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CUET-UG
Common University Entrance Test for 21
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DOMAIN SPECIFIC SUBJECT

Biology/Biotechnology/
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By
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 R. Gupta’s® CUET-UG Entrance Exam Books
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R-2641 General Test (Section-III) R-2731 Books Series-8: Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics (Section-II)
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 EXAMINATION STRUCTURE
SECTION-II: DOMAIN SPECIFIC SUBJECT

No. of Questions Subject Time

40 Questions  Input text can be used for
45 minutes for
to be MCQ Based Questions
each Domain
attempted out  MCQs based on NCERT Class XII
Specific Subjects
of 50 Syllabus only

 Mode of the Test : Computer Based Test (CBT)

 Test Pattern : Objective type with Multiple Choice Questions

TESTS DESIGN
There are three Sections in the design of the test:
 Section IA : 13 Languages (As a medium and “Language”)
 Section IB : 20 Languages
 Section II : 27 Domain Specific Subjects
 Section III : General Test
Note: A candidate has the option to choose any Language/Domain specific Subjects/ General Test
or a combination there of as may be required for admission to specified course/s of the desired
University/ies while applying.
It is not mandatory to choose any one or more of the Tests/Subjects stated above. The choice of
Tests/Subjects would depend on the course/s opted by the candidate and the University/ies where
admission is sought.
A Candidate can take maximum of 09 Tests in following manner:
 Maximum of 02 languages from Section IA and Section IB taken together, maximum of 06
Domain Subjects from Section II and General Test from Section III.
 Maximum of 03 languages from Section IA and Section IB taken together, maximum of 05
Domain Subjects from Section II and General Test from Section III.

(iii)
 CONTENTS

SAMPLE PAPER

CUET (UG) – Biology / Biotechnology / Biochemistry / Biological Studies ..................... 1-8

SECTION-II: DOMAIN SPECIFIC SUBJECT

Biology / Biotechnology / Biochemistry / Biological Studies

1. Diversity in Living World ............................................................................ 3-5

2. Structural Organisation in Animals and Plants ........................................ 6-11

3. Cell Structure and Function ................................................................... 12-23

4. Plant Physiology .................................................................................... 24-32

5. Human Physiology ................................................................................. 33-41

6. Multiple Choice Questions ..................................................................... 42-88

    

(iv)
 SAMPLE PAPER (SOLVED) Sample Paper 1

CUET-UG

BIOLOGY / BIOTECHNOLOGY /
BIOCHEMISTRY / BIOLOGICAL STUDIES*
SECTION-II : DOMAIN SPECIFIC SUBJECT

1. In the figure of anatropous ovule given below, choose 4. Which of the following statements are true related to
the correct option for the characteristic distribution Seed X and Y?
of cells within the typical embryo sac:

Seed X Seed Y
(i) Seed X is dicot and endospermic or albuminous.
(ii) Seed X is dicot and non-endospermic or non-
albuminous.
(iii) Seed Y is m onocot and endospermic or
albuminous.
(iv) Seed Y is monocot and non-endospermic or non-
albuminous.

Number of Number of Number of Choose the correct option with the respect to the
cells at cells at nuclei left in nature of the seed:
chalazal micropylar central A. (i), (iii) B. (ii), (iii)
end end cell C. (i), (iv) D. (ii), (iv)
A. 3 2 3 5. Which of the following statements are correct with
B. 3 3 2 respect to hormones secreted by placenta?
C. 2 3 3 (i) Placenta secretes relaxin during later stage of
pregnancy.
D. 2 2 4
(ii) Placenta secretes high amount of FSH during
2. The coconut water from tender coconut is: pregnancy.
A. cellular endosperm (iii) Placenta secretes relaxin during initial stage of
B. free nuclear endosperm pregnancy.
C. both cellular and nuclear endosperm (iv) Placenta secretes hCG and hPL during pregnancy.
D. free nuclear embryo A. (i) and (iv) B. (i), (ii) and (iv)
3. Pollen grains are well preserved as fossils because of C. (iii) and (iv) D. (ii), (iii) and (iv)
presence of: 6. Figure A shows the front view of the human female
A. sporopollenin B. cellulose reproductive system and Figure B show s the
C. lignocellulose D. pectocellulose development of a fertilized human egg cell:
*40 Questions to be attempted out of 50 1 2724 (SP)—1
 2 Sample Paper

C. Glutamic acid is substituted by Valine in the

globin chain at the sixth position
D. Glutamic acid is substituted by Valine in the
globin chain at the sixth position
11. In human beings, where genotype AABBCC represents
dark skin colour, aabbcc represents light skin colour
and AaBbCc represents intermediate skin colour; the
pattern of genetic inheritance can be termed as:
A. Pleiotropy and codominance
B. Pleiotropy and incomplete dominance
C. Polygenic and qualitative inheritance
D. Polygenic and quantitative inheritance
Figure A 12. Which of the following combination of chromosome
numbers represents the correct sex determination
pattern in honey bees?
A. Male 32, Female 16 B. Male 16, Female 32
C. Male 31, Female 32 D. Female 32, Male 31
13. Mohan and Rakesh have defective haemoglobin due
to genetic disorders. Mohan has too few globin
molecules while Rakesh has incorrectly functioning
Figure B
globin molecules. Identify the disorder they are
Identify the correct stage of development of human suffering from.
embryo (Figure B) that takes place at the site X, Y Mohan Rakesh
and Z respectively in the human female reproductive A. Sickle cell anaemia– Thalassemia–an
system (Figure A). an autosome linked autosome linked
Choose the correct option from the table below: recessive trait dominant trait
X Y Z B. Thalassemia–an Sickle cell anaemia–
A. Morula Fertilized egg Blastocyst autosome linked an autosome linked
B. Unfertilized egg Fertilized egg Morula recessive blood recessive trait
C. Blastocyst Fertilized egg Unfertilized egg disorder
D. Fertilized egg Morula Blastocyst C. Sickle cell anaemia– Thalassemia–an
an autosome linked autosome linked
7. The correct sequence of hormone secretion from recessive trait recessive blood disorder
beginning of menstruation is: D. Thalassemia–an Sickle cell anaemia–an
A. FSH, progesterone, estrogen autosome linked autosome linked
B. estrogen, FSH, progesterone recessive blood dominant trait
C. FSH, estrogen, progesterone disorder
D. estrogen, progesterone, FSH
14. Which of the following is correct about mature RNA
8. The thalamus contributes to the fruit formation in: in eukaryotes?
A. banana B. orange A. Exons and introns do not appear in the mature
C. strawberry D. guava RNA
9. How many types of gametes would be produced if the B. Exons appear, but introns do not appear in the
genotype of a parent is AaBB? mature RNA
A. 1 B. 2 C. Introns appear, but exons do not appear in the
C. 3 D. 4 mature RNA
D. Both exons and introns appear in the mature RNA
10. Which of the following amino acid substitution is
responsible for causing sickle cell anemia? 15. In E.coli, the lac operon gets switched on when:
A. Valine is substituted by Glutamic acid in the A. lactose is present and it binds to the repressor
globin chain at the sixth position B. repressor binds to operator
B. Valine is substituted by Glutamic acid in the C. RNA polymerase binds to the operator
globin chain at seventh position D. lactose is present and it binds to RNA polymerase
2724 (SP)—1-II
 Sample Paper 3
16. 20. The mode of action of the copper ions in an IUD is
to:
A. increase the movement of sperms
B. decrease the movement of the sperms
C. make the uterus unsuitable for implantation
D. make the cervix hostile to the sperms
21. A cross is made between tall pea plants having green
pods and dwarf pea plants having yellow pods. In the
F2 generation, out of 80 plants how many are likely
to be tall plants?
AUG on the mRNA will result in the activation of
A. 15 B. 20
w hich of the follow ing RN A having correct
C. 45 D. 60
combination of amino acids:
Site A Site B 22. In Antirrhinum, RR is phenotypically red flowers,
A. UAC Methionine rr is white and Rr is pink. Select the correct phenotypic
B. Methionine UAC ratio in F1 generation when a cross is performed
C. Methionine AUG between RR × Rr:
D. AUG Methionine A. 1 Red : 2 Pink : 1 White
B. 2 Pink : 1 White
17. Concentration of which of the following substances
C. 2 Red : 2 Pink
will decrease in the maternal blood as it flows from
D. All Pink
embryo to placenta through the umbilical cord?
23.

What is the pattern of inheritance in the above pedigree

chart?
A. Autosomal dominant
B. Autosomal recessive
C. Sex-linked dominant
D. Sex-linked recessive
Fig. The Human foetus within the uterus
(i) Oxygen 24. Genotypic ratio of 1 : 2 : 1 is obtained in a cross
(ii) Amino Acids between:
(iii) Carbon dioxide A. AB × AB B. Ab × Ab
(iv) Urea C. Ab × ab D. ab × ab
A. (i) and (ii) B. (ii) and (iv) 25. Observe structures A and B given below. Which of
C. (iii) and (iv) D. (i) and (iv) the following statements are correct?
18. In a fertilized ovule, n, 2n and 3n conditions occur 5' 5'
HOCH 2 O OH HOCH 2 O OH
respectively in:
A. antipodal, zygote and endosperm
B. zygote, nucellus and endosperm 4' C C 1' 4' C C 1'
H H H H
C. endosperm, nucellus and zygote. 3' 2' 3' 2'
D. antipodals, synergids and integusments H C C H H C C H

19. A female undergoing IVF treatment has blocked OH OH OH H

fallopian tubes. The technique by which the embryo A B
with more than 8 blastomeres will be transferred into A. A is having 2 -OH group which makes it less
the female for further development is: reactive and structurally stable, whereas B is
A. ZIFT B. GIFT having 2 -H group which makes it more reactive
C. IUT D. AI and unstable.
 4 Sample Paper

B. A is having 2 -OH group which makes it more
reactive and structurally unstable, whereas B is
having 2 -H group which makes it less reactive
and structurally stable.
C. A and B both have -OH groups which make it
more reactive and structurally stable.
D. A and B both are having -OH groups which make
it less reactive and structurally stable
26. What are minisatellites?
A. 10-40 bp sized small sequences within the genes
B. Short coding repetitive region on the eukaryotic
genome
C. Short non-coding repetitive sequence forming
large portion of eukaryotic genome
D. Regions of coding strands of the DNA
27. Given below is a dihybrid cross performed on
Drosophila.
Cross A
When yellow bodied (y), white eyed (w) Drosophila
females were hybridized with brown bodied (y+), red
eyed males (w+) and F1 progenies were intercrossed,
F 2 generation would have shown the following
ratio:
A. 1 : 2 : 1 because of linkage of genes
B. 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 because of recombination of genes
C. Deviation from 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 ratio because of
segregation of genes
D. Deviation from 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 ratio because of
linkage of genes
28. Transcription unit is represented in the diagram given
below.

Identify site (i) factor (ii) Enzyme (iii) responsible for

y w y + w+ carrying out the process.
A. (i) Promoter Site, (ii) Rho factor (iii) RNA
Parental
y w polymerase
Yellow, white Wild type B. (i) Terminator Site, (ii) Sigma factor (iii) RNA
polymerase
C. (i) Promoter Site, (ii) Sigma factor (iii) RNA
y y
polymerase
w w
D. (i) Promoter Site, (ii) Sigma factor (iii) DNA
F1 generation
polymerase
y+ w +
Wild type Yellow, white 29. Choose the correct option wherein, the correct stages
Parental Recombinant of the development of human embryo takes place.
type (98.7%) types (1.3%) Ovary Fallopian Uterus
y+ w + y+ w Tube
A. Morula Fertilized egg Blastocyst
B. Unfertilized egg Fertilized egg Morula
Wild type White C. Unfertilized egg Fertilized egg Blastocyst
y w y w+ D. Fertilized egg Morula Blastocyst
30. Match the items given in column-A and B:
Yellow, white Yellow Column-A Column-B
F2 generation (a) Catalytic converter (i) Particulate matter
y+ w + y+ w (b) Electrostatic (ii) Carbon monoxide
precipitator and nitrogen oxides
y w y w (c) Earmuffs (iii) High noise level
Wild type White (d) Landfills (iv) Solid wastes
y w y w+
Codes:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
y w y w A. (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
Yellow, white Yellow
B. (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
Which of the following conclusions can be drawn on C. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
the basis of this cross? D. (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)

