If R >> r, then I = Open Circuit
nR R
When no current flows through the circuit.
n
and If R << r, then I = = n times the current which can Kirchhoff’s rules apply only to closed circuits.
r
be provided by a single cell. Therefore, How to apply 2nd rule?
* Series combination is used, when R (external (i) Assume any direction of flow of current in the closed
resistance) is much greater than r or nr (total internal loop.
resistance).
(ii) Now travel along this loop once completely, i.e.,
* Parallel combination is used, when r (internal start from any point of the loop and come back
resistance) is much greater than R (external there, either moving in clock-wise or in anti-
resistance). clockwise direction as per your desire.
(iii) Sign Convention For ‘IR’ Products
KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS AND
THEIR APPLICATIONS When you are crossing over some resistance (R)
through which you have assumed that some current
Kirchhoff’s First Law (Junction Law) (I) is flowing, then if your direction of traverse (i.e.,
The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a junction in travel) is same as the assumed direction of flow of
a closed circuit is zero. i.e., i = 0 current, then this ‘IR’ is (–), otherwise (+).
30
This must be applied to all the internal resistances Charging and Discharging Cells
of cells and armature resistances of motors also in (i) When a cell is supplying current to the circuit, we
the same way. say that it is being discharged because its chemical
(iv) Sign Convention of energy is being used up. In this stage, the current
Note: While dealing with the assumed or actual flows through the cell as given below:
direction of flow of current does not matter at all. Only
your direction of travel matters.
+ –
If you are moving from negative terminal to the positive
terminal, then take sign of (emf) of that cell as (+); and A ,r B
vice-versa. Here, PA – PB = – Ir.
All other devices like electric motors should be treated where p stands for the potential.
as ‘emf eating devices’ i.e., having ‘negative emf’ if your
(ii) When a cell is being charged then following happens
direction of travel is same as the assumed direction of flow
of current through that device. Otherwise, (+).
How to calculate this emf of these devices? + –
Motors are generally given with their ‘HP’ (horse-power) or A ,r B
‘wattage’ or ‘kilowattage’ rating.
Note the direction of flow of current.
We know,
Here, PA – PB = + Ir
1 HP = 746 W
and 1 W = 1 volt × 1 amp. Important: Thus, in either case, potential of positive
or wattage = voltage × amperage terminal is higher than the potential of the negative terminal.
Wattage How to use Kirchhoff’s Rules to find out potential
Voltage = difference between two points in any branch of a Circuit.
Amperage
R1
Thus, emf of the motor C
I1
D
R3
[Power of the motor in watts right] R2 H
A B E
=
Its current rating in amperes or current G F
I I2
I
flowing through it in amps + –
Consider all electric motors as equivalent to cells which
,r
are put in the circuit so as to try to obstruct the flow of
current, whose emf = x/I and internal resistance = resistance Suppose R1, R2, R3, and r are given and we want to find
of their armature, where, out p.d. (i.e., potential difference) between any two points
of the circuit.
x = Power of the motor in watts
I = Current through the motor in amps. Let we want to find out p.d. between B and H.
Example: Solution:
If V = potential difference between P and Q. We can solve it any of the following three ways.
1st way: Proceed from B to H in clockwise direction
MOTOR through the branch CD. Then,
P Ia B
a Q PB – I1R1 – IR3 = PH
Ra or PB – PH = I1R1 + IR3 ...(1)
= emf drop 2nd way: Proceed from B to H in clockwise direction
Ra = Armature resistance, then through the branch GF. Then,
Ia (Armature current) = ? PB – I2R2 – IR3 = PH
Applying Kirchhoff’s rule from P to Q: or PB – PH = I2 R2 + IR3 ...(2)
Pp – Ia· Ra – a = PQ 3rd way: Proceed from B to H in anti-clockwise
(Pp – PQ) – a = Ia· Ra direction through the cell. Then,
or V – a = I a · Ra PB – + Ir = PH
V a or PB – PH = – Ir ... (3)
or Ia =
Ra Equations (1), (2) or (3) will give the same result.
31
Applications of Kirchhoff’s Law WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Let us traverse the closed loop starting from A in clockwise
A wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measured
direction. an unknown resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge
R circuit one leg of which includes unknown component.
B
I P Q
+ –
A B A C
G
,r
–IR – Ir + = 0 R S
or = IR + Ir D
+ –
or I= ... (1)
Rr
Now, suppose we want to find out potential difference Principle
V, between A and B, i.e., potential difference between the Wheatstone bridge principle states that the four resistances
terminals of the cell in closed circuit (In open circuit, it
P R
will be, ). P, Q, R and S are connected as shown, are such that ,
Q S
Let P = Potential
then potential drop between A and B is same as between
We can find it out either by going from A to B via R, A and D. Points B and D are at the same potential. Hence,
or via the cell. in these circumstances, no current will pass through the
1st way: galvanometer G.
PA – IR = PB This configuration of resistances is called Wheatstone
or PA – PB = IR P R
Bridge, and in this state when , it is called balanced
i.e., V = IR ... (2)
Q S
Wheatstone Bridge. Thus, if 3 resistance of the 4 : P, Q, R
2nd way:
and S are known, the 4th unknown resistance can be
PA – + Ir = PB calculated from the relation
PA – PB = – Ir
P R
or V = – Ir .
Q S
Accordingly, we can say that: Example:
It total energy supplied by cell = , then of this , IR is used If the bridge is balanced, what will be the change in the
up in the external circuit and Ir within the cell. deflection of the galvanometer needle when the key ‘k’ is
And also, I can be written in the following 3 ways: pressed?
B
I= P Q
Rr
V A C
I= R G
r
D
V + –
I=
R Answer:
Hence, if , V and R are known, the r can be calculated Because the bridge is balanced, points B and D are at the
as below same potential. Therefore, no current will flow between B
V and D on pressing the key. Hence, no re-distribution of
r= from 2nd relation
I currents will take place. Thus, the reading of G will remain
V the same.
r= from 3rd relation
V/R METRE BRIDGE
( V)R A metre bridge is also known as slide wire bridge. It can
or, r=
V be used to measure an unknown resistance to compare the
32
values of two unknown resistance. When bridge is balanced, 2 l2 l
then 2 = 2 1
1 l1 l1
P R + – e
Q X + – RB
X e
R B
D J1 J2
+
Battery
A D C –
l 100 – l1
K
Metre Scale
B
Rh
V K
In order to set the null point on the potentiometer wire,
POTENTIOMETER PRINCIPLE it is necessary that emf. of auxiliary battery must be
greater than both 1 and 2.
AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Internal resistance of a primary cell by potentiometer
The device is used to measure emf of a cell, internal
resistance of a cell and potential difference between any We have, = kl 1 ...(i)
two points of a circuit. and V = kl 2 ...(ii)
Potentiometer is used mainly to compare emfs of two From (i) and (ii), we get
cells. Or, if one of these two emfs is known, to calculate the l
emf of the other cell. = 1
V l2
+ – Now from Ohm’s law, we get
RB
P2 P1
A J B K2 G
1 + –
G
2
AB is a long resistance wire of length l with uniform J
cross-section. If p.d. = is applied across it, then potential +
drop per unit length along AB will be Battery
–
= ... (1)
l
Suppose is to be measured, just slide jockey (J)1 K
along the length AB and find out the balance length AP1,
i.e., if the key of the jockey is pressed on the wire AB at
Rh
P1, there is no deflection in the galvanometer G.
If AP1 = l1, then 1 = l1 ×
l
= I(R + r) and V = IR
1 l1
So will be = l R r l1
2 2 =
V R l2
Applications of Potentiometer
r l r l l
Comparison of emfs of two primary cells: From Fig. we 1 = 1 = 1 2
R l2 R l2
see that, the comparing emfs of two cells are given below.
Let emf of two primary cells are 1 and 2. l l
Internal resistance r = R 1 2 .
We have 1 = kl1 and 2 = kl2 l2
33
EXERCISE
1. The resistance across two opposite faces of a cube of 9. Two resistors of 15 and 30 are connected in
side 2 cm is 2 × 10–6 ohm. The specific resistance of parallel. What should be the value of R to be
its material in ohm cm is connected in series with the other two so that the net
A. 10 –6 B. 2 × 10–6 resistance will be 20
1 A. 5 B. 10
C. 4 × 10–6 D. × 10–6 C. 15 D. 20
2
10. What is the number of equal parts into which a
2. A piece of wire of resistance 4 ohm is bent through
conductor having a resistance R0 = 100 should be
180° at its mid point and the two halves are twisted
cut to obtain the resistance R = 1 , if the parts are
together. Then the resistance is connected in parallel
A. 8 ohm B. 1 ohm A. 5 B. 10
C. 2 ohm D. 5 ohm C. 20 D. 2
3. The current flowing through a wire depends on time 11. When a resistor of 4 is connected across a cell the
as I = 3t2 + 2t + 5. The charge flowing through the potential difference across the resistor in 8V, but this
cross-section of wire in time from t = 0 to t = 2 second falls to 6V when a second 4 resistor is connected
is in parallel with the first. Calculate the e.m.f. and
A. 12 C B. 15 C internal resistance of the cell.
C. 20 C D. 22 C A. 6V, 4 B. 12V, 4
C. 12V, 2 D. 6V, 2
4. The internal resistance of a cell of e.m.f. 2.0 volts is
0.1 . It is connected to a resistance of 3.9 . The 12. Two conductors when connected in series give 27
voltage across the cell will be (in volts) and in parallel 6 . The two resistance are
A. 0.5 B. 1.9 A. 21 , 6 B. 9 ,18
C. 1.95 D. 2.0 C. 24 , 3 D. 15 , 12
5. When a piece of aluminium wire of finite length is 13. A metal wire is subjected to a constant potential
drawn through a series of dyes to reduce its diameter difference. When the temperature of the metal wire
increases, the drift velocity of the electrons is
to half its original value, its resistance will become
A. Increases, thermal velocity of the electrons increases
A. two times B. four times
B. Decreases, thermal velocity of the electrons increases
C. eight times D. sixteen times
C. Increases, thermal velocity of the electrons decreases
6. The resistance of 20 cm long wire is 5 . The wire is D. Decreases, thermal velocity of the electrons decreases
stretched to a uniform wire of 40 cm length. The 14. A primary cell has e.m.f. 2 volt. When short circuited
resistance now will be (in ohms) it gives a current of 4 amp. What is its terminal p.d.?
A. 5 B. 10 A. 0 B.
C. 20 D. 200 C. 2V D. 5V
7. The e.m.f. of a source which is equivalent to two 15. A primary cell has an e.m.f. of 1.5 volt. When short
batteries connected in parallel, whose e.m.f.’s are equal circuited it gives a current of 3 ampere. The internal
to 8V and 6V having internal resistance of 1.4 and resistance of the cell is
0.6 respectively. A. 4.5 ohm B. 2 ohm
A. 7 volt B. 14 volt C. 0.5 ohm D. 1/4.5 ohm
C. 6.6 volt D. 2 volt. 16. Four wires of equal length and of resistance 10
8. In the figure below the effective resistance of the each are connected in the form of a square. The
network is equivalent resistance between two opposite corners
R R R of the square is
A. 10 B. 40
R C. 20 D. 10/4
R R R 17. Three 2 ohm resistors are connected to form a triangle.
The resistance between any two corners is
A. 2R B. 4R A. 6 B. 2
C. 10R D. 5R/2 C. 3/4 D. 4/3
2731 (Physics)—5
34
18. A piece of wire is cut into four equal parts and the power delivered to the resistor is maximum if R is
pieces are bundled together side by side to form a equal to
thick wire. Compared with that of original wire, the A. r/2 B. r
resistance of the bundle is C. 2 r D. 0
A. The same B. 1/4 24. A current of 4.8 ampere is flowing in a conductor.
C. 1/8 D. 1/16 The number of electrons flowing per second through
19. Five resistance have been connected as shown in the the conductor will be
circuit diagram. The equivalent resistance between A. 3 × 1019 electrons per sec
the points X and Y will be equal to B. 76.8 × 1020 electrons per sec
10
C. 7.68 × 1020 electrons per sec
D. 3 × 1020 electrons per sec
10 25. In the following network of resistance, the effective
X Y
10 20 resistance between A and B is
10 R R
A. 10 B. 20 R
C. 22 D. 50 A R B
20. The current I in the given circuit is R R
R R
5 5
2V I
A. 5/3 R B. 8/3 R
C. 5 R D. 8 R
5
A. 1/45 amp B. 1/15 amp 26. If 2% of the main current is to be passed through the
C. 1/10 amp D. 3/5 amp galvanometer of resistance G, the resistance of shunt
required is
21. Determine the resistance R measured with a A. G/49 B. 49 G
Wheatstone bridge as show n in figure, if at C. G/50 D. 50 G
R1 = 1.5 , l1 = 20 cm, l2 = 80 cm there is no current
through the galvanometer 27. The resistance between points x and y of the following
circuit shown
7.5
X
R1 R
G 5 7.5
5
7.5 5
l1 l2 Y
7.5
A. 3 B. 6
10
C. 9 D. 12 A. B. 7
3
22. Three 10 , 2W resistors are connected as in figure.
25 50
Find the maximum possible voltage between points C. D.
a and b without exceeding the power dissipation 3 3
limits of any of the resistors. 28. In the figure, when an ideal voltameter is connected
R across 4000 ohm resistance, it reads 30 volt. If the
voltmeter is connected across 3000 ohms resistance,
R it will read
a b Evolt
+ – r
R
4000 3000
A. 5 3 V B. 3 5 V
C. 15 V D. 5/3 V G
23. Two cells each of e.m.f. E and internal resistance r, A. 20 volt B. 22.5 volt
are connected in parallel across a resistor R. The C. 35 volt D. 40 volt
2731 (Physics)—5-II
35
29. When the current (i) is flowing through conductor, 38. The resistance of wire uniform diameter d and length
the drift velocity is v. If 2i current is flowed through L is R. The resistance of another wire of the same
the same metal but having double the area of cross material but diameter 2d and length 4L will be
section, then the drift velocity will be
R R
A. v B. 2v A. B.
v 4 2
C. D. 3v C. R D. 2R
2
30. Every atom makes one free electron in Cu. If 1.1 A 39. A metal wire of specific resistance of 64 × 10–6 m,
current is flowing in the wire of Cu having 1 mm and length 198 cm has a resistance of 7, then, the
diameter, then the drift velocity will be (density of radius of the wire will be
Cu = 9 × 103 kg/m 3 and atomic weight = 63) A. 0.024 cm B. 0.011 cm
A. 0.2 mm/sec B. 0.1 mm/sec C. 0.033 cm D. 0.02 cm
C. 0.3 mm/sec D. 0.4 mm/sec 40. The emf of two cells is equal but their internal
31. The specific resistance of manganin is 50 × 10–8 m. resistances are r1 and r2. The cells are connected as
The resistance of a cube of length 50 cm will be shown in Fig. If the reading of the voltmeter is zero,
A. 10–4 B. 10–6 then relation among R, r1 and r2 is
C. 10–8 D. 10–5
V
32. The resistance of a wire is 20 . It is so stretched that
the length become three times, then the new resistance + – + –
of the wire will be r1 r2
A. 180 B. 220
C. 250 D. 132 R
33. A wire of a certain material is stretched slowly by ten
per cent. Its new resistance and specification resistance
r1 r2 r1 r2
A. R = B. R =
become respectively 2 2
A. 1.21 times, same B. 2.21 times, same C. R = r1 + r2 D. R = r1 – r2
C. 3.21 times, same D. 1.1 times, same 41. A carbon resistor has coloured steps as shown in Fig.
34. Two conductors are made of the same material and what is its resistance.
have the same length. Conductor A is a solid wire of Yellow Brown
diameter 1 mm. Conductor B is a hollow tube of
outer diameter 2 mm and inner diameter 1 mm. Then,
the ratio of resistance RA to RB is Violet Gold
A. 1 : 3 B. 3 : 1 A. 470 ± 5% B. 350 ± 3%
C. 1 : 2 D. 2 : 1 C. 120 ± 10% D. 250 ± 5%
35. When a piece of aluminium wire of finite length is 42. A potentiometer consists of a wire of length 4 m and
drawn through a series of dies to reduce its diameter resistance 10 . It is connected to a cell of emf 2V.
to half its original value, its resistance will became. The potential difference per unit length of the wire
A. eighteen times B. sixteen times will be
C. three times D. five times A. 0.25 Vm –1 B. 0.5 Vm –1
36. In hydrogen atom, the electron makes 6.6 × 10 15 C. 1.5 Vm –1 D. 2 Vm –1
revolutions per second around the nucleus in an orbit 43. In the circuit shown P R, the reading of the
of radius 0.5 × 10–10 m. It is equivalent to current galvanometer is same with switch s open or closed.