31. Which one of the following has the largest population
in a food chain?
A. Producers B. Primary consumers
C. Secondary consumers D. Decomposers
32. Crystals of Bt toxin produced by some bacteria do
not kill the bacteria themselves because:
A. bacteria are resistant to the toxin
B. toxin is immature
C. toxin is inactive
D. bacteria encloses toxin in a special sac
33. Meiosis takes place in:
A. gemmule B. megaspore
C. meiocyte D. conidia
34. Vegetative propagation in mint occurs by:
A. stolon B. offset
C. runner D. sucker
35. The term ‘clone’ cannot be applied to offspring formed
by sexual reproduction because:
A. offspring do not possess exact copies of parental
DNA
B. DNA of only one parent is copied and passed on
to the offspring
C. offspring are formed at different times
D. DNA of parent and offspring are completely
different
36. Amoeba and yeast reproduce asexually by fission and
budding respectively, because they are:
A. microscopic organisms
B. heterotrophic organisms
C. unicellular organisms
D. uninucleate organisms
37. In angiosperms, male gametes are formed by the
division of:
A. microspore mother cell
B. microspore
C. generative cell
D. vegetative cell
38. From among the sets of terms given below, identify
those that are associated with the gynoecium:
A. Stigma, ovule, embryo sac, placenta
B. Thalamus, pistil, style, ovule
C. Ovule, ovary, embryo sac, tapetum
D. Ovule, stamen, ovary, embryo sac
39. Discontinuous synthesis of DNA occurs in one strand,
because:
A. DNA molecule being synthesised is very long
B. DNA dependent DNA polymerase catalyses
polymerisation only in one direction (5 3)
C. it is a more efficient process
D. DNA ligase joins the short stretches of DNA
Sample Paper 5
40. Which of the following steps in transcription is
catalysed by RNA polymerase?
A. Initiation B. Elongation
C. Termination D. All of the above
41. Assertion : Primary transcripts in eukaryotes are
nonfunctional.
Reason : M ethyl guanosine triphosphate is
attached to 5 – end of hnRNA.
A. Both assertion and reason are true, and reason is
the correct explanation of assertion.
B. Both assertion and reason are true, but reason is
not the correct explanation of assertion.
C. Assertion is true but reason is false.
D. Both assertion and reason are false.
42. Assertion : E. coli having pBR322 with DNA insert
at BamHI site cannot grow in medium
containing tetracycline.
Reason : Recognition site for Bam HI is present
in tetR region of pBR322.
A. Both assertion and reason are true, and the reason
is the correct explanation of the assertion.
B. Both assertion and reason are true, but the reason
is not the correct explanation of the assertion.
C. Assertion is true but reason is false.
D. Both assertion and reason are false
Directions (Qs. No. 43-46): Read the following paragraph
and answer any four questions given below:
Ecological Indicators
The presence of dragonflies can reveal changes in the
water ecosystems more quickly than studying other animals
or plants. In fact, from the nymph to the adult stage, the
dragonfly has a significant, positive ecological impact.
Dragonfly eggs are laid and hatched in or near water, so
their lives impact both water and land ecosystems. Once
hatched, dragonfly nymphs can breathe underwater which
enables them to eat mosquito larvae, other aquatic insects
and worms, and even small aquatic vertebrates like tadpoles
and small fish and in the air. Adult dragonflies capture and
eat adult mosquitoes.
Community wide mosquito control programs that spray
insecticides to kill adult mosquitoes also kill dragonflies.
43. The approach to biological control includes:
A. Import and release of an insect pest to a new area
to provide hosts for natural enemies
B. Import and release of natural enemies from the
native home of an alien insect pest that has invaded
a new area
C. Preservation of natural enemies (predators &
parasitoids) that are already established in an area
D. Use of insecticides to reduce alien insect pests to
establish new equilibrium position.
 6 Sample Paper

44. Two diseases less likely to occur in a region with
plenty of dragonflies are _____ .
A. Yellow fever and Amoebic dysentery
B. Malaria and Yellow fever
C. Anthrax and Typhoid
D. Cholera and Typhoid
45. Dragonflies indicate positive ecological impact as:
A. The presence of dragonflies indicates polluted
water.
B. Dragonfly nymphs selectively eat mosquito
larvae.
C. They help to decrease the probability of diseases
spread by vectors.
D. Dragonfly do not cause any harm to beneficial
species.
46. The most effective stages in the life cycle of dragonfly
that eradicate mosquitoes are:
A. Larvae and Adult B. Caterpillar and Adult
C. Nymph and Adult D. Pupa and Adult
Directions (Qs. No. 47-50): Read the following paragraph
and answer any four questions given below:
Sickle cell anemia is a genetic disorder where the body
produces an abnormal hemoglobin called hemoglobin S.
Red blood cells are normally flexible and round, but when
the hemoglobin is defective, blood cells take on a “sickle”
or crescent shape. Sickle cell anemia is caused by mutations
in a gene called HBB.
It is an inherited blood disorder that occurs if both the
maternal and paternal copies of the HBB gene are defective.
In other words, if an individual receives just one copy of
the defective HBB gene, either from mother or father, then
the individual has no sickle cell anemia but has what is
called “sickle cell trait”. People with sickle cell trait usually
do not have any symptoms or problems but they can pass
the mutated gene onto their children. There are three
inheritance scenarios that can lead to a child having sickle
cell anemia:
— Both parents have sickle cell trait
— One parent has sickle cell anemia and the other
has sickle cell trait
— Both parents have sickle cell anemia
47. Sickle cell anemia is a/an _______ disease.
A. X linked B. autosomal dominant
C. autosomal recessive D. Y linked
48. If both parents have sickle cell trait, then there is
_______ of the child having sickle cell anemia.
A. 25% risk B. 50% risk
C. 75% risk D. No risk
49. If both parents have sickle cell trait, then there is
_______ of the child having sickle cell trait.
A. 25% risk B. 50% risk
C. 75% risk D. No risk
50. If one parent has sickle cell anemia and the other has
sickle cell trait, there is _______ that their children
will have sickle cell anemia and _______ will have
sickle cell trait.
A. 25% risk, 75% risk
B. 50% risk, 50% risk
C. 75% risk, 25% risk
D. No risk

ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B B A B A C C C B D
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
D B B B A B A A C B
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
D C B B B C D C C A
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
D C C D A C A A B B
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
B A A B C C C A B B
 Sample Paper 7

R. Gupta's® USEFUL BOOKS FOR

Book Book
Code Subjects Subjects
Code
R-2641 General Test (Section-III) R-2731 Books Series-8: Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics (Section-II)
R-2642 (Section-III) R-2732 Books Series-9: Biology, Chemistry, Physics (Section-II)
R-2703 Books Series-1: English Language (Section-IA) Books Series-12: Business Studies (Section-II)
R-2714
R-2715 Books Series-2: Accountancy/Book Keeping, R-2716 Books Series-13: History (Section-II)
Economics/Business Economics, Business Studies (Section-II) R-2717 Books Series-14: Political Science (Section-II)
R-2751 Books Series-3: History, Political Science, R-2718 Books Series-15: Geography/Geology (Section-II)
Geography/Geology (Section-II)
R-2719 Books Series-16: Home Science (Section-II)
R-2711 Books Series-4: Home Science/Sociology/
R-2720 Books Series-17: Sociology (Section-II)
History (Section-II)
R-2300 Books Series-5: Legal Studies (Section-II) R-2721 Books Series-18: Physics (Section-II)

R-2704 Books Series-6: (Section-IA) R-2722 Books Series-19: Chemistry (Section-II)

R-2723 Books Series-20: Mathematics (Section-II)
R-2706 Books Series-7: Fine Arts/Visual Arts/
Commercial Arts (Section-II) R-2724 Books Series-21: Biology (Section-II)

R-2641 R-2703 R-2715 R-2751 R-2711

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8 Sample Paper

R. Gupta's® USEFUL BOOKS FOR

Book
Subjects
Code
R-2448 CUCET—M.Com Entrance Exam

R-2569 CUCET—M.A. English Entrance Exam

R-2681 CUCET—M.A. English Previous Years' Papers (Solved)

R-2272 CUCET—M.A.

R-2260 CUCET—M.A. Mathematics Entrance Exam

R-2245 CUCET—M.A. History Entrance Exam

R-2308 CUCET—B.Ed. Entrance Exam

R-2309 CUCET—B.Ed. Previous Years' Papers (Sol.)

R-2524 CUCET—M.A. Political Science Entance Exam

R-2448 R-2569 R-2681 R-2272 R-2260

R-2245 R-2308 R-2309 R-2524

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 1

BIOLOGY / BIOTECHNOLOGY /
BIOCHEMISTRY /
BIOLOGICAL STUDIES

2732 (Biology)—1
2
 3
CHAPTER

1
DIVERSITY IN LIVING WORLD

BIOLOGY
Biology is the study of different aspects of living beings. This term Biology was coined by Lamarck and Traviranus in 1802. It has
three main general branches (zoology, botany and microbiology) but there are many specialized branches as follows.
Branch Science Study of
Aerobiology air borne organisms and structures with their distribution.
Agriculture farming, raising crops and animal husbandry
Agroforestry a type of land use in which in addition to crops, grasses and multipurpose shrubs and trees
are grown to stabilise soil and obtain useful articles like fodder, fruit, fuel, timber etc.
Agronomy soil management and production of crops.
Algalogy algae.
Anaesthesiology anaesthesia (induction of inability to feel pain)
Anatomy internal structure which can be seen by naked eye.
Animal Husbandry raising and management of domesticated animals.
Anthropology origin, development and culture of present and past races of humans.
Aquaculture rearing and management of aquatic animals.
Bacteriology bacteria
Bionics problem solving by human, animals and its technical application.
Botany study of plants in all their aspects.
Cell Biology cells in all their aspects.
Chemotaxonomy taxonomy based on chemicals present in organisms.
Chorology biogeography.
Cosmology structure and evolution of universe.
Cryobiology organisms, tissues, embryos, etc. cooled to low temperature.
Cybernetics communications and control as by brain, nervous system (neurobiology) and endocrine
system (endocrinology).
Cytology cell structure
Cytotaxonomy taxonomy (classification) based on cell constituents including chromosome number and
structure.
Dermatology skin and other body coverings.
Developmental Biology changes in structure and physiology during various stages of life.
Endocrinology endocrine glands, harmones and their effects.
Entomology insects.
Enzymology enzymes and their functions
Epidemiology distribution, causes and control measures of infectious diseases.
Ethnobotany relationships between primitive humans and plants.
Ethology animal behaviour.
3
 4

Etiology (Aetiology) life cycle of pathogen, especially on host and cause of disease.
Eugenics improvement of race by modifying fertility of different categories of individuals.
Evolution origin and development of various life forms.
Floriculture cultivation of plants for their flowers.
Forestry development and Management of forests.
Gastroenterology alimentary canal or stomach, intestine and their diseases.
Genecology genetic compositions of populations in relation to habitat or environment.
Geneology (genaeology) development of individual/race/pedigree.
Gene Therapy removal and replacement of defective genes with genes of desirable traits.
Genetic Engineering manipulation of genes for developing a desired genetic constitution.
Genetics heredity and variations
Geology earth
Gynaecology female reproductive organs.
Haematology blood.
Helminthology parasitic worms.
Histochemistry chemistry of living tissues.
Histology tissues.
Horticulture development and management of orchards and gardens.
Hygiene care for keeping good health.
Ichthyology fishes.
Immunology immunity or resistance to disease.
Kalology human beauty.
Karyology cell nucleus and chromosomes.
Kinesiology inter-relationship of anatomy and physiology with respect to movements.
Lichenlogy lichens.
Limnology (i) fresh water ecology (ii) snails.
Microbiology microorganisms or organisms less than 0.1 mm.
Morphology form and structrure it can be external or internal.
Mycology fungi.
Nematology roundworms (nematodes).
Neonatology new born.
Nephrology kidneys.
Neurology nervous system.
Occupational Therapy treating mental and physical defects with occupation.
Olericulture cultivation of vegetables.
Oncology cancers and tumours.
Ophthalmology eyes.
Organology different organs of the body.
Ornithology birds.
Paediatrics children.
Palaeobotany fossil plants and their impressions.
Parasitology parasites.
Parazoology sponges.
Pedology/Paedology edaphology.
Pharmacology synthesis and effects of medicines on organisms.
Photobiology effect of light on various biological processes.
Phycology (Algalogy) algae.
Physiology body functions.
Physiotherapy treatment of body defects through masses and exercise.
Pisciculture rearing, catching and management of fishes.
Platyhelminthology flatworms or platyhelminthes.
Pomology fruits and fruit yielding plants.
Radiology X-rays and other imaging techniques for medical diagnosis.
Radiotherapy treatment of disease with x-rays and radioactive substances.
Sericulture rearing silkworms for extraction of silk.
Silviculture (Sylviculture) cultivation of forest trees.
Speciation formation of new and distinct species.
 5

Systamatics biosystematics.
Taxonomy classification, nomenclature and identification of organisms.
Therapeutics treatment of disease.
Toxicology harmful effects of drug and other substances.
Urology structure, action functions and disorders of urinary tract (urinogential tract in males).
Venereology venereal diseases.
Virology viruses.
Zoogeography geographical distribution of animals.
Zoology animals in their various aspects.
Zootaxy classification of animals.
Zymology fermentation process.

ORIGINATORS/FATHERS

Branch Father Branch Father

Medicine Hippocrates (460 - 375B.C.). Antiseptic Surgery Joseph Lister.
Biology, Embryology Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.). Bacteriology Koch.
and Zoology Microbiology Pasteur.
Botany and Ecology Theophrastus Palynology Erdtman.
(370-287 B.C.). Endocrinology Thomas Addison.
Anatomy Andreas Vesalius Palaeontology Leonardo da Vinci.
(1514-1564). Antibiotics Alexander Fleming
Plant Anatomy N. Grew (1641-1712). (1881-1955).
Microscopy (Protozoology) Antony van Leeuwenhoek Blood circulation William Harvey (1578-1657).
Microbiology (Bacteriology) (1632-1723 ). Blood Groups Landsteiner.
Cytology Robert Hooke (1635-1703). Green Revolution Norman E. Borlaug.
Taxonomy and Nomenclature Carolus (Carlvon) Indian Green Revolution M.S. Swaminathan.
Linnaeus (1707-1778). Bird man of India Salim Ali.
Embryology C.F. Wolff (1738-1794). Indian Palaeobotany Birbal Sahni.
Immunology Edward Jenner (1749-1823). Radiation Biology Muller.
Biochemistry Liebig. Genetics Gregor Johann Mendel.
Plant Physiology Stephen Hales (1677-1761). Eugenics Francis Galton.
Mycology Micheli. Biochemical/Human Genetics Archibald Garrod.
Experimental Genetics T. H. Morgan.
Bryology Hedwig. Genetic Engineering Paul Berg.
Parasitology Platter. DNA Fi

FAMOUS INDIAN BIOLOGIST P. Maheshwari Embryology

(Father of Indian Embryology)
A.K. Sharma Cytology P.N. Mehra Pteridology
B.B. Mundkur Plant Pathology Prof. Salim Ali Ornithology
B.K. Nair Palynology R. Mishra Ornithology
B.P. Pal Plant Breeding R.P. Roy Ecology
Birbal Sahni Palaeobotany (Father of S.R. Kashyap Cytogenetics, Tissue Culture and Plant
Indian Palaeobotany) Breeding
H. Santapau Taxonomy T.S. Sadasivan Mycology
Indira Hinduja in vitro Fertilization V. Puri Morphology
J.C. Bose Plant Physiology
J.J. Chinoy Plant Physiology Understanding Life
K.A. Chaudhari Xylotomy Even after all attempts, life has not been defined absolutely
K.C. Mehta Plant Pathology satisfactorily so far. It may be called that state of an animal or
Lalji Singh DNA Finger Printing a plant in which its organs are capable of performing their
M.S. Swaminathan Cytogenetics functions, or in which the performance of functions has not
O.P. Iyengar Phycology (Father of Indian Algology) permanently ceased.
 6
CHAPTER