nearly Then
A. 1 mA B. 2 mA
C. 0.1 mA D. 0.5 mA P Q
37. A metallic block has no potential different applied S
across it, then the mean velocity of free electrons is
(T = absolute temperature of the block)
G
R
A. proportional to T
B. proportional to T
C. finite but in dependent of temperature V
D. zero
36
A. IR = IG B. IP = IG 48. Resistances of 6 each one connected in the manner
C. IQ = IG D. IQ = IR shown in adjoining Fig. with the current 0.5 A as
shown in Fig., the p.d. VP – VQ is
44. A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 100 is
6 6 6
used as an ammeter using a resistance 0.1 . The
maximum deflection current in the galvanometer is 6 Q
1002 A. Find the minimum current in the circuit so 0.5A 6 6
that the ammeter shows maximum deflection
A. 1.01 mA B. 100.1 mA A. 6.0 V B. 7.2 V
C. 105.5 mA D. 0.99 mA C. 3.6 V D. 3.0 V
45. A set of n identical resistors each of resistance R, 49. The equivalent resistance of the arrangement of
when connected in series have an effective resistance resistances shown in adjoining Fig. between the points
of x and when the resistors are connected in A and B is
parallel, the effective resistance is y . Then the 8
relation between R, x and y is
16 20
A. R = (xy)3/2 B. R = xy
xy 16
C. R xy D. R
2 A B
46. If an ammeter is connected in parallel to a circuit, it 9
is likely to be damaged due to excess 6
A. voltage B. current 18
C. resistance D. power
A. 24 B. 10
47. If the ammeter in the given circuit reads 2A, the
C. 6 D. 8
resistance R is
R
50. Three resistances P, Q, R each of 2 and an unknown
3
resistance S from the four arm S of a Wheatstone
bridge circuit where resistance of 60 is connected
6
in parallel to S the bridge gets balanced. What is the
6V
A value of S?
A. 1 B. 2 A. 1 B. 6
C. 3 D. 4 C. 2 D. 3
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C B D C D C C D B B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
C B B A C A D D A D
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
B B A A A A C B A B
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
B A A B B A A C A D
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
A B A B C B A D D D
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
l 22
1. As, R= 2. We have, R= = 1 .
A 22
2 cm 3. Given, I = 3t2 + 2t + 5
2 × 10–6 =
2 cm 2 cm dq
= 4 × 10–6 cm. I= = 3t2 + 2t + 5
dt
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fondamentale qui expire, Mahomet s’ennuie, il a tout épuisé! le voilà
qui veut mourir Dieu! L’Arabie l’adore et prie, et nous retombons
dans mon premier thème de mélancolie (par l’ut mineur) au lever du
rideau.—Ne trouvez-vous pas, dit Gambara en cessant de jouer et
se retournant vers le comte, dans cette musique vive, heurtée,
bizarre, mélancolique et toujours grande, l’expression de la vie d’un
épileptique enragé de plaisir, ne sachant ni lire ni écrire, faisant de
chacun de ses défauts un degré pour le marche-pied de ses
grandeurs, tournant ses fautes et ses malheurs en triomphes?
N’avez-vous pas eu l’idée de sa séduction exercée sur un peuple
avide et amoureux, dans cette ouverture, échantillon de l’opéra?
D’abord calme et sévère, le visage du maëstro, sur lequel Andrea
avait cherché à deviner les idées qu’il exprimait d’une voix inspirée,
et qu’un amalgame indigeste de notes ne permettait pas d’entrevoir,
s’était animé par degrés et avait fini par prendre une expression
passionnée qui réagit sur Marianna et sur le cuisinier. Marianna, trop
vivement affectée par les passages où elle reconnaissait sa propre
situation, n’avait pu cacher l’expression de son regard à Andrea.
Gambara s’essuya le front, lança son regard avec tant de force vers
le plafond, qu’il sembla le percer et s’élever jusqu’aux cieux.
—Vous avez vu le péristyle, dit-il, nous entrons maintenant dans
le palais. L’opéra commence. Premier acte. Mahomet, seul sur le
devant de la scène, commence par un air (fa naturel, quatre temps)
interrompu par un chœur de chameliers qui sont auprès d’un puits
dans le fond du théâtre (ils font une opposition dans le rhythme.
Douze-huit). Quelle majestueuse douleur! elle attendrira les femmes
les plus évaporées, en pénétrant leurs entrailles si elles n’ont pas de
cœur. N’est-ce pas la mélodie du génie contraint?
Au grand étonnement d’Andrea, car Marianna y était habituée,
Gambara contractait si violemment son gosier, qu’il n’en sortait que
des sons étouffés assez semblables à ceux que lance un chien de
garde enroué. La légère écume qui vint blanchir les lèvres du
compositeur fit frémir Andrea.
—Sa femme arrive (la mineur). Quel duo magnifique! Dans ce
morceau j’exprime comment Mahomet a la volonté, comment sa
femme a l’intelligence. Cadhige y annonce qu’elle va se dévouer à
une œuvre qui lui ravira l’amour de son jeune mari. Mahomet veut
conquérir le monde, sa femme l’a deviné, elle l’a secondé en
persuadant au peuple de la Mekke que les attaques d’épilepsie de
son mari sont les effets de son commerce avec les anges. Chœur
des premiers disciples de Mahomet qui viennent lui promettre leurs
secours (ut dièse mineur, sotto voce). Mahomet sort pour aller
trouver l’ange Gabriel (récitatif en fa majeur). Sa femme encourage
le chœur. (Air coupé par les accompagnements du chœur. Des
bouffées de voix soutiennent le chant large et majestueux de
Cadhige. La majeur). Abdollah, le père d’Aiesha, seule fille que
Mahomet ait trouvée vierge, et de qui par cette raison le prophète
changea le nom en celui d’Aboubecker (père de la pucelle),
s’avance avec Aiesha, et se détache du chœur (par des phrases qui
dominent le reste des voix et qui soutiennent l’air de Cadhige en s’y
joignant, en contre-point). Omar, père d’Hafsa, autre fille que doit
posséder Mahomet, imite l’exemple d’Aboubecker, et vient avec sa
fille former un quintetto. La vierge Aiesha est un primo soprano,
Hafsa fait le second soprano; Aboubecker est une basse-taille, Omar
est un baryton. Mahomet reparaît inspiré. Il chante son premier air
de bravoure, qui commence le finale (mi majeur); il promet l’empire
du monde à ses premiers Croyants. Le prophète aperçoit les deux
filles, et, par une transition douce (de si majeur en sol majeur), il leur
adresse des phrases amoureuses. Ali, cousin de Mahomet, et
Khaled, son plus grand général, deux ténors, arrivent et annoncent
la persécution: les magistrats, les soldats, les seigneurs, ont proscrit
le prophète (récitatif). Mahomet s’écrie dans une invocation (en ut)
que l’ange Gabriel est avec lui, et montre un pigeon qui s’envole. Le
chœur des Croyants répond par des accents de dévouement sur
une modulation (en si majeur). Les soldats, les magistrats, les
grands arrivent (tempo di marcia. Quatre temps en si majeur). Lutte
entre les deux chœurs (strette en mi majeur). Mahomet (par une
succession de septièmes diminuées descendante) cède à l’orage et
s’enfuit. La couleur sombre et farouche de ce finale est nuancée par
les motifs des trois femmes qui présagent à Mahomet son triomphe,
et dont les phrases se trouveront développées au troisième acte,
dans la scène où Mahomet savoure les délices de sa grandeur.
En ce moment des pleurs vinrent aux yeux de Gambara, qui,
après un moment d’émotion, s’écria:—Deuxième acte! Voici la
religion instituée. Les Arabes gardent la tente de leur prophète qui
consulte Dieu (chœur en la mineur). Mahomet paraît (prière en fa).
Quelle brillante et majestueuse harmonie plaquée sous ce chant où
j’ai peut-être reculé les bornes de la mélodie. Ne fallait-il pas
exprimer les merveilles de ce grand mouvement d’hommes qui a
créé une musique, une architecture, une poésie, un costume et des
mœurs? En l’entendant, vous vous promenez sous les arcades du
Généralife, sous les voûtes sculptées de l’Alhambra! Les fioritures
de l’air peignent la délicieuse architecture moresque et les poésies
de cette religion galante et guerrière qui devait s’opposer à la
guerrière et galante chevalerie des chrétiens. Quelques cuivres se
réveillent à l’orchestre et annoncent les premiers triomphes (par une
cadence rompue). Les Arabes adorent le prophète (mi bémol
majeur). Arrivée de Khaled, d’Amron et d’Ali par un tempo di marcia.
Les armées des Croyants ont pris des villes et soumis les trois
Arabies! Quel pompeux récitatif! Mahomet récompense ses
généraux en leur donnant ses filles. (Ici, dit-il d’un air piteux, il y a un
de ces ignobles ballets qui coupent le fil des plus belles tragédies
musicales!) Mais Mahomet (si mineur) relève l’opéra par sa grande
prophétie, qui commence chez ce pauvre monsieur de Voltaire par
ce vers:
Le temps de l’Arabie est à la fin venu.
Elle est interrompue par le chœur des Arabes triomphants
(douze-huit accéléré). Les clairons, les cuivres reparaissent avec les
tribus qui arrivent en foule. Fête générale où toutes les voix
concourent l’une après l’autre, et où Mahomet proclame sa
polygamie. Au milieu de cette gloire, la femme qui a tant servi
Mahomet se détache par un air magnifique (si majeur). «Et moi, dit-
elle, moi, ne serais-je donc plus aimée?—Il faut nous séparer; tu es
une femme, et je suis un prophète; je puis avoir des esclaves, mais
plus d’égal!» Écoutez ce duo (sol dièse mineur). Quels
déchirements! La femme comprend la grandeur qu’elle a élevée de
ses mains, elle aime assez Mahomet pour se sacrifier à sa gloire,
elle l’adore comme un Dieu sans le juger, et sans un murmure.
Pauvre femme, la première dupe et la première victime! Quel thème
pour le finale (si majeur) que cette douleur, brodée en couleurs si
brunes sur le fond des acclamations du chœur, et mariée aux
accents de Mahomet abandonnant sa femme comme un instrument
inutile, mais faisant voir qu’il ne l’oubliera jamais! Quelles
triomphantes girandoles, quelles fusées de chants joyeux et perlés
élancent les deux jeunes voix (primo et secondo soprano) d’Aiesha
et d’Hafsa, soutenus par Ali et sa femme, par Omar et Aboubecker!
Pleurez, réjouissez-vous! Triomphes et larmes! Voilà la vie.
Marianna ne put retenir ses pleurs. Andrea fut tellement ému,
que ses yeux s’humectèrent légèrement. Le cuisinier napolitain
qu’ébranla la communication magnétique des idées exprimées par
les spasmes de la voix de Gambara, s’unit à cette émotion. Le
musicien se retourna, vit ce groupe et sourit.
—Vous me comprenez enfin! s’écria-t-il.
Jamais triomphateur mené pompeusement au Capitole, dans les
rayons pourpres de la gloire, aux acclamations de tout un peuple,
n’eut pareille expression en sentant poser la couronne sur sa tête.
Le visage du musicien étincelait comme celui d’un saint martyr.
Personne ne dissipa cette erreur. Un horrible sourire effleura les
lèvres de Marianna. Le comte fut épouvanté par la naïveté de cette
folie.
—Troisième acte! dit l’heureux compositeur en se rasseyant au
piano. (Andantino solo). Mahomet malheureux dans son sérail,
entouré de femmes. Quatuor de houris (en la majeur). Quelles
pompes! quels chants de rossignols heureux! Modulations (fa dièse
mineur). Le thème se représente (sur la dominante mi pour
reprendre en la majeur). Les voluptés se groupent et se dessinent
afin de produire leur opposition au sombre finale du premier acte.
Après les danses, Mahomet se lève et chante un grand air de
bravoure (fa mineur) pour regretter l’amour unique et dévoué de sa
première femme en s’avouant vaincu par la polygamie. Jamais
musicien n’a eu pareil thème. L’orchestre et le chœur des femmes
expriment les joies des houris, tandis que Mahomet revient à la
mélancolie qui a ouvert l’opéra.—Où est Beethoven, s’écria
Gambara, pour que je sois bien compris dans ce retour prodigieux
de tout l’opéra sur lui-même. Comme tout s’est appuyé sur la basse!
Beethoven n’a pas construit autrement sa symphonie en ut. Mais
son mouvement héroïque est purement instrumental, au lieu qu’ici
mon mouvement héroïque est appuyé par un sextuor des plus belles
voix humaines, et par un chœur des Croyants qui veillent à la PORTE
de la maison sainte. J’ai toutes les richesses de la mélodie et de
l’harmonie, un orchestre et des voix! Entendez l’expression de toutes
les existences humaines, riches ou pauvres! la lutte, le triomphe et
l’ennui! Ali arrive, l’Alcoran triomphe sur tous les points (duo en ré
mineur). Mahomet se confie à ses deux beaux-pères, il est las de
tout, il veut abdiquer le pouvoir et mourir inconnu pour consolider
son œuvre. Magnifique sextuor (si bémol majeur). Il fait ses adieux
(solo en fa naturel). Ses deux beaux-pères institués ses vicaires
(kalifes) appellent le peuple. Grande marche triomphale. Prière
générale des Arabes agenouillés devant la maison sainte (kasba)
d’où s’envole le pigeon (même tonalité). La prière faite par soixante
voix, et commandée par les femmes (en si bémol), couronne cette
œuvre gigantesque où la vie des nations et de l’homme est
exprimée. Vous avez eu toutes les émotions humaines et divines.
Andrea contemplait Gambara dans un étonnement stupide. Si
d’abord il avait été saisi par l’horrible ironie que présentait cet
homme en exprimant les sentiments de la femme de Mahomet sans
les reconnaître chez Marianna, la folie du mari fut éclipsée par celle
du compositeur. Il n’y avait pas l’apparence d’une idée poétique ou
musicale dans l’étourdissante cacophonie qui frappait les oreilles:
les principes de l’harmonie, les premières règles de la composition
étaient totalement étrangères à cette informe création. Au lieu de la
musique savamment enchaînée que désignait Gambara, ses doigts
produisaient une succession de quintes, de septièmes et d’octaves,
de tierces majeures, et des marches de quarte sans sixte à la basse,
réunion de sons discordants jetés au hasard qui semblait combinée
pour déchirer les oreilles les moins délicates. Il est difficile
d’exprimer cette bizarre exécution, car il faudrait des mots nouveaux
pour cette musique impossible. Péniblement affecté de la folie de ce
brave homme, Andrea rougissait et regardait à la dérobée Marianna
qui, pâle et les yeux baissés, ne pouvait retenir ses larmes. Au
milieu de son brouhaha de notes, Gambara avait lancé de temps en
temps des exclamations qui décelaient le ravissement de son âme: il
s’était pâmé d’aise, il avait souri à son piano, l’avait regardé avec
colère, lui avait tiré la langue, expression à l’usage des inspirés;
enfin il paraissait enivré de la poésie qui lui remplissait la tête et qu’il
s’était vainement efforcé de traduire. Les étranges discordances qui
hurlaient sous ses doigts avaient évidemment résonné dans son
oreille comme de célestes harmonies. Certes, au regard inspiré de
ses yeux bleus ouverts sur un autre monde, à la rose lueur qui
colorait ses joues, et surtout à cette sérénité divine que l’extase
répandait sur ses traits si nobles et si fiers, un sourd aurait cru
assister à une improvisation due à quelque grand artiste. Cette
illusion eût été d’autant plus naturelle que l’exécution de cette
musique insensée exigeait une habileté merveilleuse pour se rompre
à un pareil doigté. Gambara avait dû travailler pendant plusieurs
années. Ses mains n’étaient pas d’ailleurs seules occupées, la
complication des pédales imposait à tout son corps une perpétuelle
agitation; aussi la sueur ruisselait-elle sur son visage pendant qu’il
travaillait à enfler un crescendo de tous les faibles moyens que
l’ingrat instrument mettait à son service: il avait trépigné, soufflé,
hurlé; ses doigts avaient égalé en prestesse la double langue d’un
serpent; enfin, au dernier hurlement du piano, il s’était jeté en arrière
et avait laissé tomber sa tête sur le dos de son fauteuil.
—Par Bacchus! je suis tout étourdi, s’écria le comte en sortant,
un enfant dansant sur un clavier ferait de meilleure musique.