2
STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION
IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS
5. Binomial Nomenclature
PRINCIPLES OF SYSTEMATICS
(i) This is scientific naming, first given by C. Linnaeus
AND FIVE KINGDOMS (1735) in his book Systema Naturae and
afterwards in ‘Species Plantarum’ (1753).
IMPOR TANT POINTS (ii) Used two Latin words for any organism, the first
1. Because the job of identifying and naming millions of being Generic name and the second a specific
species of the living world is a herculian task. Further, as name.
(iii) The generic name starts with a capital letter and
common names vary from country to country, the need
the species name with a small letter.
for a universal language such as Latin came into use.
(iv) No two animals or plants can have the same name.
2. Taxon is a group of any particular rank e.g. family and
(v) The scientific names are printed in italics or
rank in taxonomy. Taxonomy is the area of systematics
underlined if hand-written, followed with the name
which covers the principles and procedures of
of the author who first validly described it.
classification. (vi) Binomial nomenclature can include to trinomial
3. Classification (a part of systematics) a lists the unique nomenclature also by the addition of subspecies
characters of each taxon. or variety .
4. Hierarchy of categories in classification (vii) According to ‘Law of Priority ’, the first legitimate
(i) To make the hierarchy of classification, one or name is considered valid in case an organism is
more species are grouped into a genus , of genera given more than one name.
into a family, families intoorder , orders into class, 6. Types of Species
classes into phylum and various phyla into (i) Allopatic species: Species have different areas of
kingdom. geographic distribution.
(ii) The hierarchy of seven major categories are given (ii) Sympatric species: Species have same or
as below: overlapping areas of geographic distribution.
(1) Kingdom (the highest taxonomic category) (iii) Polytypic species: Species having two or more
(2) Division/phylum subspecies.
(3) Class (iv) Taxonomic species: Species having a definite
(4) Order binomial name.
(5) Family (v) Sibling species: True species, do not interbreed
(6) Genus but difficult to distinguish, morphologically.
(7) Species (the lowest and the basic (vi) Biospecies: Species erected on the basis of
taxonomic category) reproductive and genetic isolation of a natural
(iii) At times authors use a category called ‘Cohort’ , a population.
group of related species. It is usually placed (vii) Macrospecies: A large polymorphic species with
between order and class. several subdivisions.

6

(viii) Microspecies/Jordan’s species: A true breeding
genetic unit below the rank of species.
(ix) Morphospecies: Species erected on the basis of
morphological characters only.
(x) Paleospecies or Fossil species: Species found as
fossils only.
(xi) Neontological species: Living species of today.
(xii) Synchronic species: Two or more species belong-
ing to same time period.
(xiii) Agamospecies: Asexually reproducing species like
Amoeba and Euglena .
(xiv) Gamospecies: Sexually reproducing species.
(xvi) Allochronic species: Two or more species
belonging to different time periods.
(xvii) Keystone species: Species which determines the
biotic structure of the entire community by
predation or by any control mechanism. Sea-otters
that feed on invertebrates is classic example of
this species.
Systems of Classification. Three most impo rtant ones are :
Artificial system
(a) Organisms categorised on the basis of one or few
superficial (morphological) characters.
(b) Proposed by Theophrastus in his book, Historia
Plantarum
(c) This classification is based on Bauhin and
Linnaeus’s work.
(d) Linnaeus system : known as sexual system of
classification. Classified on the basis of number,
size and union of sex organs.
Natural system
(a) Organisms categorised on the basis of natural
characters like presence or absence of petals
(b) de Jussieu attempted this method for the first time
in his book
(c) This classification is based on de Candolle’s work
described in his book ‘ Theorie elementaire de la
botanique (1813); the word ‘Taxonomy’ was used
in this book
(d) It is based on idea of ‘ fixity of species ’. Approx.
202 families recognized in this system
Phylogenetic system
(a) Organisms categorised on the basis of relationship
with their ancestors
(b) Proposed by Darwin and Wallance
evolutionary theory was a base for this system
(c) This classification is based on Eichler’s system
of classification
(d) Adolph Engler and Kari A.E. Prantl published
this in their book, Die Naturlichen Pflanzen-
familien.
7. Conservative characters. There are characters which have
changed little during the evolutionary history.
7
8. Speciation is the process by which a new species diverges
from the existing one.
9. Classification of organisms have come a long way from
Linnaean two kingdom system to presently accepted five
kingdom system.
10. The main characteristics of five kingdoms are as follows :
(i) Kingdom Monera (Prokaryotes)
 Includes bacteria, cyanobacteria and archae-
bacteria.
 Unicellular, microscopic, solitary or colonial
forms.
 Can respire aerobically or anaerobically and
reproduce by asexual, sexual or vegetative
methods.
 Act as decomposers and mineralisers and some
may be concerned with nitrogen fixation also.
 No membrane bound organelles like
Mitochondria and Golgi complex. No nuclear
membrane.
 Mode of nutrition: autotrophic, chemo-
autotrophic, saprophytic, symbiotic or
parasitic.
(ii) Kingdom Protista (Unicellular Eukaryotes)
 Usually aquatic and planktonic (phyto-
planktons or zooplanktons).
 Organisation ranges from unicellular to
multicellular colonial forms.
 Some are commensals and some are parasites
(heterotrophic or absorptive mode of nutrition)
 Some coloured algae contain various types of
accessory pigments.
 Reproduction is by asexual as well as sexual
modes and both haploid as well as diploid forms
exist.
 Locomotion pseudopodial, ciliary or flagellar
depending on the type of locomotary append-
ages present.
 The phytoplanktons are producers whereas the
zooplanktons are consumers (holozoic
nutrition).
(iii) Kingdom Fungi (Multicellular Decomposers)
 Include non-green plants that are the important
decomposers and mineralizers.
 Hyphae constitute an entangled cottony mass
of filaments termed mycelium that may be
as
aseptate coenocytic or septate multicellular.
 Possess a cell wall made up of chitin or fungal
cellulose and membrane bound organelles.
 May be solitary unicellular types or
multicellular filamentous types called hyphae.
 Plastids absent.
 Mode of nutrition heterotrophic (absorption
and extracellular digestion), saprophytic or
parasitic.
 8

 Non-motile in forms but some may produce VIRUSES

motile zoospores.
 Embryo formation does not occur but various It can be described as an extremely small infectious agent which
fruiting bodies are formed. causes a variety of disease in plants and animals, e.g. small
 Most members pathogenic on plants as well as
pox, common cold. Viruses can only reproduce in living tissues.
Outside the living cell, they exist as inactive particles
animals and cause various diseases as rust,
surrounded by a protein coat.
smut and mildew (in higher plants.)
 Useful fungi include yeast, Penicillium etc. Some Common Viruses
used in bakery, brewery and antibiotic A. ssRNA Viruses
industries. 1. Tobamovirus Group
 Intercellular mycelia give out haustoria that  Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)
absorb the nutrients from host cells.  Cucumber green mottle mosaic virus
 Asexual and sexual reproduction observed;  Tomato mosaic virus
 Sunhemp mosaic virus
members with no sexual reproduction known
2. Potecvirus Group
fungi imperfecti .
 Potato virus X
 Edible fungi: mushrooms and morels.
 Potato aucuba mosaic virus
(iv) Kingdom Plantae (Multicellular Producers)  Papaya mosaic virus
 Members consist of multicellular, green,  Cassava common mosaic virus
photosynthetic, primary producers of the 3. Carlavirus Group
biosphere.  Carnation latent virus
 Aquatic as well as terrestrial, large-bodied and  Chicory blotch virus
non-motile (except bryophytes which produce  Hop latent virus
motile zoospores.)  Poplar mosaic virus
 Cells bound by cellulosic cell wall and contain 4. Potyvirus Group
the photosynthetic pigments or chloroplast.  Potato virus Y
 Higher plants have complex cellular organiza-  Beet mosaic virus
tion and vascular tissues (tracheophytes). B. dsRNA Plant viruses ( Reovirus Group )
 Wound tumour virus (WTV)
 Reproduction: by vegetative and sexual
 Rice dwarf virus (RDV)
methods.
 Maize rough dwarf virus (MRDV)
 All plants produce seeds except bryophytes
 Rice black-streaked dwarf virus
and pteridophytes. C. dsDNA Plant viruses
 Nutrition: autotrophic, absorptive (insecti-  Cauliflower mosaic virus (CMV)
vorous plants) or parasitic (totally parasitic e.g.  Dahlia mosaic virus (DMV)
Cuscuta or partial parasite, e.g. Santalum. )
 Lower plants possess simple thalloid organiza- Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)
tion and lack vascular tissue (bryophytes).  TMV: a rod-shaped virus. Each virus particle is about 300
(v) Kingdom Animalia (Multicellular Consumers) nm (3000 Å) long and 18 nm (180 Å) in diameter.
 Consist of multicellular, eukaryotic organisms,  Made up of protein coat and RNA
lacking cell wall, plastids and photosynthetic  The protein coat consists of 2130 identical protein
pigments. subunits termed capsomeres .
 Nutrition: by ingestion and subsequent  RNA is single stranded and can be infective by itself
digestion within the gastric cavity : some alone.
possess absorption type of nutrition (parasites). Animal Viruses: They have 6 classes
 Reproduction: asexual or sexual in lower forms (i) Ds DNA Viruses
while predominantly sexual in higher forms. Papovaviruses Polymo virus and SV 40
 Animals: main consumers in the food chain and
Poxviruses Vaccinia Virus
Adenoviruses Few human adenoviruses
may be primary consumers (herbivores) or
Herpesviruses Human herpes simplex types I
secondary consumers (carnivores) .
and II
 Bear locomotory appendages and are, therefore,
(ii) ss DNA Viruses
motile. Parvoviruses Adeno associated virus (AAV)
 Characterized by well developed muscular and (iii) ds RNA Viruses
nervous systems. Reoviruses Reovirus of humans
 9

(iv) Positive strand RNA viruses  Wildfire disease of tobacco : Psuedomonas tabaci
Picornaviruses Poliovirus  Plant tumours or crown gallls : Agrobacterium
Togaviruses Dengue virus, yellow fever virus, tumefaciens
Semliki Forest Virus (SFV)
(v) Negative strand RNA viruses CAUSA TIVE AGENTS OF SOME HUMAN
Rhabdoviruses Rabies virus and vesicular DISEASES
stomatitis virus (VSV) Tuberculosis - Mycobacterium hominis
Paramyxoviruses Mumps virus, Measles virus and
Diptheria - Corynebacterium
Sendai virus
diptheriae
Orthomyxo viruses Human influenza virus
Bunya viruses Bunya wera viruses Cholera - Vibrio cholerae
Arenaviruses Lassa viruses Leprosy - Mycobacterium leprae
(iv) RNA-DNA Viruses Tetanus - Clostridium tetani
Retro viruses HIV, Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) Pneumonia - Diplococcus pneumoniae
Mouse leukemia virus Meningitis - Neisseria meningitides
Food poisoning - Clostridium botulinum
BACTERIA Plague - Pasteurella pestis
Rat-bite fever - Spirillum minus
1. They are single cell organisms thus the smallest living Enteritis - Escherichia coli
organisms. They include bacteria, blue green algae and Urinogential infection - Klebsiella sp.
viruses although viruses are not cellular on account of Bacillary dysentery - Shigella sp.
their complex genetic machinery. Undulant fever - Brucella sp.
2. Can live in extreme conditions of high temperature 80- Abscesses - Staphylococcus
90°C i.e., acidothermophillics as well as extreme low Anthrax - Bacillus anthracis
temperatures -190°C i.e., psychrophillic
3. Genetic material: naked circular DNA termed as nucleoid PATHOGENIC i.e. DISEASE PRODUCING
or prochromosome. PROTOZOANS
4. No cell organerally in cytoplasm except ribosomes.
5. Cellulose is generally absent in their cell walls except in I. Parasites of Mouth
few as Acetobacter xylinum and Zumosarcina. 1. Entamoeba gingivalis : A sarcodina that lives in the
6. Typical flagellum is absent, monofibrillar and is made up tarter of teeth and pockets of gums, they probably
of flagellin proteins. aggravate pyorrhoea in man. They are also found in
7. Bacteria have heterotrophic nutrition (saprotropic or dogs and cats. The human infection is caused by kissing.
parasitic or symbiotic). 2. Trichomonas tenax : A flagellate also lives in pus
8. Some are autotrophic, either photosynthetic (e.g. pockets formed between teeth and gums. It causes
cyanobacteria ; green and purple bacteria) or pyorrhoea . It is transmitted during kissing.
chmeosynthetic (or chemoautotrophic) 3. Leishmania braziliensis : A flagellate lives in the nasal
9. They are the only living organisms which can fix mucous membrane. It causes espundia. The infection
atmospheric nitrogen. is transmitted to man by the bite of sand-fly.
CAUSA TIVE AGENTS OF SOME ANIMAL II. Parasites of Digestive Tract
DISEASES 1. Entamoeba histolytica: It lives in the colon of man,
 Chicken cholera : Salmonella sp. sometimes in dogs and cats. It causes amoebic
 Sheep anthrax : Bacillus anthracis dysentery. It may reach liver, spleen, lungs and liver
 Eye diseases : Chalmydia trachomatis and causes amoebic abscesses. Infection takes place
 Pneumonia : Mycoplasma pneumoniae by swallowing of cysts.
2. Trichomonas hominis: It lives in large intestine of man,
CAUSA TIVE AGENT OF SOME PLANT monkeys, cats and dogs. It causes diarrhoea and
DISEASES dysentery. It is transmitted through infective cysts.
3. Chilomonas: It lives in large intestine of man and causes
 Fire blight of pear : Xanthomonas
diarrhoea and allied troubles. Transmission is by means
 Angular leafspot of cotton : Xanthomonas malvacearum
of infective cysts.
 Soft rot of potato, tomato, cabbage and turnip: Erwinia 4. Giardia intestinalis: It lives in large intestine of man
aroideae and causes diarrhoea. Transmission takes place by
 Black rot of potato : Erwinia atroseptica tetranucleated cyst with contaminated food and water.
2732 (Biology)—2
 10