—Assurément, le hasard n’éviterait pas l’accord de deux notes
avec autant d’adresse que ce diable d’homme l’a fait pendant une
heure, dit Giardini.
—Comment l’admirable régularité des traits de Marianna ne
s’altère-t-elle point à l’audition continuelle de ces effroyables
discordances? se demanda le comte. Marianna est menacée
d’enlaidir.
—Seigneur, il faut l’arracher à ce danger, s’écria Giardini.
—Oui, dit Andrea, j’y ai songé. Mais, pour reconnaître si mes
projets ne reposent point sur une fausse base, j’ai besoin d’appuyer
mes soupçons sur une expérience. Je reviendrai pour examiner les
instruments qu’il a inventés. Ainsi demain, après le dîner, nous
ferons une médianoche, et j’enverrai moi-même le vin et les
friandises nécessaires.
Le cuisinier s’inclina. La journée suivante fut employée par le
comte à faire arranger l’appartement qu’il destinait au pauvre
ménage de l’artiste. Le soir, Andrea vint et trouva, selon ses
instructions, ses vins et ses gâteaux servis avec une espèce
d’apprêt par Marianna et par le cuisinier; Gambara lui montra
triomphalement les petits tambours sur lesquels étaient des grains
de poudre à l’aide desquels il faisait ses observations sur les
différentes natures des sons émis par les instruments.
—Voyez-vous, lui dit-il, par quels moyens simples j’arrive à
prouver une grande proposition. L’acoustique me révèle ainsi des
actions analogues du son sur tous les objets qu’il affecte. Toutes les
harmonies partent d’un centre commun et conservent entre elles
d’intimes relations; ou plutôt, l’harmonie, une comme la lumière, est
décomposée par nos arts comme le rayon par le prisme.
Puis il présenta des instruments construits d’après ses lois, en
expliquant les changements qu’il introduisait dans leur contexture.
Enfin il annonça, non sans emphase, qu’il couronnerait cette séance
préliminaire, bonne tout au plus à satisfaire la curiosité de l’œil, en
faisant entendre un instrument qui pouvait remplacer un orchestre
entier, et qu’il nommait Panharmonicon.
—Si c’est celui qui est dans cette cage et qui nous attire les
plaintes du voisinage quand vous y travaillez, dit Giardini, vous n’en
jouerez pas longtemps, le commissaire de police viendra bientôt. Y
pensez-vous?
—Si ce pauvre fou reste, dit Gambara à l’oreille du comte, il me
sera impossible de jouer.
Le comte éloigna le cuisinier en lui promettant une récompense,
s’il voulait guetter au dehors afin d’empêcher les patrouilles ou les
voisins d’intervenir. Le cuisinier, qui ne s’était pas épargné en
versant à boire à Gambara, consentit. Sans être ivre, le compositeur
était dans cette situation où toutes les forces intellectuelles sont
surexcitées, où les parois d’une chambre deviennent lumineuses, où
les mansardes n’ont plus de toits, où l’âme voltige dans le monde
des esprits. Marianna dégagea, non sans peine, de ses couvertures
un instrument aussi grand qu’un piano à queue, mais ayant un buffet
supérieur de plus. Cet instrument bizarre offrait, outre ce buffet et sa
table, les pavillons de quelques instruments à vent et les becs aigus
de quelques tuyaux.
—Jouez-moi, je vous prie, cette prière que vous dites être si belle
et qui termine votre opéra, dit le comte.
Au grand étonnement de Marianna et d’Andrea, Gambara
commença par plusieurs accords qui décelèrent un grand maître; à
leur étonnement succéda d’abord une admiration mêlée de surprise,
puis une complète extase au milieu de laquelle ils oublièrent et le
lieu et l’homme. Les effets d’orchestre n’eussent pas été si
grandioses que le furent les sons des instruments à vent qui
rappelaient l’orgue et qui s’unirent merveilleusement aux richesses
harmoniques des instruments à cordes; mais l’état imparfait dans
lequel se trouvait cette singulière machine arrêtait les
développements du compositeur, dont la pensée parut alors plus
grande. Souvent la perfection dans les œuvres d’art empêche l’âme
de les agrandir. N’est-ce pas le procès gagné par l’esquisse contre
le tableau fini, au tribunal de ceux qui achèvent l’œuvre par la
pensée, au lieu de l’accepter toute faite? La musique la plus pure et
la plus suave que le comte eût jamais entendue s’éleva sous les
doigts de Gambara comme un nuage d’encens au-dessus d’un
autel. La voix du compositeur redevint jeune; et, loin de nuire à cette
riche mélodie, son organe l’expliqua, la fortifia, la dirigea, comme la
voix atone et chevrotante d’un habile lecteur, comme l’était Andrieux,
étendait le sens d’une sublime scène de Corneille ou de Racine en y
ajoutant une poésie intime. Cette musique digne des anges accusait
les trésors cachés dans cet immense opéra, qui ne pouvait jamais
être compris, tant que cet homme persisterait à s’expliquer dans son
état de raison. Également partagés entre la musique et la surprise
que leur causait cet instrument aux cent voix, dans lequel un
étranger aurait pu croire que le facteur avait caché des jeunes filles
invisibles, tant les sons avaient par moments d’analogie avec la voix
humaine, le comte et Marianna n’osaient se communiquer leurs
idées ni par le regard ni par la parole. Le visage de Marianna était
éclairé par une magnifique lueur d’espérance qui lui rendit les
splendeurs de la jeunesse. Cette renaissance de sa beauté, qui
s’unissait à la lumineuse apparition du génie de son mari, nuança
d’un nuage de chagrin les délices que cette heure mystérieuse
donnait au comte.
—Vous êtes notre bon génie, lui dit Marianna. Je suis tentée de
croire que vous l’inspirez, car moi, qui ne le quitte point, je n’ai
jamais entendu pareille chose.
—Et les adieux de Cadhige! s’écria Gambara qui chanta la
cavatine à laquelle il avait donné la veille l’épithète de sublime et qui
fit pleurer les deux amants, tant elle exprimait bien le dévouement le
plus élevé de l’amour.
—Qui a pu vous dicter de pareils chants? demanda le comte.
—L’esprit, répondit Gambara; quand il apparaît, tout me semble
en feu. Je vois les mélodies face à face, belles et fraîches, colorées
comme des fleurs; elles rayonnent, elles retentissent, et j’écoute,
mais il faut un temps infini pour les reproduire.
—Encore! dit Marianna.
Gambara, qui n’éprouvait aucune fatigue, joua sans efforts ni
grimaces. Il exécuta son ouverture avec un si grand talent et
découvrit des richesses musicales si nouvelles, que le comte ébloui
finit par croire à une magie semblable à celle que déploient Paganini
et Liszt, exécution qui, certes, change toutes les conditions de la
musique en en faisant une poésie au-dessus des créations
musicales.
—Eh! bien, Votre Excellence le guérira-t-elle? demanda le
cuisinier quand Andrea descendit.
—Je le saurai bientôt, répondit le comte. L’intelligence de cet
homme a deux fenêtres, l’une fermée sur le monde, l’autre ouverte
sur le ciel: la première est la musique, la seconde est la poésie;
jusqu’à ce jour il s’est obstiné à rester devant la fenêtre bouchée, il
faut le conduire à l’autre. Vous le premier m’avez mis sur la voie,
Giardini, en me disant que votre hôte raisonne plus juste dès qu’il a
bu quelques verres de vin.
—Oui, s’écria le cuisinier, et je devine le plan de Votre
Excellence.
—S’il est encore temps de faire tonner la poésie à ses oreilles,
au milieu des accords d’une belle musique, il faut le mettre en état
d’entendre et de juger. Or, l’ivresse peut seule venir à mon secours.
M’aiderez-vous à griser Gambara, mon cher? cela ne vous fera-t-il
pas de mal à vous-même?
—Comment l’entend Votre Excellence?
Andrea s’en alla sans répondre, mais en riant de la perspicacité
qui restait à ce fou. Le lendemain, il vint chercher Marianna, qui avait
passé la matinée à se composer une toilette simple mais
convenable, et qui avait dévoré toutes ses économies. Ce
changement eût dissipé l’illusion d’un homme blasé, mais chez le
comte, le caprice était devenu passion. Dépouillée de sa poétique
misère et transformée en simple bourgeoise, Marianna le fit rêver au
mariage, il lui donna la main pour monter dans un fiacre et lui fit part
de son projet. Elle approuva tout, heureuse de trouver son amant
encore plus grand, plus généreux, plus désintéressé qu’elle ne
l’espérait. Elle arriva dans un appartement où Andrea s’était plu à
rappeler son souvenir à son amie par quelques-unes de ces
recherches qui séduisent les femmes les plus vertueuses.
—Je ne vous parlerai de mon amour qu’au moment où vous
désespérerez de votre Paul, dit le comte à Marianna en revenant rue
Froidmanteau. Vous serez témoin de la sincérité de mes efforts; s’ils
sont efficaces, peut-être ne saurai-je pas me résigner à mon rôle
d’ami, mais alors je vous fuirai, Marianna. Si je me sens assez de
courage pour travailler à votre bonheur, je n’aurai pas assez de force
pour le contempler.
—Ne parlez pas ainsi, les générosités ont leur péril aussi,
répondit-elle en retenant mal ses larmes. Mais quoi, vous me quittez
déjà!
—Oui, dit Andrea, soyez heureuse sans distraction.
S’il fallait croire le cuisinier, le changement d’hygiène fut
favorable aux deux époux. Tous les soirs après boire, Gambara
paraissait moins absorbé, causait davantage et plus posément; il
parlait enfin de lire les journaux. Andrea ne put s’empêcher de frémir
en voyant la rapidité inespérée de son succès; mais quoique ses
angoisses lui révélassent la force de son amour, elles ne le firent
point chanceler dans sa vertueuse résolution. Il vint un jour
reconnaître les progrès de cette singulière guérison. Si l’état de son
malade lui causa d’abord quelque joie, elle fut troublée par la beauté
de Marianna, à qui l’aisance avait rendu tout son éclat. Il revint dès
lors chaque soir engager des conversations douces et sérieuses où
il apportait les clartés d’une opposition mesurée aux singulières
théories de Gambara. Il profitait de la merveilleuse lucidité dont
jouissait l’esprit de ce dernier sur tous les points qui n’avoisinaient
pas de trop près sa folie, pour lui faire admettre sur les diverses
branches de l’art des principes également applicables plus tard à la
musique. Tout allait bien tant que les fumées du vin échauffaient le
cerveau du malade; mais dès qu’il avait complétement recouvré, ou
plutôt reperdu sa raison, il retombait dans sa manie. Néanmoins,
Paolo se laissait déjà plus facilement distraire par l’impression des
objets extérieurs, et déjà son intelligence se dispersait sur un plus
grand nombre de points à la fois. Andrea, qui prenait un intérêt
d’artiste à cette œuvre semi-médicale, crut enfin pouvoir frapper un
grand coup. Il résolut de donner à son hôtel un repas auquel Giardini
fut admis par la fantaisie qu’il eut de ne point séparer le drame et la
parodie, le jour de la première représentation de l’opéra de Robert-
le-Diable, à la répétition duquel il avait assisté, et qui lui parut propre
à dessiller les yeux de son malade. Dès le second service, Gambara
déjà ivre se plaisanta lui-même avec beaucoup de grâce, et Giardini
avoua que ses innovations culinaires ne valaient pas le diable.
Andrea n’avait rien négligé pour opérer ce double miracle. L’Orvieto,
le Montefiascone, amenés avec les précautions infinies qu’exige leur
transport, le Lacryma-Christi, le Giro, tous les vins chauds de la cara
patria faisaient monter aux cerveaux des convives la double ivresse
de la vigne et du souvenir. Au dessert, le musicien et le cuisinier
abjurèrent gaiement leurs erreurs: l’un fredonnait une cavatine de
Rossini, l’autre entassait sur son assiette des morceaux qu’il arrosait
de marasquin de Zara, en faveur de la cuisine française. Le comte
profita de l’heureuse disposition de Gambara, qui se laissa conduire
à l’Opéra avec la douceur d’un agneau. Aux premières notes de
l’introduction, l’ivresse de Gambara parut se dissiper pour faire place
à cette excitation fébrile qui parfois mettait en harmonie son
jugement et son imagination, dont le désaccord habituel causait
sans doute sa folie, et la pensée dominante de ce grand drame
musical lui apparut dans son éclatante simplicité, comme un éclair
qui sillonna la nuit profonde où il vivait. A ses yeux dessillés, cette
musique dessina les horizons immenses d’un monde où il se trouvait
jeté pour la première fois, tout en y reconnaissant des accidents déjà
vus en rêve. Il se crut transporté dans les campagnes de son pays,
où commence la belle Italie et que Napoléon nommait si
judicieusement le glacis des Alpes. Reporté par le souvenir au
temps où sa raison jeune et vive n’avait pas encore été troublée par
l’extase de sa trop riche imagination, il écouta dans une religieuse
attitude et sans vouloir dire un seul mot. Aussi le comte respecta-t-il
le travail intérieur qui se faisait dans cette âme. Jusqu’à minuit et
demi Gambara resta si profondément immobile, que les habitués de
l’Opéra durent le prendre pour ce qu’il était, un homme ivre. Au
retour, Andrea se mit à attaquer l’œuvre de Meyerbeer, afin de
réveiller Gambara, qui restait plongé dans un de ces demi-sommeils
que connaissent les buveurs.
—Qu’y a-t-il donc de si magnétique dans cette incohérente
partition, pour qu’elle vous mette dans la position d’un somnambule?
dit Andrea en arrivant chez lui. Le sujet de Robert-le-Diable est loin
sans doute d’être dénué d’intérêt, Holtei l’a développé avec un rare
bonheur dans un drame très-bien écrit et rempli de situations fortes
et attachantes; mais les auteurs français ont trouvé le moyen d’y
puiser la fable la plus ridicule du monde. Jamais l’absurdité des
libretti de Vesari, de Schikaneder, n’égala celle du poëme de Robert-
le-Diable, vrai cauchemar dramatique qui oppresse les spectateurs
sans faire naître d’émotions fortes. Meyerbeer a fait au diable une
trop belle part. Bertram et Alice représentent la lutte du bien et du
mal, le bon et le mauvais principe. Cet antagonisme offrait le
contraste le plus heureux au compositeur. Les mélodies les plus
suaves placées à côté de chants âpres et durs, étaient une
conséquence naturelle de la forme du libretto, mais dans la partition
de l’auteur allemand les démons chantent mieux que les saints. Les
inspirations célestes démentent souvent leur origine, et si le
compositeur quitte pendant un instant les formes infernales, il se
hâte d’y revenir, bientôt fatigué de l’effort qu’il a fait pour les
abandonner. La mélodie, ce fil d’or qui ne doit jamais se rompre
dans une composition si vaste, disparaît souvent dans l’œuvre de
Meyerbeer. Le sentiment n’y est pour rien, le cœur n’y joue aucun
rôle; aussi ne rencontre-t-on jamais de ces motifs heureux, de ces
chants naïfs qui ébranlent toutes les sympathies et laissent au fond
de l’âme une douce impression. L’harmonie règne souverainement,
au lieu d’être le fond sur lequel doivent se détacher les groupes du
tableau musical. Ces accords dissonants, loin d’émouvoir l’auditeur,
n’excitent dans son âme qu’un sentiment analogue à celui que l’on
éprouverait à la vue d’un saltimbanque suspendu sur un fil, et se
balançant entre la vie et la mort. Des chants gracieux ne viennent
jamais calmer ces crispations fatigantes. On dirait que le
compositeur n’a eu d’autre but que de se montrer bizarre,
fantastique; il saisit avec empressement l’occasion de produire un
effet baroque, sans s’inquiéter de la vérité, de l’unité musicale, ni de
l’incapacité des voix écrasées sous ce déchaînement instrumental.
—Taisez-vous, mon ami, dit Gambara, je suis encore sous le
charme de cet admirable chant des enfers que les porte-voix rendent
encore plus terrible, instrumentation neuve! Les cadences rompues
qui donnent tant d’énergie au chant de Robert, la cavatine du
quatrième acte, le finale du premier, me tiennent encore sous la
fascination d’un pouvoir surnaturel! Non, la déclamation de Gluck lui-
même ne fut jamais d’un si prodigieux effet, et je suis étonné de tant
de science.