5. Isopara hominis : It lives in the large intestine, some or kala-azar. Infection occurs by the bite of sand-
other species occur in dogs and cats. They cause fly, Phlebotomus.
diarrhoea and abdominal discomforts. Infection occurs 2. L. tropica : It occurs in the endothelial cells of
by oocysts through contamination. dermal tissues causing Oriental sores or
6. Sarocystis : It occurs in the muscles of oesophagus of cutaneous leishmaniasis in man. Infections
sheep causing weakness of muscles. Transmission occurs by the bite of sand-fly, Phlebotomus.
occurs by cysts. 3. L. infentum : It occurs in the spleen of children.
7. Nosema apis : It occurs in the intestine and malpighian It causes enlargement of spleen. Transmission is
tubules of honey bee causing Nosemia. bite of sand fly, Phlebotomus.
8. Balantidium coli : It lives in the colon of man causing (c) Plasmodium species: A number of species of
chronic ciliary dysentery. Transmission is by infective Plasmodium occur as intracellular parasites in red
cysts. blood corpuscles of man and birds. The female
9. Eimeria : It is found in the digestive tract of sheep, Anopheles is the vector.
birds and cattle. It causes diarrhoea. Transmission 1. Plasmodium vivax : It causes beningn tertian
occurs by oocysts. malaria.
10. Trichomonas gallinae : It is found in the epithelial lining 2. P. ovale: It causes beningn ovale tertian malaria.
of oesophagus and crops of fowl, pigeons and turkeys. 3. P. falciparum : It occurs malignant subtertian
It causes necrotic nodules. Transmission is through malaria.
droppings. 4. P. malariae : It causes quartan fever.
11. Histomonas meleagridis : It lives in the liver of turkeys 5. P. praecox : It causes malaria in birds.
and fowls causing black-head disease. Transmission 6. P. gallinaceum : It causes malaria in chicken and
occurs by ingesting contaminated eggs of caecal worm. phesants.
III. Parasites of Blood and Lymph (d) Babesia species: Many species of Babesia are found
in cattle, dogs and horses. These are:
(a) Trypanosoma species: A number of species of 1. Babesia begemina : It occurs in R.B.C. of cattles
Trypanosoma are parasites in the blood of man as causing Texas and Red water fever. It is
well as some other vertebrates. trasmitted by the bite of tick, Boophilus.
1. T. gambiense : It occurs in the human blood 2. B. canis : It occurs in R.B.C. of cattles, causing
causing African sleeping sickness. It gets jaundice and sometimes paralysis of hind-limbs.
transmitted through the bite of testse fly, Transmission occurs through the sicks.
Glossina palpalis. (e) Haemoproteus: It is found in the R.B.Cs. and
2. T. rhodesiense : In man it causes Rhodesian endothelial cells of blood vessels in birds.
sleeping sickness. It is transmitted through the
bite of testse fly. Glossina morsitans. IV. Parasites of Urogenital Tract
3. T. cruzi: In early stage it is found in the muscles,
1. Trichomonas vaginalis : It is found in the vagina of
heart, brain, spinal cord and in later stages in the
female causing vaginitis (annoying itch and abnormal
blood. It causes changas disease in South and
discharge) and in man it is found in urethra.
Central Africa. Infection is transmitted by the bite
Transmission is direct through intercourse.
of bug, Tritoma magista.
2. Trichomonas foetus : It occurs in the urogenital system
4. T. brucei : It causes nagana disease in
of sheep, horse and cattle and causes uterine and penial
domesticated cattles and it is transmitted by
disorders. Transmission is direct through intercourse.
Glossina morsitans.
3. Eimeria truncata : It occurs in the kidneys of goose
5. T. enevsi: It occurs in the blood of horse, dogs
causing death.
and camels, It causes surra disease. It is
transmitted by Tabanus fly. Plant Pathogenic Fungi
6. T. equiperdum: It is found in the blood and
germinal epithelium of horses, dogs and donkeys. Disease Organism
It causes dourine disease in horse. The disease Foot rot of seeding Pythium sp .
is transmitted during copulation. Late blight of potato Phytophthora sp.
(b) Leishmania species: It is a parasite of man and other Wilt of tomato Fusarium sp.
animals. Some of them are as follows: Leaf spot of turmeric Taphrina
1. Leishmania donovani : It is found in the Red rot of sugarcane Colletotrichum
endothelial cells of blood and lymph capillaries White rust of radish Albugo candida
and leucocytes in the spleen, liver , bone marrow Powdery mildew of pea Erysiphe polygoni
and lymph gland causing visceral leishmaniasis Rust of wheat Puccinia graminis
 11

Human Pathogenic Fungi Common names Zoological names

Disease Organism Eel Anguilla
Ring worm Microsporum audouini Electric fish Torpedo
Athletes foot Epidermophyton fuccosum Fresh water shark Wallago atter
Flat fish Cynoglossus
and Trichophyton sp.
Flying fish Exocoetus
Barber’s itch Trichophyton sp.
Flute fish Fistularia
Onychomycoses Microsporum sp. and Globe fish Tetradon
Trichophyton rubrum Garpike Lepidosteus
Aspergillosis Aspergillus fumigatus Hammer headed fish Sphyma
Candidiasis Candida albicans Mosquito fish Gambusia
Indian shad Hilas ilisha
SOME COMMON FISHES Porcupine fish Diodon
Pipe fish Syngnathus
Common names Zoological names Rabbit fish Chimaera
Saw fish Pristis
Africa lung fish Protopterus
Sucker fish Echeneis
American lung fish Lepidosiren Sea horse Hippocampus
Climbing perch Anabas Sting ray Trigon
Cat fish Clarius Sturgeon Acipencer
Coelacanth fish Latemeria Tiger shark Stegostoma
Dog fish Scloliodon Whale shark Rhyncodon
 12
CHAPTER
3
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Cell: Cell is a unit of structure and biological activity made of
an organised mass of protoplasm surrounded by a protective
and selectively permeable covering.
Cytology: It is the study of form, structure and contents of
cells as observed under the microscope. The term was coined
by Hertwig (1893) who also wrote a book on ‘Cells and Tissues’.
Cell Biology: Cell biology is the study of all aspects of cells
and their components including their structure, biochemistry,
development and physiology. It is a unifying subject that is
akin to studying life because of the fundamental processes of
cells are not only similar but are actually life processes that
make the cells living entities.
Tools and Techniques for Cell Study: Tools for cell study are
devices and instruments called microscopes. Techniques are
skills required to aid study of cells and their components. They
are histological preparations, cytochemistry, autoradiography,
cell fractionation, biochemical techniques and tissue culture.
Units of Measurement
1 mm = 0.1 cm = 0.001 m
1 micrometre/micron/m/ = 0.001 mm
= 10–3 mm = 10–6 m (10–4 cm)
1 nanometre/millimicron/nm/m = 0.001 m
= 10–3 m = 10–6 mm = 10–9 m = (10–7 cm)
1 angstrom/Å = 0.1 nm = 10–4 mm
= 10–7 mm 10–10 m (=10–8 cm)
Smaller units are picometre = 10 –12 m, femtometre =
10 m and attometre = 10–18 m.
–15
Common unit of measurement in microscopy (as well cytology)
and photometry is nm (nanometre) while unit for measurement
of cells in m (micrometre, previously called micron or ).
Microscopy: It is the practice of using microscopes for the
study of finer details of small objects including cells and tissues.
Size of Image with the
Instrument at retina
Magnificat ion 
Size of Image with
Unaided Eye at retina
12
Magnification of a microscope is roughly equal to the
multiple of magnifying power of objective lens and ocular lens
eye (eye piece), e.g., 45 × objective and 105 eye piece = 450 ×
magnification.
Microtomy: Microscopic examination requires sectioning and
staining. Sectioning is done by hand or machine known as
microtome (developed by W.His). Extremely thin sections
(20-100 nm) are obtained by ultramicrotome using glass or
diamond knife.
X-ray Crystallography (Bragg, 1913): X-ray microscope
(developed by Kirkpatrick) is useful in studying detailed
structures of chemicals present in solid state (e.g., haemoglobin,
insulin, DNA, RNA) due to diffraction of X-rays (wavelength
1 – 10 Å) by different atoms of the substance. Watson and
Crick (1953) found out the structure of DNA from X-ray
diffraction obtained by Astbury and Franklin (1953).
Cytochemistry: A number ofdyes or stains are known to colour
specific parts. Certain dyes can be used even in case of living
materials. They are calledvital stains, e.g., neutral red, methylene
blue. Fuelgen or Schiff’s reaction was developed by Fuelgen
and Rossenbeck (1924). It employs basic fuchsin after acid
hydrolysis.
Tracer Isotopes: Radioactive isotopes function like normal
elements but emit radiations. Thus they can be located by
Geiger counter or scintillation counter and autoradiography,
e.g., 3H, 14 C, 32 P, 35 S, 42 K. Instead of radioactive isotopes,
heavy isotopes like 15 N and 18 O can be used and are analysed
by mass spectroscopy (photosynthetic evolution of oxygen
from water by Ruben et al , 1941) and density gradients
centrifugation.
Autoradiography: Radioactive isotopes (3H, 14C, 32P, 35S) are
incorporated in intermediate or raw materials (e.g., CO2, uridine,
thymidine, amino acids) for studying metabolic pathways
including DNA  RNA  Protein pathway.
Svedberg Unit (S): It is a unit to measure sedimentation rate or
sedimentation coefficient of a particle in an analytical
ultracentrifuge . It is related to weight and volume of a material,
 13
e.g. 4S tRNA has a molecular weight of about 25000 daltons.
Microspectrophotometry: Solutions, gases and solids
containing chemicals are subjected to different radiations.
Absorption spectra are compared to know the chemicals.
CELL—THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
1. Robert Hooke coined the term ‘Cell’ for small structures
in a piece of cork under a microscope (1665). His
observations were published in his book, Micrographia.
2. Leeuwenhoek (1674) observed one celled structure like
bacteria, protozoans and blood cells. Dutrochet later
confirmed that plants were also made up of cells.
3. Cell is now defined as structural and functional unit of
the body. There are two general classes of cells:
Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells.
4. Theories in cytology
(i) Colloidal theory: Protoplasm is polyphasic colloidal
solution that generates energy of life.
(ii) Protoplasm theory: It states that an organism is
made up protoplasm and cells are simply an
accumulation of protoplasm.
(iii) Organismal theory: According to it an organism is
a continuous mass of protoplasm segmented into
cells. Idea of cell theory was first given by H.J.
Dutrochet (1824) .
(iv) Cell theory: The credit of forming the cell theory
goes to German botanist, M.J. Schleiden (1838)
and German zoologist, T. Schwann (1839) .
Outlines of cell theory include: (a) A cell is the basic
unit of life and (b) cells arise de novo.
(v) Modern cell theory or cell principle or cell doctrine.
It states that:
(a) all organism are made up of cells
(b) cells arise from pre-existing cells ( Omnis
cellulae cellula )
(c) all organisms atart their life from a single cell
(d) multiplication of cells and their growth leads
to the growth of an organism.
5. Cell size: Two important factors contribute to the cell size:
(i) Nucleocytoplasmic ratio and
(ii) Surface area of a cell
6. Cellular totipotency
(i) The capacity of a cell to form whole of the organism
is called totipotency , as called by Morgan .
(ii) Pluripotency means the ability to differentiate
completely after cell maturity.
(iii) German botanist, Gottlieb Haberlandt was the first
to culture plant tissues ‘ in vitro ’.
(iv) Callus is the mass of undifferentiated cells formed
by growth of a totipotent cell in culture.
(v) Callus was first time differentiated to whole plant
of tobacco by Skoog and Miller .
7. Comparison of sizes
Organs > 1 mm
Tissues 10 – 100m
Cells 0.3 – 10 m
Cell components 1 – 200 nm
Molecules and Atoms < 1 nm
8.
(i) Smallest cell is Mycoplasma gallisepticum (0.1 m)
which is also referred to as PPLO (Pleuro-pneumonia
like organism) or Jokers of plant kingdom.
(ii) Largest prokaryote is Spirillum volutans (15 m)
(iii) Largest plant cell is an alga,Acetabularia (8-10 cm)
(iv) Longest animal cell is egg of Ostrich (175 mm ×
158 mm)
(v) Longest cell fibre is Ramie fibre ofBoehmeria nivea
(550 mm)
(vi) Longest animal cell is a nerve cell (1 m long)
9. Prokaryotes: These cells are small in size and are exhibited
by bacteria and cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae)
They have the following characteristic features:
(i) The cell wall is made of murein derived from amino
acids (glutamic acid, alanine, glycine and lysine).
sometimes instead of lysine similar substance like
N-acetyl glucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid are
present.
(ii) Plasma membrane forms infoldings called
mesosomes or chondrioids which control DNA
replication, cell division and respiration as they store
respiratory enzymes.
(iii) Membrane bound organelles such as mitochondria,
plastids, ER and Golgi bodies are absent .
(iv) Vacuoles are absent , however, protosynthetic
prokaryotes including both bacteria and blue-green
algae possess gas bubbles.
(v) Flagella (if present) lack 9 + 2 fibrillar structure but
have a single fibril made up of flagellin proteins.
(vi) Cytoplasmic streaming (cyclosis) is absent .
(vii) These cells divide by simple fission.
(viii) Organized nucleus is absent but a simple structure
called nucleoid or chromatin body or genophore is
present. The nucleoid lacks nuclear envelope and
nucleolus but contains a single circular molecule
of double-stranded DNA which is also called a ring-
chromosome. The DNA does not have histone
proteins associated with it, but contain acidic
proteins.
10. Eukaryotes: These cells contain a membrane-bound
nucleus having nucleolus and chromosomes, and
membrane bound organelles. They are of two types: plant
cells and animals cells.
11. The plant cell: A typical plant cell can be differentiated
into three parts:
(a) Cell Wall (b) Protoplasm and (c) Vacuole.
12. Protoplasm: The term ‘protoplasm’ was first given by
Purkinje (1839) for the living substance of the cell.
 14
In 1846, Hugo Von Mohl introduced a distinction between
the protoplasm and cell sap. Protoplasm is a viscous
colourless fluid and is the seat for all the physiological
functions. Later in 1868, Huxley suggested that
‘protoplasm is the physical basis of life ’.
4. The plasma membrane is permeable but differentially
BIOMEMBRANES
1. All cells and most of the organelles are enveloped by a
thin membrane called plasma membrane. This was
discovered by Nageli and Crammer in 1855. It was called
‘plasmalemma’ by J.Q. Plowe (1931).
2. Feature of plasma membrane
Occurrence : Found in animals, plants, fungi
and bacterial cells
Thickness : 75 Å
Composition Lipids : They form the main bulk and exist
in form of phospholipids (30 to
40%). They mostly occur in form
of lecithin and have hydrophilic
heads and hydrophobic tails.
Proteins : They form the backbone with 40-
60% of the plasma membrane and
form structural components,
carrier molecules and enzymes.
They exist in intrinsic and
extrinsic forms.
Carbohydrates : They are about 1 to 6%.
Salts and Water : They are present in small
amounts.
3. Structure : Various models can be as under
(i) Danielli and Davson model: It is also called
bimolecular leaflet model or sandwich model or
lamellar model which was proposed by Danielli and
Davson (1934). According to this model, the two
globular proteins layers were thought to sandwich
a phospholipid bilayer.
(ii) Lattice model: It was proposed by Wolpers (1941).
According to him lipids were thought to be
distributed in the meshes of protein frame work.
(iii) Robertson unit membrane model: This concept of
Robertson (1959) explains that a phospholipid
bilayer is surrounded by two continuous protein
layers.
(iv) Fluid mosaic model: Finally in 1972 this model was
introduced by S. Singer and G. Nicholson.
According to it the protein molecules were put
within the phospholipid bilayer and two types of
globular proteins, extrinsic and intrinsic were
introduced in this model. This is the most acceptable
theory.
(v) Micellar model: This was proposed by Hillier and
Hoffman (1953). The model explains that lipid
micelles (globular subunits) form the building block
and the protein globules are arranged on either
sides.
(vi) Greater membrane model: It was given by
Lehminger. According to him. The inner surface of
the membrane is covered by unconjugated proteins
and outer surface by glycoproteins to which
oligosaccharide side chains are attached.
(selectively) and performs following functions.
(i) Transport
(a) Plasma membrane acts as a barrier but permits
few substances into and out of the cell.
(b) The nutrient materials are taken in while the
waste products are expelled out.
(ii) Cell recognition and Adhesion
(a) Cells like mammalian leucocytes are able to
differentiate between foreign cells and other
cell of blood by adhering to the foreign particles
and engulfing them by phagocytosis.
(b) Sialic acid (an amino-sugar) present on the
surface of plasma membranne is possible
involved in cell recognition and adhesion.
(iii) Antigen Specificity
(a) The specificity of antigens of the cells is
determined by the glycoproteins present on
the cell surface.
(b) The different blood group system is based on
the relationship between antigens on RBC and
antibodies in blood serum.
(iv) Hormone Receptors
(a) Hormone receptors are located on the outer
surface in the plasma membrane.
(b) These recognize the specific hormones and
relay the information of the hormone to the
anterior of the cell.
(v) Secretion
(a) Secretion occurs in the ribosome at the
endoplasmic reticulum and the secretory
products are condensed in Golgi complex.
(b) The secretory vesicles, from Golgi complex,
carrying the products, move to cell periphery