—Signor maestro, reprit Andrea en souriant, permettez-moi de
vous contredire. Gluck avant d’écrire réfléchissait longtemps. Il
calculait toutes les chances et arrêtait un plan qui pouvait être
modifié plus tard par ses inspirations de détail, mais qui ne lui
permettait jamais de se fourvoyer en chemin. De là cette
accentuation énergique, cette déclamation palpitante de vérité. Je
conviens avec vous que la science est grande dans l’opéra de
Meyerbeer, mais cette science devient un défaut lorsqu’elle s’isole
de l’inspiration, et je crois avoir aperçu dans cette œuvre le pénible
travail d’un esprit fin qui a trié sa musique dans des milliers de motifs
des opéras tombés ou oubliés, pour se les approprier en les
étendant, les modifiant ou les concentrant. Mais il est arrivé ce qui
arrive à tous les faiseurs de centons, l’abus des bonnes choses. Cet
habile vendangeur de notes prodigue des dissonances qui, trop
fréquentes, finissent par blesser l’oreille et l’accoutument à ces
grands effets que le compositeur doit ménager beaucoup, pour en
tirer un plus grand parti lorsque la situation les réclame. Ces
transitions enharmoniques se répètent à satiété, et l’abus de la
cadence plagale lui ôte une grande partie de sa solennité religieuse.
Je sais bien que chaque compositeur a ses formes particulières
auxquelles il revient malgré lui, mais il est essentiel de veiller sur soi
et d’éviter ce défaut. Un tableau dont le coloris n’offrirait que du bleu
ou du rouge serait loin de la vérité et fatiguerait la vue. Ainsi le
rhythme presque toujours le même dans la partition de Robert jette
de la monotonie sur l’ensemble de l’ouvrage. Quant à l’effet des
porte-voix dont vous parlez, il est depuis longtemps connu en
Allemagne, et ce que Meyerbeer nous donne pour du neuf a été
toujours employé par Mozart, qui faisait chanter de cette sorte le
chœur des diables de Don Juan.
Andrea essaya, tout en l’entraînant à de nouvelles libations, de
faire revenir Gambara par ses contradictions au vrai sentiment
musical, en lui démontrant que sa prétendue mission en ce monde
ne consistait pas à régénérer un art hors de ses facultés, mais bien
à chercher sous une autre forme, qui n’était autre que la poésie,
l’expression de sa pensée.
—Vous n’avez rien compris, cher comte, à cet immense drame
musical, dit négligemment Gambara qui se mit devant le piano
d’Andrea, fit résonner les touches, écouta le son, s’assit et parut
penser pendant quelques instants, comme pour résumer ses
propres idées.
—Et d’abord sachez, reprit-il, qu’une oreille intelligente comme la
mienne a reconnu le travail de sertisseur dont vous parlez. Oui, cette
musique est choisie avec amour, mais dans les trésors d’une
imagination riche et féconde où la science a pressé les idées pour
en extraire l’essence musicale. Je vais vous expliquer ce travail.
Il se leva pour mettre les bougies dans la pièce voisine, et avant
de se rasseoir, il but un plein verre de vin de Giro, vin de Sardaigne
qui recèle autant de feu que les vieux vins de Tokaj en allument.
—Voyez-vous, dit Gambara, cette musique n’est faite ni pour les
incrédules ni pour ceux qui n’aiment point. Si vous n’avez pas
éprouvé dans votre vie les vigoureuses atteintes d’un esprit mauvais
qui dérange le but quand vous le visez, qui donne une fin triste aux
plus belles espérances; en un mot, si vous n’avez jamais aperçu la
queue du diable frétillant en ce monde, l’opéra de Robert sera pour
vous ce qu’est l’Apocalypse pour ceux qui croient que tout finit avec
eux. Si, malheureux et persécuté, vous comprenez le génie du mal,
ce grand singe qui détruit à tout moment l’œuvre de Dieu, si vous
l’imaginez ayant non pas aimé, mais violé une femme presque
divine, et remportant de cet amour les joies de la paternité, au point
de mieux aimer son fils éternellement malheureux avec lui, que de le
savoir éternellement heureux avec Dieu; si vous imaginez enfin
l’âme de la mère planant sur la tête de son fils pour l’arracher aux
horribles séductions paternelles, vous n’aurez encore qu’une faible
idée de cet immense poëme auquel il manque peu de chose pour
rivaliser avec le Don Juan de Mozart. Don Juan est au-dessus par
sa perfection, je l’accorde; Robert-le-Diable représente des idées,
Don Juan excite des sensations. Don Juan est encore la seule
œuvre musicale où l’harmonie et la mélodie soient en proportions
exactes; là seulement est le secret de sa supériorité sur Robert, car
Robert est plus abondant. Mais à quoi sert cette comparaison, si ces
deux œuvres sont belles de leurs beautés propres? Pour moi, qui
gémis sous les coups réitérés du démon, Robert m’a parlé plus
énergiquement qu’à vous, et je l’ai trouvé vaste et concentré tout à la
fois. Vraiment, grâce à vous, je viens d’habiter le beau pays des
rêves où nos sens se trouvent agrandis, où l’univers se déploie dans
des proportions gigantesques par rapport à l’homme. (Il se fit un
moment de silence.) Je tressaille encore, dit le malheureux artiste,
aux quatre mesures de timbales qui m’ont atteint dans les entrailles
et qui ouvrent cette courte, cette brusque introduction où le solo de
trombone, les flûtes, le hautbois et la clarinette jettent dans l’âme
une couleur fantastique. Cet andante en ut mineur fait pressentir le
thème de l’invocation des âmes dans l’abbaye, et vous agrandit la
scène par l’annonce d’une lutte toute spirituelle. J’ai frissonné!
Gambara frappa les touches d’une main sûre, il étendit
magistralement le thème de Meyerbeer par une sorte de décharge
d’âme à la manière de Liszt. Ce ne fut plus un piano, ce fut
l’orchestre tout entier, le génie de la musique évoqué.
—Voilà le style de Mozart, s’écria-t-il. Voyez comme cet Allemand
manie les accords, et par quelles savantes modulations il fait passer
l’épouvante pour arriver à la dominante d’ut. J’entends l’enfer! La
toile se lève. Que vois-je? le seul spectacle à qui nous donnions le
nom d’infernal, une orgie de chevaliers, en Sicile. Voilà dans ce
chœur en fa toutes les passions humaines déchaînées par un
allegro bachique. Tous les fils par lesquels le diable nous mène se
remuent! Voilà bien l’espèce de joie qui saisit les hommes quand ils
dansent sur un abîme, ils se donnent eux-mêmes le vertige. Quel
mouvement dans ce chœur! Sur ce chœur, la réalité de la vie, la vie
naïve et bourgeoise se détache en sol mineur par un chant plein de
simplicité, celui de Raimbaut. Il me rafraîchit un moment l’âme ce
bon homme qui exprime la verte et plantureuse Normandie, en
venant la rappeler à Robert au milieu de l’ivresse. Ainsi, la douceur
de la patrie aimée nuance d’un filet brillant ce sombre début. Puis
vient cette merveilleuse ballade en ut majeur, accompagnée du
chœur en ut mineur, et qui dit si bien le sujet:—Je suis Robert! éclate
aussitôt. La fureur du prince offensé par son vassal n’est déjà plus
une fureur naturelle; mais elle va se calmer, car les souvenirs de
l’enfance arrivent avec Alice par cet allegro en la majeur plein de
mouvement et de grâce. Entendez-vous les cris de l’innocence qui,
en entrant dans ce drame infernal, y entre persécutée?—Non, non!
chanta Gambara qui sut faire chanter son pulmonique piano. La
patrie et ses émotions sont venues! l’enfance et ses souvenirs ont
refleuri dans le cœur de Robert; mais voici l’ombre de la mère qui se
lève accompagnée des suaves idées religieuses! La religion anime
cette belle romance en mi majeur, et dans laquelle se trouve une
merveilleuse progression harmonique et mélodique sur les paroles:
Car dans les cieux comme sur la terre,
Sa mère va prier pour lui.
La lutte commence entre les puissances inconnues et le seul
homme qui ait dans ses veines le feu de l’enfer pour y résister. Et
pour que vous le sachiez bien, voici l’entrée de Bertram, sous
laquelle le grand musicien a plaqué en ritournelle à l’orchestre un
rappel de la ballade de Raimbaut. Que d’art! quelle liaison de toutes
les parties, quelle puissance de construction! Le diable est là-
dessous, il se cache, il frétille. Avec l’épouvante d’Alice, qui
reconnaît le diable du Saint-Michel de son village, le combat des
deux principes est posé. Le thème musical va se développer, et par
quelles phases variées? Voici l’antagonisme nécessaire à tout opéra
fortement accusé par un beau récitatif, comme Gluck en faisait,
entre Bertram et Robert.