and fuse with the plasma membrane.
(vi) Oxidative Phosphorylation
(a) The inner membrane of the plasma membrane
has the electron transport chain that can
transfer electrons.
(b) Electrons from substrate pass along this chain
and cause reduction and oxidation of each
component.
(c) During the process free energy is decreased,
half of which is utilized in synthesis of ATP.
(d) This is called oxidative phosphorylation.
(vii) Endocytosis
(a) It is the process of transport of substances to
the interior of the cell by formation of vesicles.
(b) It includes phagocytosis (cell eating) and
pinocytosis (cell drinking).
 15
(c) Phagocytosis involves ingestion of solid
particles whereas pinocytosis refers to
ingestion of fluid material.
(viii) Exocytosis
(a) It is reverse of endocytosis and also called as
cell vomiting.
(b) Membrane of vesicles (formed in cell interior)
reach the periphery and fuse with plasma-
membrane thereby releasing their contents to
the outside of cell.
(ix) Chemoreception
(a) The chemoreceptors present in membranes of
bacteria and protozoa are proteins.
(b) In mammals, the binding proteins associated
with the cell membranes act as chemoreceptors
for taste and smell.
(c) In man, specific receptor proteins for four
distinct tastes sour, sweet, bitter and salty, have
been found to occur.
(x) Transmission
(a) The surface membrane of the nerve cells is
found to be involved in the transmission of
nerve impulses.
Separation and Protection
(b) Plasma membrane separates and protects the
living protoplasm from its non-living
environment.
(xi) Excitation: Membrane of excitable cells e.g. ( muscle
and nerve cells) is capable of series of reversible
structural and functional changes.
(xii) Enzymatic Action of the External Environment:
Several enzymes are integral part of plasma
membrane and by virtue of which the membranes
can act chemically on their immediate environment.
(xiii) Division and Fusion: Cell membranes can divide to
form new cells or vesicles within a plasma membrane,
both processes are intimately related.
(xiv) Regeneration and repair
(a) Plasma membrane is able to:
* reform rapidly over exposed regions of
cytoplasm.
* fuse with one another if ruptured.
* expand and contract during cell movement
or changes in cell shape.
(b) These abilities suggest fluid and dynamic
nature of membrane.
CELL ORGANELLES
I. Cell Wall
1. Monerans, plant protistans, fungi and plants have
characteristic cell wall around their plasma membrane
which is lacking in animals cells.
2. The cell wall is non-living which is secreted and
maintained by the protoplasm. It constitutes a frame-
work that provides mechanical support to the organisms.
3. In plants it is composed principally of cellulose.
4. Adjacent walls are cemented by calcium pectate which
forms middle lamella .
5. On the basis of development and structure, the plant
cell wall can be divided into three layers
(a) Primary wall
(b) Secondary wall
(c) Tertiary wall.
6. Plasmodesmata. In most of the plant cells, there are
bridges of cytoplasmic material called plasmodesmata
which establish the continuity between the adjacent
cells through the pores present in the cell wall. They
have a thin plasma membrane and may contain
microtubules.
II. Nucleus
1. It discovered by a English botanist, Robert Brown in
1831, and is designated as the ‘ Director of the cell. ’
2. It is the largest organelle within eukaryotic cells, ranges
from 5 to 25 mm in size.
3. Its nucleus is called karyology.
4. Some cells like those of sieve tubes of vascular plants
and RBCs of mammals do not posses nuclei at maturity.
As they can no longer divide, their life span is limited.
5. It consists of nuclear envelope or karyotheca
(i) nucleoplasm or nuclear sap or karyolymph or
karyoplasm
(ii) nucleolus
(iii) nuclear reticulum or chromatin reticulum .
6. The term ‘chromosome’ was coined by Waldeyer is
1888.
7. Their number is constant in the nucleus for a particular
species.
8. The lowest diploid number known among plants is 4,
found in Haplopappus gracillis whereas
Ophioglossum reticulatum has as high as 1,260
chromosomes.
9. Among animals Parascaris univalens has only 2
chromosomes while Aulacantha has 1,600
chromosomes per cell.
10. According to centromeric position chromosomes are
of five types :
(i) Telocentric chromosomes: centromere situated
on one end.
(ii) Acrocentric chromosomes: with centromere little
away from the tip and have one very small arm.
(iii) Sub-metacentric chromosomes: These are
L-shaped chromosomes with unequal arms.
(iv) Metacentric chromosomes: centromere in the
middle with equal arms. These are V-sphaped
chromosomes.
(v) Acentric : without centromere.
11. Structure of chromosomes
(i) The chromosome consists of proteinaceous
matrix and two spirally coiled chromonemata,
 16
each one of which contains a single DNA
molecule.
(ii) When the coils of chromonemata are easily
separable, they are referred to asparanemic coils.
(iii) When chromonemata remain so inter-twined that
their coils are not easily separable then such coils
are called plectonemic .
(iv) Each chromonema (singular) possesses bead-like
thickenings called chromomeres .
(v) However, recent studies have shown that each
individual chromosome in the eukaryotic cell
contains a single chromonema which represents
a single DNA molecule.
(vi) Each chromosome has one (sometimes two or
more) clear zone, called centromere or
kinetochore or Primary constriction .
12. Chemical composition of chromosomes
(i) DNA
(ii) RNA
(iii) Proteins: two major classes are found
(a) basic proteins called histones and
(b) a heterogenous, largely acidic group of
proteins collectively referred to as non-
histone chromosomal proteins.
13. Nucleosomes
(i) R.D. Kornberg and Thomas (1974) proposed a
model to explain the structure of nucleosome.
(ii) The term ‘nucleosome’ for chromatin subunits
was suggested by Oudet et al , in 1975.
(iii) Histones are of five types and they are designated
as H 1, H 2A, H 2B, H 3 and H 4.
14. Special chromosomes
A. Polytene chromosomes or Salivary gland
chromosomes
(i) These chromosomes were first observed by
Balbiani in 1881.
(ii) The name ‘polytene chromosome’ was
assigned to them by Killar .
(iii) They are found in the tissues of dipteran
larvae, such as salivary glands, gut, trachea,
fat body cells and malpighian tubules.
(iv) Polytene chromosomes are of rare
occurrence in plants, although observed by
W. Nageli (1962) in the embryo ofPhaseolus
coccineus .
(v) In Drosophila melanogaster the volume of
polytene chromosomes is about 1,000 times
greater than that of somatic chromosomes.
(vi) The total length is about 2,000 m as
compared to 7.5 m in other somatic
chromosomes.
B. Lampbrush chromosomes
(i) These chromosomes were first observed by
Flemming in 1882.
(ii) They were described in detail in shark
oocytes by Ruckert (1892) who also coined
the name ‘lampbrush chromosomes’ to
them.
(iii) They occur at the diplotene stage of meiotic
prophase in oocytes of amphibians and also
in the giant nucleus of the unicellular alga,
Acetabularia .
(iv) Each lampbrush chromosome has many fine
lateral projections or loops giving them a
characteristic ‘hairy’ appearance.
(v) They are best visualised inSalamander (5200
m) about three times longer than the
polytene chromosomes of Drosophila .
III. Endoplasmic Reticulum (Filamental
Structure)
1. Garneir for the first time had described them as
filamemtous structure, ergastoplasm.
2. They were first discovered by Claude (1951) under
electron microscope.
3. The term “endoplasmic reticulum” was first coined by
Porter et al. in 1945.
4. E.R. is abundant in liver, pancreas and other actively
synthesizing cells. E.R. is absent in RBC , ova,
embryonic cells and prokaryotes .
5. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum :
Rough endoplasmic reticulum and Smooth endoplamic
recticulum
(i) Tubular forms with ribosomes. Tubular forms
without ribosomes.
(ii) It is more developed in cells actively engaged in
protein synthesis. It is abundant in the cells
engaged in glycogen and lipid metabolism .
6. However, rough ER may be converted into smooth ER
and vice versa, depending upon the metabolic
requirements of the cell.
7. Functions of endoplasmic reticulum
(i) It provides mechanical support to the cytoplasm.
(ii) It plays an important role in the intracellular
transport and storage of proteins and sometimes
lipids.
(iii) It synthesizes lipids and lipoproteins.
(iv) Smooth ER is involved in glycogenolysis.
(v) It forms other cellular organelles such as Golgi
bodies, peroxisomes, and glyoxysomes.
(vi) It forms nuclear envelope at the end of the
telophase stage of the cell division.
IV. Golgi Complex Structure
1. An Italian physician Camillo Golgi (1898) first
recognised this structure in nerve cells of Barn owl and
hence named after the discoverer.
2. These are also known as Lipochondrion, Golgi body or
Golgi apparatus or Idiosome.
 17
3. Composition: The Golgi complex is composed of about
60% protein and about 40% lipids and polysaccharides.
4. Functions
(i) It packs and transports certain materials like
proteins and polysaccharides out of the cell (cell
secretion).
(ii) It is the seat for formation of glycolipids and
glycoproteins.
(iii) It synthesises hemicellulose, cellulose and pectin
compounds during cell division and hence
involved in cell wall formation in plants.
(iv) It helps in storage of secretory products.
(v) It gives rise to lysosomes and vacuoles.
(vi) It forms acrosome in sperms.
V. Microtubules
1. They were first observed by de Robertis and Franchi
(1953) in nerve fibres.
2. They are found in all eukaryotic cells either free in
cytoplasm or forming part of centrioles, cilia and flagella.
They are about 250 Å in diameter, several micrometer in
length and with a wall of 60 Å thickness consisting of
13 subunits.
3. Functions
(i) Microtubules together with microfilaments
functions as cytoskeleton.
(ii) Microtubules maintain the shape of some cell
processes such as axons and dendrities.
(iii) They transport molecules and granules within
the cells and thus they function as micro-
circulatory system.
(iv) They help in spindle fibre formation during cells
division.
(v) They provide frame work for cyclosis.
VI. Centrosome
1. The first description of centrosome was given by Van
Beneden (1880).
2. The term ‘centrosome’ was coined by Boveri (1881).
3. It is found in cytoplasm near the nucleus in animal cells
and certain lower plants, however, it is absent in seed
plants, prokaryotes and Amoeba.
4. The radiating structure comprises, astral-rays , the
centrosphere and two small bodies called centrioles
or diplosomes .
5. Centrioles are independent, cylindrical bodies (0.2 ×
0.5 m) lying perpendicular to each other at a distance
0.8 m.
6. The wall of each centriole has nine triplets of
microtubules arranged in a circle.
7. The microtubules of centrioles are madeup of tubulin
and some lipids. The interior of centriole is filled with a
homogeneous cytoplasm of low density.
8. RNA and DNA have also been observed in them.
9. Both centrioles may give rise to a flagellum but in most
cases only one does and the other centriole remains at
right angle to the kinetosome or basal body.
10. They help in spindle formation during cell division of
animal cells.
VII. Cilia and Flagella
1. Cilia and flagella are composed of three major parts:
(i) a central axoneme or shaft ,
(ii) the surrounding plasma membrane, and
(iii) the interposed cytoplasmic matrix.
2. The axonemal elements of nearly all cilia and flagella
(as well as the tails of sperm cells) contain the same
‘9 + 2’ arrangement of microtubules.
3. In the centre of axoneme are two singlet microtubules
that run the length of the cilium.
4. Projections from the central microtubules occur
periodically along their length to form an enclosing
sheath .
5. Each of the central microtubules is composed of 13
protofilaments.
6. Nine doublet microtubules surround the central sheath.
One microtubule of each doublet ( i.e., A subfibre) is
composed of 13 protofilaments. The adjoining B subfibre
is ‘incomplete’, consisting of 11 protofilaments.
7. Radial spokes having a periodicity of 24, 32 and 40 nm
extend from each A subfibre inward to the central sheath.
8. Adjacent doublets are joined by nexin or interdoublet
links.
9. Extending from each A subfibre are two dynein arms –
an outer and inner arm.
10. Functions
1. Locomotion: Creation of water current for food
ingestion
2. Filtreation: internal circulation of fluids.
3. Sensory functions: cleaning of respiratory tract.
VIII. Microbodies:
They are minute spherical bodies in a cell bounded by single
unit membrane. The following kinds are recognized namely,
A. Lysosomes B. Spherosomes
C. Peroxisomes D. Glyoxysomes
E. Lomasomes.
IX. Plastids
1. One of the main distinguishing characteristic of most
plant cells is the presence of plastids .
2. The credit for the discovery of these organelles is
generally given to Schimper (1880).
3. The term ‘plastid’ was coined by E. Haeckel (1866).
4. Plastids generally contain pigments and may synthesise
and accumulate various substances. However, some
plastids are devoid of pigments and they serve primarily
for the storage of various substances.
2732 (Biology)—3
 18

5. The plastids are of three types: 4. Structure of a mitochondrion

(a) Leucoplasts (i) Structurally, a mitochondrion consists of two
(b) Chromoplasts and membranes, an outer limiting membrane and an
(c) Chloroplasts. inner membrane.
(ii) The inner membrane is most frequently
X. Ribosomes convoluted to form a large number of infoldings
1. Ribosomes were first observed by Claude (1941) called cristae or mitochondrial crests.
who named them ‘microsomes’. (iii) The membranes of the mitochondrion separate it
2. Palade (1955) described them in animal cells under the into two distinct compartments.
electron microscope as dense particles or granules and (iv) An outer compartment sometimes called
Robert (1958) coined the term ‘ribosome’ . intermembranal space is formed between the
3. They are one of the smallest organelles of the cell. outer and inner membrane.
4. In prokaryotes, the ribosomes are free in the cytoplasm. (v) The inner compartment, also called mitochondrial
5. In eukaryotes, they are either free in the cytoplasmic chamber, is bound by the inner membrane.
matrix or attached to the membranes of endoplasmic (vi) This mitochondrial chamber is filled with dense
reticulum by glycoproteins called ribophorins. In proteinaceous material called the matrix,
eukaryotes, ribosomes are also found in mitochondria (vii) The mitochondrial matrix contains most of the
and chloroplasts. enzymes of Kreb’s cycle.
6. During protein synthesis, many ribosomes become (viii) The ribosomes in mitochondria are smaller than
attached to the mRNA molecule, forming polyribosome
a cytoplasmic eukaryotic ribosomes and there is
or polysome which is the site for polypeptide synthesis. considerable variation in the sizes of the subunits
7. They are approximately spheroid in shape with a and the monomers formed from them as given
diameter of 23 Å. below
8. Each ribosome consists of a large and a small subunits. Animal mitochondrial ribosome
9. Ribosomes are generally measured on the basis of their Type Sedimentation coefficient
sedimentation coefficient which is expressed in Monomer 50 – 60 S
Svedberg (S) units, as given under: Large Subunit 40 – 45 S
Small Subumit 30 – 35 S
Examples Ribosomes Subunits
1. Eukaryotes 80 S 60 S and 40 S (ix) The inner membrane in the crest region is covered
2. Prokaryotes 70 S 50 S and 30 S by the particles of 8.5 nm size. These particles
3. Fungi (Yeast 70 S 50 S and 30 S are called elementary or F 1 particles or oxysomes
and Neurospora ) or respiratory assemblies.
4. Mitochondria 50–60 S 40 S and 30 S (x) There are about 10 4 to 10 5 elementary particles
(Variable) per mitochondrion. These particles contains a
5. Chloroplast 70 S 50 S and 30 S special ATPase enzyme involved in oxidative
phosphorylation.
10. Composition : Ribosomes are composed of RNA 5. Composition: Mitochondria consists of approx. 65-70%
(rRNA) and protein present almost in equal amounts. proteins, 30-35% lipids and small amounts of DNA and
In addition, they have enzymes, lipids and metallic ions RNA.
(Mg, Ca, Mn and Fe). 6. Function of mitochondrion: They are seat for cellular
11. Important functions of ribosomes respiration and produce energy in the form of ATP (i.e.,
(i) Ribosomes are the site for protein synthesis in cellular currency) needed for cellular functions. Thus
the cell. they are called power houses .
(ii) It is the assembly shop or protein factory where
amino acids are linkled to form proteins. XII. Vacuole
(iii) It gives protection of mRNA and newly 1. Vacuoles are liquid-filled cavities, the presence of which
synthesized polypeptide chains from enzymes, is characteristic features of plant cells.
nucleases and proteases respectively. 2. In young dividing cells, vacuoles are small and
numerous and remain scattered throughout the
XI. Mitochondria cytoplasm while in mature cells there is a single large
1. They were first observed by Kolliker (1880) in the central vacuole in each cell and it is surrounded by a
muscle cells. thin membrane called tonoplast .
2. Flemming called them ‘fila’ (1882). 3. It is filled with a fluid called cell sap which is the solution
3. Altmann in 1894 described them as ‘biplasts’. of sugars, salts, organic acids, glucosides and alkaloids.
2732 (Biology)—3-II
 19
4. Many vacuoles contain a pigment called anthocyanin
which gives red colour in very acidic sap and blue to
purple colour in alkaline medium.
5. Due to the change of the colour of anthocyanin with
the change in pH, anthocyanin has been called
‘vegetable chameleon’ .
6. Functions of vacuoles-
(a) The vacuole acts as a sub-cellular storage organ
of useful metabolities.
(b) It also maintains turgidity of the cell which is
very useful for herbaceous plants.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
1. The nucleotides (containing C, H, O, N and P) are
monomers of nucleic acids. They consist of three unit
molecules
(i) a phosphate (Phosphoric acid)
(ii) a pentose sugar and
(iii) an organic nitrogen containing base.
2. Nucleotides are linked together by phosphate groups.
The phosphate group of one nucleotide binds to
hydroxyl group of another by what is called
Phosphodiester bond.
3. ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a nucleotide used in
cells. It energy for synthesis
ATP  ADP + P + Energy
4. Nucleic acids include the largest molecule formed by
organisms.
5. Nucleic acids were first isolated by a Swiss scientist, F.
Miescher (1869) from the nuclei ofpus cells (dead white
blood cells or leukocytes) who named it nuclein .
6. Thereafter, it was found that nuclein had acidic
properties and then it was renamed as nucleic acid by
Altmann in 1899.
7. Unique among the macromolecules, the nucleic acids
can produce precise copies of them (replication)
8. Nucleic acids consist of a number of monomer units
called nucleotides .
9. Thus a nucleic acid is a chain of ribose or deoxyribose
sugars linked together by phosphodiester bonds (the
phosphate group of one nucleotide binds to the
hydroxyl group of another) and with an organic base
10. Each nucleotide is formed from one molecule of pentose
sugar, one phosphoric acid and one of the nitrogenous
bases.
11. Within the nucleotide the combination of base with the
pentose sugar constitutes a nucleoside . For example,
Nucleoside : Adenosine = Adenine + ribose
Nucleotide : Adenosine = Adenine + ribose + phosphate
DNA
1. DNA of mitochondria and chloroplasts is not
associated with histones.
2. In a deoxyribonucleic acid molecule,
Amount of Purines = Amount of pyrimidines
A + T = G + C
This is called Chargaff’s equivalence Rule (1950)
A+T
3. The ratio of is constant in any species.
G+C
4. DNA is made up of two long chains (strands) which are
right-handed coiled, antiparallel (i.e., one strand runs
in 5’ to 3’ direction and the other in the 3’ to 5’ direction)
and complimentary to each other. They are held
together by hydrogen bonds established between the
bases of pairs.
5. Base pairing occurs among adenine (A), thymine (T),
cytosine (C) and guanine (G)
6. Two hydrogen bonds are formed between A and T while
three between C and G.
7. Watson and Crick Model of DNA
(i) each nucleotide pair needs 3.4 Å space of double
helix
(ii) one complete turn of helix has of 10 nucleotide
pairs, occupying 34 Å space.
(iii) the diameter of DNA molecule  20 Å.
(iv) there is a fixed distance of 10.08 Å between the
two sugar moieties in opposite strands thus only
certain base pairs can fit into the structure.
(v) although, DNA is double helical in all the
organisms but single helical DNA has been found
f X 174, M13 and G1 phages of Escherichia coli .
Thus, DNA is rarely single helical.
(vi) if any long base-pair sequence exists at many
different places throughout the DNA, it is called
repetitive or repetitious DNA. The highly
repetitive DNA is also known as satellite DNA .
The repetitive DNA is not found in prokaryotes .
8. Various forms of DNA
A-DNA: It contains 11 base pairs/turn base pairs are
not perpendicular to axis but tilted
B-DNA: It is usually right handed DNA containing 10
base pairs/turns
C-DNA: It contains 9 base pairs/turns
Z-DNA: It is a left-handed DNA
Single-stranded DNA: Found in  × 174 and and S-13
viruses.
RNA
1. Ribonucleic acid (RNA ) is found in the nucleus as well
as in the cytoplasm and its main function is protein
synthesis but in many viruses, it functions as genetic
material.
2. RNA molecules are single stranded , however, double
stranded RNA is found in wound tumor plant virus,
rice dwarf virus and reovirus.
3. A single strand of RNA folds back, due to which pairing
of bases can occur easily
 20
4. The primary structure of RNA is similar to that of DNA
except for the following differences:
(i) Pentose sugar in RNA is ribose while in DNA, it
is deoxyribose
(ii) RNA contains uracil as one of the pyrimidine
bases while DNA contains thymine
(iii) RNA is generally single stranded while DNA is
double stranded.
5. Cellular organisms have three types of RNA : rRNA,
tRNA and mRNA.
(A) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) (Discovered by Jacob
and Monad in 1961)
(i) Occurs in ribosomes and forms 80% of the
total RNA in the cell.
(ii) Largest amongst RNAs.
(iii) In eukaryotic cells, ribosomes contain four
different types of rRNA namely 5S, 5.8S, 18S
and 28S.
(iv) In prokaryotic cells, the large sub-unit of
ribosomes contains 23 S and molecules while
their small sub-unit contains 16 S rRNA
molecule.
(v) Ribosomal RNA gets synthesized in the
nucleus by an enzyme called RNA
polymerase I, although its 5 S component is
synthesized outside the nucleous.
(B) Transfer RNA (tRNA )
(i) It is also known as S-RNA (soluble) or
adaptive RNA
(ii) It is about 10-15% of the total RNA of the
cell
(iii) Its molecule are the smallest ones with
75-85 nucleotides and function as adaptors
for carrying a molecule to site of protein
synthesis
(iv) tRNA is folded to form a clover leaf like
structure
(v) There are at least 20 types of tRNA molecule
in every cell, at least one corresponding to
each of the 20 amino acids required for
protein synthesis
(vi) The tRNA is synthesized in the nucleus by
an enzyme called RNA polymerase III
presumably it might be synthesized in the
nucleous
(C) Messenger RNA (mRNA )
(i) It constitues 5 to 10% of the total cellular
RNA.
(ii) It transcribes the genetic information coded
in the structure of DNA molecule and
translates into protein
(iii) It is hetrogeneous because the size of its
molecule varies greatly. On an average mRNA
contains 900-1500 nucleotides in E. coli.
(iv) The average life span of some mRNAs is
about two minutes after which the molecules
are broken down by ribonuclease. However,
it may survive for many hours or even days
in eukaryotes
(v) The mRNA is synthesized on DNA template
in the nucleus by an enzyme called RNA
polymerase II
(vi) The process through which RNA is
synthesized along the DNA template is called
transcription. It was discovered earlier by
Mulder.
CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
Cell Division and Cell Cycle
All living cells grow and divide. Splitting of cells is called cell
division . The period between the end of one division and the
end of next is termed as the cell cycle which is divided into
four periods. The first three periods ( G 1, S, G 2) constitute
interphase stage.
(i) G 1-phase. It is the time ‘gap’ between the end of mitosis
and the start of DNA synthesis. It is the pre-DNA
synthesis phase in which chromosomes are fully
extended and some proteins and RNA are synthesised.
It can vary from 3–4 hours to several days, months or
even years.
(ii) S-Phase. it is the DNA synthesis phase in which DNA
and histones are synthesised. This stage lasts for 7-8
hours.
(iii) G 2-Phase . It is the time ‘gap’ between the end of DNA
synthesis and the beginning of mitosis. This stage lasts
for 2-5 hours. During this stage, diploid cells contain
4X times the amount of DNA. It is followed by mitosis.
(iv) Mitosis or D-Phase . It represents only a small part of
life cycle of a cell. It’s duration is about an hour in most
cells.
Mitosis
1. The process of mitosis was first discovered in animal
cells by W. Flemming (1882) in Salamander ( Tritus
maculosa ) and in plant cells by Strasburger .
2. It occurs in the vegetative as well as reproductive cells
of eukaryotes. It results in the formation of two daughter
cells which receive exactly the same number and kind
of chromosomes which the parent cells had. In strict
etymological sense, mitosis refers to the nuclear division
(karyokinesis ) in eukaryotic cells. It has nothing to do
with the division of cytoplasm ( cytokinesis ).
3. Mitosis is a continuous process though for
understanding, it may be divided into four phases
(stages). (A) Prophase (B) Metaphase (C) Anaphase
and (D) Telophase
A. Prophase
(i) In the beginning of this stage chromosomes
appear as thin threads and they start to
condense.
 21
(ii) Each prophasic chromosome consists of two
parts of filaments called chromatids .
(iii) The two identical chromatids of a single
chromosome are called sister chromatids
which are attached firmly to each other at a
specific point called centromere or
kinetochore .
(iv) An important change that occurs during late
prophase is the disintegration of the
nucleous with nucleoplasm.
(v) At the end of prophase, nuclear envelope
disappears, with the result nucleoplasm and
cytoplasm mix together, a process which
appears to play a role in the development of
spindle material.
B. Metaphase
(i) In the beginning of this stage, spindle
apparatus develops.
(ii) The spindle consists of spindle fibres which
are formed by the aggregation of micro-
tubules extending between the poles.
(iii) Now the chromosomes move to an imaginary
plane and lie perpendicular to the middle of
the spindle apparatus.
(iv) This plane is called equatorial plane or
metaphase plate . The chromosomes become
attached by their centromeres to some
spindle fibres. Many spindle fibres do not
make connection with chromosome
remaining extended from pole to pole. The
function of these spindle fibres is not known.
C. Anaphase
(i) The centromere divides in the beginning of
anaphase and this process is carried out
simultaneously in all the chromosomes
resulting in the separation of sister
chromatids which now are called daughter
chromosomes .
(ii) The centromeres of these chromosomes
move apart and the daughter chromosomes
begin their migration towards the poles of
the spindle apparatus due to shortening of
microtubules of the spindle fibres.
D. Telophase
(i) During telophase, the chromosomes
segregate at the poles; the spindle
apparatus in disassembled and a nuclear
envelope is formed from endoplasmic
reticulum around each chromosome
resulting in the formation of two daughter
nuclei.
(ii) Finally, chromosomes uncoil and a nucleolus
in reorganised in each daughter nucleus at
the chromosomal organizer site.
4. Cytokinesis
(i) It is the process of segmentation and separation
of cytoplasm into two parts each having a
nucleus.
(ii) In plants, cytokinesis occurs by cell plate
formation.
5. Significance of mitosis
(i) Mitosis provides the opportunity for the growth
and development to the organs and the
organisms.
(ii) It maintains the same genetic constitution (both
quantitatively and qualitatively) in the daughter
cells as in the parent cell.
Meiosis
1. Meiosis was first worked out by Strasburger in 1888.
Later in more detail byFarmer and Moore in 1905 who
also coined the term, ‘meiosis’ .
2. Meiosis is a complicated cell division which occur in
reproductive cells (germ cells) of sexually reproducing
organisms and reduces the number of chromosomes
to half.
3. It involves two nuclear divisions and one chromosomal
division.
4. In animals and a few lower plants meiosis occurs just
before the formation of gametes. Such type of meiosis
is called terminal or gametic meiosis .
5. However, in most of the plants, meiosis occurs at the
time of spore formation, such meiosis is called
intermediate or sporic meiosis and it can be observed
in angiosperms by examining the dividing pollen mother
cells.
6. Before the commencement of meiosis, there is an
interphase stage in which DNA synthesis has already
occured. Meiosis comprises two successive nuclear
divisions, of which first division is areduction division
whereby the chromosome number ( 2n) is reduced to
half (n) and the second division is mitotic in nature.
7. These two division of meiosis are:
A. Meiosis I or heterotypic division or reduction
division
B. Meiosis II or homotypic division or mitotic
division.
A. Meiosis I or reduction division: It consists of four
stages, namely Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I and
Telophase I.
1. Prophase I. It is the longest and very complex stage
and can be divided into five substages: Leptotene,
Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene and Diakinesis.
(i) Leptotene or leptonema or thin-thread stage
(Leptos = thin; nema = thread) :
(a) Nucleus increases in size and chromosomes
become more apparent as thin threads .
(b) Although DNA synthesis had already
occured in interphase, no longitudinal
doubleness of chromosomes is visibly
 22
evident owing to contraction. They show
bead-like thickenings called chromomeres.
(c) The tips ( telomeres ) of leptotene chromo-
somes are generally associated with the
nuclear envelope, this peculiar arrangement
is called ‘bouquet’ .
(ii) Zygotene or zygonema (Zygon = adjoining)
(a) During zygotene, homologous chromo-
somes pair up and the phenomenon of
pairing is called synapsis . Since each parent
contributes a haploid set of chromosomes
to a diploid offspring, all the diploid cells
possess pairs of morphologically and
genetically similar chromosomes, often
called homologous chromosomes .
(b) These chromosomes pair lengthwise with
each other and pairing may be initiated at
one or more sites along the length of the
chromosomes.
(iii) Pachytene or thick-thread stage (phacus = thick)
(a) It is a longest stage of prophase 1.
(b) At this stage, chromosomes contract
longitudinally and they become shortened,
thickened and coiled. Now, the pairs of
homologous chromosomes are called
bivalents.
(c) Each chromosome is a bivalent has two
chromatids by the middle of the pachytene
stage, as a result of which a bivalent really
consists of four chromatids and is called
‘tetrad’ .
(d) Electron micrographic studies have shown
that each chromatid has its own centromere.
Thus, in a tetrad, there arefour centromeres,
two homologous chromosomes and four
chromatids .
(e) During crossing over, at one point, only two
chromatids, one from each of the two
homologous chromosomes, take part. As the
chromosomes continue to contract, the
chiasmata have tendency to move towards
the ends of the paired homologous
chromosomes, a process called terminal-
ization .
(iv) Diplotene or diplonema or double-thread stage
(a) This stage is generally recognised by the
tendency of homologous chromosomes of
the bivalents (tetrads) to pull away
somewhat from each other due to repulsion.
(b) The separation is generally not complete and
they are held together by their chromatids
at one or more specific points called
chiasmata which represent the places of
exchange of chromosome.
(c) During crossing over, at one point, only two
chromatids, one from each of the two
homologous chromosomes, take part. As the
chromosomes continue to contract, the
chiasmata have tendency to move towards
the ends of the paired homologous
chromosomes, a process called terminali-
zation.
(v) Diakinesis. During this phase, bivalents totally
separate, nuclear membrane disappear and
terminalization is completed.
2. Metaphase I
(i) On the disappearance of the nuclear envelope,
spindle fibres appear.
(ii) The homologous chromosomes (tetrads) become
arranged at the equatorial plane (metaphase plate)
and a bundle of spindle microtubules attaches to
each centromere.
(iii) This attachment occurs in such a way that both
chromatids of a single chromosome are attached
to one pole and both chromatids of the other
homologous chromosome are attached to the
other pole.
3. Anaphase I
(i) The homologous chromosomes separate from
one another i.e., one chromosome with its two
sister chromatids or each homologous pair move
to opposite poles.
(ii) Thus, each pole has a haploid number of
chromosomes (instead of a diploid set as in
mitosis) i.e., a reduction in chromosome number
is achieved at this stage.
4. Telophase I
(i) Chromosomes with their chromatids reach the
poles.
(ii) Nuclear envelope and nucleolus reappear,
resulting in the formation of two haploid
daughter nuclei with each chromosome having
two chromatids.
Interkinesis
(i) Interkinesis is the period between the end
of telophase I and the onset of prophase II.
This period is quite short or completely
absent.
(ii) The DNA of the two nuclei produced by the
first meiotic division does not engage in
replication during interkinesis.
B. Meiosis II or homotypic division: It also consists of four
stages :
(a) Prophase II : It is very short stage. Chromosomes are
double, each with two chromatids joined together by a
centromere. At late prophase II nuclear envelope
disintegrates and spindle fibres are formed.
 23
(b) Metaphase II : Chromosomes become arranged on the
equatorial plane. Spindle microtubules attach to each
chromosome so that sister chromatids are connected
to opposite poles.
(c) Anaphase II : The sister chromatids of each chromosome
are separated from each other and move to opposite
poles, as each of the members of a pair of sister
centromeres split from each other. The separated
chromatids are now called daughter chromosomes.
(d) Telophase II : The daughter chromosomes reach the
poles and thus each pole receives a haploid set of
chromosomes. Nuclear envelope is formed around each
set of chromosomes and nucleus in organised. Thus,
four haploid nuclei are formed.
Cytokinesis : It occurs either by furrowing as in animal cells or
by cell plate formation in plant cell. In plants, cytokinesis is of
two types :
1. Successive type
(i) Here, after the first meiotic division, a wall is
formed separating the two nuclei and leading to
the formation of a dyad.
(ii) The wall formation in this case is centrifugal. Now,
the two cells of the dyad undergo the second
meiotic division which is followed by wall
formation resulting into a tetrad as in monocots .
2. Simultaneous type
(i) In this type of cytokinesis, the first meiotic
division is not followed by wall formation and
binucleated cell is formed, the two haploid nuclei
undergo second meiotic division forming four
nuclei.
(ii) Now, the wall formation occurs centripetally
resulting in the formation of a tetrad as in dicots .
Significance of meiosis
1. Meiosis causes restoration of the original number
of chromosomes in an individual.
2. It provides an opportunity to produce variations
in the individuals as a result of crossing over
while the variations are the root cause of
evolution.
3. Failure of meiosis will lead to the formation of
diploid gametes which on fusion form polypoids.
 24
CHAPTER