Tu ne sauras jamais à quel excès je t’aime.
Cet ut mineur diabolique, cette terrible basse de Bertram entame
son jeu de sape qui détruira tous les efforts de cet homme à
tempérament violent. Là, pour moi, tout est effrayant. Le crime aura-
t-il le criminel? le bourreau aura-t-il sa proie? le malheur dévorera-t-il
le génie de l’artiste? la maladie tuera-t-elle le malade? l’ange gardien
préservera-t-il le chrétien? Voici le finale, la scène de jeu où Bertram
tourmente son fils en lui causant les plus terribles émotions. Robert,
dépouillé, colère, brisant tout, voulant tout tuer, tout mettre à feu et à
sang, lui semble bien son fils, il est ressemblant ainsi. Quelle atroce
gaieté dans le je ris de tes coups de Bertram! Comme la barcarolle
vénitienne nuance bien ce finale! par quelles transitions hardies
cette scélérate paternité rentre en scène pour ramener Robert au
jeu! Ce début est accablant pour ceux qui développent les thèmes
au fond de leur cœur en leur donnant l’étendue que le musicien leur
a commandé de communiquer. Il n’y avait que l’amour à opposer à
cette grande symphonie chantée où vous ne surprenez ni
monotonie, ni l’emploi d’un même moyen; elle est une et variée,
caractère de tout ce qui est grand et naturel. Je respire, j’arrive dans
la sphère élevée d’une cour galante; j’entends les jolies phrases
fraîches et légèrement mélancoliques d’Isabelle, et le chœur de
femmes en deux parties et en imitation qui sent un peu les teintes
moresques de l’Espagne. En cet endroit, la terrible musique
s’adoucit par des teintes molles, comme une tempête qui se calme,
pour arriver à ce duo fleureté, coquet, bien modulé, qui ne
ressemble à rien de la musique précédente. Après les tumultes du
camp des héros chercheurs d’aventures, vient la peinture de
l’amour. Merci, poëte, mon cœur n’eût pas résisté plus longtemps. Si
je ne cueillais pas là les marguerites d’un opéra-comique français, si
je n’entendais pas la douce plaisanterie de la femme qui sait aimer
et consoler, je ne soutiendrais pas la terrible note grave sur laquelle
apparaît Bertram, répondant à son fils ce: Si je le permets! quand il
promet à sa princesse adorée de triompher sous les armes qu’elle
lui donne. A l’espoir du joueur corrigé par l’amour, l’amour de la plus
belle femme, car l’avez-vous vue cette Sicilienne ravissante, et son
œil de faucon sûr de sa proie? (quels interprètes a trouvés le
musicien!) à l’espoir de l’homme, l’Enfer oppose le sien par ce cri
sublime: A toi, Robert de Normandie! N’admirez-vous pas la sombre
et profonde horreur empreinte dans ces longues et belles notes
écrites sur dans la forêt prochaine? Il y a là tous les enchantements
de la Jérusalem délivrée, comme on en retrouve la chevalerie dans
ce chœur à mouvement espagnol et dans le tempo di marcia. Que
d’originalité dans cet allégro, modulation des quatre timbales
accordées (ut ré, ut sol)! combien de grâces dans l’appel au tournoi!
Le mouvement de la vie héroïque du temps est là tout entier, l’âme
s’y associe, je lis un roman de chevalerie et un poëme. L’exposition
est finie, il semble que les ressources de la musique soient
épuisées, vous n’avez rien entendu de semblable, et cependant tout
est homogène. Vous avez aperçu la vie humaine dans sa seule et
unique expression: Serai-je heureux ou malheureux? disent les
philosophes. Serai-je damné ou sauvé? disent les chrétiens.
Ici, Gambara s’arrêta sur la dernière note du chœur, il la
développa mélancoliquement, et se leva pour aller boire un autre
grand verre de vin de Giro. Cette liqueur semi-africaine ralluma
l’incandescence de sa face, que l’exécution passionnée et
merveilleuse de l’opéra de Meyerbeer avait fait légèrement pâlir.
—Pour que rien ne manque à cette composition, reprit-il, le grand
artiste nous a largement donné le seul duo bouffe que pût se
permettre un démon, la séduction d’un pauvre trouvère. Il a mis la
plaisanterie à côté de l’horreur, une plaisanterie où s’abîme la seule
réalité qui se montre dans la sublime fantaisie de son œuvre: les
amours pures et tranquilles d’Alice et de Raimbaut, leur vie sera
troublée par une vengeance anticipée; les âmes grandes peuvent
seules sentir la noblesse qui anime ces airs bouffes, vous n’y
trouvez ni le papillotage trop abondant de notre musique italienne, ni
le commun des ponts-neufs français. C’est quelque chose de la
majesté de l’Olympe. Il y a le rire amer d’une divinité opposé à la
surprise d’un trouvère qui se donjuanise. Sans cette grandeur, nous
serions revenus trop brusquement à la couleur générale de l’opéra,
empreinte dans cette horrible rage en septièmes diminuées qui se
résout en une valse infernale et nous met enfin face à face avec les
démons. Avec quelle vigueur le couplet de Bertram se détache en si
mineur sur le chœur des enfers, en nous peignant la paternité mêlée
à ces chants démoniaques par un désespoir affreux! Quelle
ravissante transition que l’arrivée d’Alice sur la ritournelle en si
bémol! J’entends encore ces chants angéliques de fraîcheur, n’est-
ce pas le rossignol après l’orage? La grande pensée de l’ensemble
se retrouve ainsi dans les détails, car que pourrait-on opposer à
cette agitation des démons grouillants dans leur trou, si ce n’est l’air
merveilleux d’Alice:
Quand j’ai quitté la Normandie!
Le fil d’or de la mélodie court toujours le long de la puissante
harmonie comme un espoir céleste, elle la brode, et avec quelle
profonde habileté! Jamais le génie ne lâche la science qui le guide.
Ici le chant d’Alice se trouve en si bémol et se rattache au fa dièse,
la dominante du chœur infernal. Entendez-vous le tremolo de
l’orchestre? on demande Robert dans le cénacle des démons.
Bertram rentre sur la scène, et là se trouve le point culminant de
l’intérêt musical, un récitatif comparable à ce que les grands maîtres
ont inventé de plus grandiose, la chaude lutte en mi bémol où
éclatent les deux athlètes, le Ciel et l’Enfer, l’un par: Oui, tu me
connais! sur une septième diminuée, l’autre par son fa sublime: Le
ciel est avec moi! L’Enfer et la Croix sont en présence. Viennent les
menaces de Bertram à Alice, le plus violent pathétique du monde, le
génie du mal s’étalant avec complaisance et s’appuyant comme
toujours sur l’intérêt personnel. L’arrivée de Robert, qui nous donne
le magnifique trio en la bémol sans accompagnement, établit un
premier engagement entre les deux forces rivales et l’homme. Voyez
comme il se produit nettement, dit Gambara en resserrant cette
scène par une exécution passionnée qui saisit Andrea. Toute cette
avalanche de musique, depuis les quatre temps de timbale, a roulé
vers ce combat des trois voix. La magie du mal triomphe! Alice
s’enfuit, et vous entendez le duo en ré entre Bertram et Robert, le
diable lui enfonce ses griffes au cœur, il le lui déchire pour se le
mieux approprier; il se sert de tout: honneur, espoir, jouissances
éternelles et infinies, il fait tout briller à ses yeux; il le met, comme
Jésus, sur le pinacle du temple, et lui montre tous les joyaux de la
terre, l’écrin du mal; il le pique au jeu du courage, et les beaux
sentiments de l’homme éclatent dans ce cri:
Des chevaliers de ma patrie
L’honneur toujours fut le soutien!
Enfin, pour couronner l’œuvre, voilà le thème qui a si fatalement
ouvert l’opéra, le voilà, ce chant principal, dans la magnifique
évocation des âmes:
Nonnes, qui reposez sous cette froide pierre,
M’entendez-vous?
Glorieusement parcourue, la carrière musicale est glorieusement
terminée par l’allegro vivace de la bacchanale en ré mineur. Voici
bien le triomphe de l’Enfer! Roule, musique, enveloppe-nous de tes
plis redoublés, roule et séduis! Les puissances infernales ont saisi
leur proie, elles la tiennent, elles dansent. Ce beau génie destiné à
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