4
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

(3) Transmembrane pathway : Water after passing

SOLUTE TRANSPORT AND
through cortex is blocked by casparian strips
PHOTOASSIMILATE TRANSLOCATION (deposition of wax like substance suberin) present
on endodermis. Water crosses at least two
WATER membranes from each cell in its path. These two
Most important constituent of the protoplasm. plasma membranes are found on entering and
80-90% of the fresh weight of most herbaceous plants exiting of water. Here, water may also enter through
and over 50% of the fresh weight of woody plants. tonoplast surrounding the vacuole i.e., also known
Acts as solvent, reactant or reagent and maintains as vacuolar pathway.
turgidity.
DIFFUSION
ABSORPTION AND MOVEMENT OF WATER The net movement of molecules or ions of a given substance
from a region of higher concentration to lower one by virtue
Water is mainly absorbed through the roots, especially
of their kinetic energy. The rate of diffusion of molecules
at the tips in the region of the root hairs.
is affected by temperature, density of diffusing molecules,
Pathways of water movement in root
medium in which diffusion takes place and concentration
(1) Apoplast pathway: Water moves exclusively
gradient.
through the cell wall without crossing any
Diffusion pressure: The potential ability of a substance
membranes. Apoplast or outer space is a non-living to diffuse from an area of its greater concentration to
continuous system made up of water-filled an area of lesser concentration is called diffusion
cellulosic cell wall and inter cellular spaces from pressure.
epidermis to xylem.
Ions Cell wall of Cell wall of Cytoplasm of PERMEABILITY
epidermis cortex endodermis The degree of diffusion of gases, liquids and dissolved
substances through a membrane. It depends on the membrane
composition, as well as the chemical nature of the solute.
Accumulate Cell walls
in xylem of Pericycle
It can be measured readily by determining the rate at
vessels which solute passes through a membrane under a
specific set of conditions.
(2) Symplast pathway: Water moves from one cell to
Membranes may be permeable, impermeable and
another cell through plasmodesmata. Symplast or
semipermeable.
inner space is a living continuous system formed
by cytoplasm and plasmodesmata from epidermis OSMOSIS
to xylem parenchyma. Migration of solvent from a hypotonic solution (lower
Ion Cytoplasm of Cytoplasm, cortex Xylem concentration) to hypertonic solution (higher concentration)
epidermis endodermis, pericycle vessel
through plasmodesmata
through a semi­perm eable membrane to keep the
concentration equal.
24
 25
Exosmosis : Water moves out of the cell due to
hypertonic solution (of higher concentration).
Endosmosis : Water enters the cell due to hypotonic
solution (of lower concentration).
Osmotic pressure : The pressure needed to prevent
the passage of pure water into an aqueous solution
through a differentially permeable membrane thereby
preventing an increase in the volume of the solution.
Osmotic pressure depends upon concentration of
solute particle, ionisation of solute particles, hydration
of solute particles and temperature.
Reverse osmosis : By applying additional pressure,
water can be made to move out of solution from
thistle funnel into water. This process can be used for
removing salts from saline waters.
Osmosis is driven by two factors : Concentration of
dissolved solutes in a solution and pressure difference.
Osmotic potential or solute potential (s) : Negative
of osmotic pressure, since they are equal but opposite
forces.
s  
e.g., Osmotic pressure of a plant is 200.5 atms but an
osmotic potential of –200.5 atms.
PLASMOLYSIS
The phenomenon of shrinkage of protoplasm from the cell
wall under the influence of some hypertonic solution is
called as plasmolysis. As plasmolysis begins (incipient
plasmolysis) the protoplasm is no more pressed against the
cell wall, and the cell wall is said to be in a flaccid condition.
However, further loss of water results in more shrikage of
protoplasm and the cell is called plasmolysed.
Continuous loss of water from plant cells results in
wilting and drooping of leaves and stems.
Plasmolysis is helpful in killing weeds from ‘tennis
courts’, preservation of meat, jelly etc., to determine
the osmotic pressure of cell, to know the living nature
of cell, explains the phenomenon of osmosis etc.
IMBIBITION
A physical process by which solvent is adsorbed by certain
substances making them swell. The solid particles which
adsorb water or any other liquid are called imbibants and
the liquid which is imbibed is known as imbibate.
Imbibition pressure (matrix potential) : The potential
maximum pressure that an imbibant will develop if it
is submerged in pure water.
Imbibition depends upon the affinity between
imbibant and imbibed (e.g., Rubber does not imbibe
water, but imbibes kerosene oil and swells) and the
water potential gradient between the surface of the
adsorbant and the liquid imbibed.
Dry seeds have a highly negative water potential.
Both living and dead plant cells possess large amounts
of carbohydrates, proteins and polypeptides etc.
which are hydrophilic colloids and therefore, have
very strong affinity for water.
TURGIDITY AND TURGOR PRESSURE
If a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution or pure
water, water starts moving into the cell by osmosis. As the
volume of the protoplast increases, it begins to exert pressure
against the cell wall and stretches it. The pressure exerted
by the protoplast against the cell wall is called turgor
pressure (TP).
Wall pressure (WP) : The cell wall being rigid, exerts
an equal and opposite pressure on the protoplast which
is called wall pressure.
The two pressures are equal and opposite in direction.
As a result of this interplay of forces, the plant cell
under these conditions is said to be turgid.
DPD, OP AND TP
DPD (diffusion pressure deficit) or SP (suction
pressure) is the amount by which diffusion pressure of
a solution is lower than that of its pure solvent. DPD
was coined by B.S. Meyer (1938).
The greater the concentration of a solution, the greater
is its DPD.
When a flaccid cell was placed in pure water, the
suction pressure or DPD is roughly equal to the
osmotic pressure of cell.
SP or DPD  OP
But when the cell became turgid, the turgor pressure
resisted the entry of water into the cell and in that
condition
SP or DPD  OP – TP
Cell to cell movement of water depends upon the
DPD and not on osmotic pressure and turgor pressure.
THEORIES OF WATER TRANSLOCATION
The upward movement of water through stem is called
ascent of sap (water with dissolved minerals).
Goldlewski proposed relay pump theory and J.C.
Bose proposed pulsation theory to explain the
vitalistic view of ascent of sap.
The three most prominent theories are­
(1) Root pressure theory
Stocking (1956) defined the root pressure “a pressure
developed in the tracheory elements of xylem as a result of
metabolic activities of the root.
The development of root pressure is an active process
which depends upon active secretion of salts or other
solutes into the xylem sap, thereby lowering its
osmotic potential.
2732 (Biology)—4
 26
This theory can not account for water movement up
the xylem in tall trees.
(2) Capillarity
In capillarity, water moves upward in narrow tubes due to
the force of surface tension in small sized plants.
Boehm (1809) proposed that xylem vessels are narrow
and ascent of sap occurs through capillarity further supported
by atmospheric pressure.
According to this theory, water is first taken in due to
the force of adhesion between water and the wall of
thin xylem vessels. As the water flows upwards along
the wall, strong cohesive forces between water
molecules come into play to pull the water upward.
This continues until the forces of adhesion and
cohesion are balanced by the downward force of
gravity.
(3) Cohesion theory
Given by Henry Dixon in 1914. This depends upon the
force of cohesion between water molecules. The important
points are:
(i) Cohesion force : Water molecules are held together
by strong cohesion force (due to hydrogen bonds).
Another force of adhesion holds water to the walls of
xylem channels.
(ii) Continuous water column : Present in the xylem
channels of plant.
(iii) Transpiration pull : Transpiration from aerial parts
causes a suction pressure in the water column of the
plant. It is known as transpiration pull which lifts the
water upwardly.
Water column is continuous and cannot be pulled
away from xylem walls due to cohesive and adhesive
properties.
The value of cohesive force for plant sap has been
calculated to be 47 – 207 atm. by Dixon and Jolly.
Cohesive force is also called as tensile strength.
TRANSPIRATION
The loss of water in the form of vapours trom the living
tissues of aerial parts of the plant is called transpiration.
About 98% of water absorbed by land plant is
transpired.
Types of transpiration
(1) Cuticular : Cuticle provides a relatively impermeable
covering. If cutilcle is thin and green, about 20% of
the total transpiration takes place through it, but if its
thickness is increased, the extent of water vapour loss
is significantly reduced.
(2) Lenticular : Lenticels are small regions on bark etc.
and possess small loosely arranged cells called as
complementary cells.
According to Huber, this loss through lenticels is
only 1.0 per cent of the total transpiration.
(3) Stomatal : Stomata are tiny pores present on the
epidermal surface of leaves, young stems and in certain
fruits. Nearly 97 per cent of the total transpiration
takes place through these stomata.
STOMATA
Help in gaseous exchange at the time of respiration and
photosynthesis.
There are two kidney shaped guard cells which bound
a minute elliptical pore in a stoma. Guard cells are
modified epidermal cells.
The wall of guard cells near the pore is thick. The
outer wall is thin, elastic and semipermeable.
Loftfield classified stomata on the basis of their daily
movement into four main types­
(a) Alfalfa type : Open throughout the day and closed
all night e.g., radish, mustard, turnip, apple, pea.
(b) Potato type : Open throughout the day and night
except few hours following sunset e.g., cabbage,
pumpkin, onion.
(c) Barley type : Open only for a few hours in day e.g.,
barley, maize, oat, wheat.
(d) Equisetum type : Always open throughout day and
night e.g., Equisetum.
GUTTATION
The loss of water in the form of liquid is called guttation.
It generally occurs from tips and margins of leaves during
night or early morning when there is high atmospheric
humidity as during wet seasons.
Hydathodes or water pores are special pores on the
leaves in the region of guttation which are
permanently open pores as their guard cells are
immobile.
Gutted water possess minute quantities of both
inorganic and organic substances.
SOME IMPORTANT FACTS
DPD can become zero (fully turgid cell).
TP can also become zero (flaccid cell) but O.P. of a
cell can never be zero.
Cryoscopic osmometer : Measures osmotic potential
of solution by measuring its freezing point.
Tensiometer : Instrument for measuring soil water
tension.
Psychorometer : To measure relative humidity as
well as transpiration.
Manometer : To measure pressure like root pressure.
Barometer : To measure atmospheric pressure.
Porometer (F. Dawin, 1912) : To measure the size of
stomata.
Potometer : To measure the rate of transpiration.
Atmometer : To measure pull caused by evaporation
of water from a porous pot.
Term guttation was coined by Bergerstein (1887).
 27

CoCl2 Paper Method (Hygrometric method, Stahl,
1894)—Used to compare the rates of transpiration.
Blue light of visible light promotes stomatal opening.
Plants growing at high altitudes exhibit xeromorphy
i.e., adaptation to minimise transpiration.
Transpiration ratio : The amount of water lost per
unit of dry matter produced during the growing season
of a plant.
Stomatal frequency : Number of stomata per
unit area of leaf. Its value is 1000-60,000/cm 2 or
10 - 600/mm 2.
Permanent wilting coefficient (PWP or PWC):
Amount of soil water at which the plants growing in
it show first signs of permanent wilting.
Antitranspirants : Chemicals which have been found
to reduce the rate of transpiration without affecting
CO 2 uptake. They may be metabolic inhibitors (e.g.,
ABA-Abscissic acid, PMA - Phenyl mercuric acetate
and Aspirin) or film forming anti-transpirants (e.g.,
silicon emulsions and some low viscosity waxes).
NUTRITION IN PLANT
Mineral Nutrition : The study of source, mode of
absorption, distribution and metabolism of various
inorganic substances or minerals by plants for their
growth, development, structure, physiology and
reproduction.
Autotrophs : Organisms which use inorganic source
of carbon i.e., CO 2, Two types:
(a) Photoautotrophs (photosynthetic) : Use light
energy e.g., all green plants, blue green algae, green
and purple sulphur bacteria.
(b) Chemoautotrophs (chemosynthetic) : Use
chemical energy e.g., Nitrosomonas, Nitrosococcus
and some other nitrogen cycle bacteria.
Heterotrophs : Organisms which depend upon organic
sources of carbon. Two types­
(a) Photohetrotrophs : Use light energy e.g., some
purple nonsulphur bacteria.
(b) Chemoheterotrophs : Use chemical energy e.g., all
animals, fungi, most bacteria and some flowering
plants.
ESSENTIAL MINERAL ELEMENTS
Such elements without which the plant cannot
complete its life cycle.
Arnon and Stout (1939) proposed criteria of
essentiality of an element i.e., the element must be
directly involved in the nutrition of plant, must be
absolutely necessary for supporting normal growth
and reproduction and the requirement must be specific
and not replaceable by another element.
Based on the quantity in which they are required by
plants:
(a) Macro nutrients (major elements): Required by
plants in quantity of more than 1 milligram/gram
dry matter. Total 9 in number-C, H, O, N, P, K, S,
Mg and Ca.
(b) Micro nutrients (Micro or minor or rare or trace
elements): Required by plants in quantity less than
1 milligram/gram of dry matter. Total 8 in number-
Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, B, Cl and Ni.
Sources of Essential Elements for Plants
Carbon: As atmospheric carbon dioxide
Hydrogen: Mainly in the form of water.
Oxygen: From the air or water or in the form of
inorganic ions.
Nitrogen: Absorbed by plants is the form of nitrate from
the soil. Nitrogen fixers (organisms) convert nitrogen
gas (N2) to anionic forms such as nitrate (NO 3–) or nitrite
(NO2–) or a reduced cationic form such as ammonium
(NH4+). These compounds enter plants through the root
and are assimilated as organic nitrogen.
Other elements: Absorbed from the soil e.g.,
phosphorus as phosphates and sulphur as sulphate
etc.

ROLE OF MACRO AND MICRO-NUTRIENTS

Element Obtained Specific role in Plants Deficiency symptoms
in the
form of

1 . Nitrogen NO 2 – , NO 3 – Constituent of proteins, vitamins, hormones, Stunted growth, chlorosis, development of

or NH –2 nucleic acids, coenzymes, ATP, chlorophyll
etc.
2 . Phosphorus HPO 4 – Constituent of nucleic acids, phospholipids,
coenzymes, nucleotides, NAD + , NADP + etc.
3 . Potassium K+ Involved in protein synthesis in opening and
closing of stomata, activates enzymes and
helps in maintenance of turgidity of cells.
4 . Calcium Ca 2+ As calcium pectate in the middle lamella of the
cell wall, activates certain enzymes involved
in selective permeability of cell membranes.
anthocyanin
Poor growth, leaves dull green, premature
fall of leaf and flower buds and delayed
seed germination.
Yellow edges of leaves, inward curving of
leaves, premature death.
Stunted growth, disintegration of apical
meristems and chlorosis.
 28

Element Obtained Specific role in Plants Deficiency symptoms

in the
form of

5 . Magnesium Mg 2+ Constituent of chlorophyll, maintains ribo- Interveinal chlorosis

some structure, activates enzymes in phosphate
metabolism
6 . Sulphur SO 4 2– Constituent of amino acids (methionine, Chlorosis, rolling of tips and leaf margins.
cysteine and cystine), vitamins, ferredoxin etc.
7 . Iron Fe 3+ Constituent of ferredoxin, cytochromes, Chlorosis
activates catalase, required for synthesis of
chlorophyll
8 . Manganese Mn 2+ Activates some enzymes necessary for O 2 Chlorosis, grey spots on leaves
(trace) evolution in photosynthesis.
9. Molybdenum Mo 3+ or Activates certain enzymes in nitrogen meta- Slight retardation of growth, whiptail in
(trace) Mo 4+ or bolism ascorbic acid synthesis. crucifers, loosening of cauliflower head.
MoO 2 2+
10. Boron BO 3 3– or Calcium metabolism, pollen germination, cell Suppression of flower formation, leaves
(trace) or B 4 O 7 2– differentiation, carbohydrate translocation becomes coppery in texture, heart rot or
brown heart of Sugar beet and Turnip.
11 . Copper Cu 2+ Constituent of several oxidising enzymes, Dieback, brown heart disease, blackening
(trace) plastocyanin, cytochrome oxidase of potato tuber, reclamation of leguminosae
12. Zinc (trace) Zn 2 + Activates various enzymes especially carboxy- Little leaf disease, mottle leaf disease of
lases, part of carbonic anhydrase and various apple and citrus, white bud, stunted growth,
dehydrogenases involved in synthesis of interveinal chlorosis.
growth hormone auxin (IAA).
13 . Chlorine Cl– Photolysis of water, with Na + and K + helps in Wilting, stunting of roots and swollen root
(trace) maintaining solute concentration and anion- tips, flower abscission, reduced fruiting
cation balance in cells, activator of amylase. bronze coloured leaves.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS Chlorophyll a (C55H72O5N4Mg) possess a CH3 (methyl)

Synthesis of organic compounds (carbohydrates) from
inorganic raw materials (CO 2 and Hydrogen donor) by
green plants in the presence of light (solar energy)
Light energy
CO 2 2H 2O 
Green plants
 CH 2O n H 2 O O 2
This equation was given by C.B. Van Niel for
photosynthesis.
Only 0.2% of the light energy falling on earth is
utilised by photosynthetic organisms.
Cyanobacteria: Where photosynthesis was first
appeared.
SITE FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Mainly leaves, though all green parts containing
chloroplasts have the potential to carry on photo-
synthesis.
Chlorophyll (green pigment) is present in chloroplasts
i.e., localised.
PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS: 3 TYPES
(1) Chlorophyll
Total 9 types; chlorophyll ‘a’ and chlorophyll ‘b’ are
important types of chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll : Molecule consist of a porphyrin ring
(hydrophilic) and a phytol tail (lipophilic).
Porphyrin ring : Flat, square structure having smaller
pyrrole rings with a magnesium atom at the centre.
group and chlorophyll b (C55H70O6N4Mg) possess a -
CHO (aldehyde) group. The head is joined to a long
hydrocarbon tail i.e., Phytol.
Chlorophyll a : most abundant, only pigment in all
photosynthetic plants.
Chlorophyll absorbs light near both ends of the visible
spectrum i.e., blue and red light and transmit or reflect
green light i.e., why looks green in colour.
Chlorophyll synthesis in flowering plants require light
and iron.
Algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes and gymnosperms
develop chlorophyll even in absence of light.
Raw materials for chlorophyll synthesis are glycine
(amino acid) and succinyl co-A.
Fluorescence : isolated chlorophyll a in pure form
emits red colour. It is known as fluorescence.
Phosphorescence : The delayed emission of long wave
radiation from an activated molecule is called
phosphorescence.
(2) Carotenoids
Yellow to orange pigments, absorb light strongly in
the blue-violet range.
Called shield pigments because protect chlorophyll
from photo oxidation by light of high intensity and
also from oxygen produced during photosynthesis.
Absorb light and transfer it to chlorophyll for use in
photosynthesis.
 29
Two types: (a) Carotenes : (Orange coloured) -
hydrocarbons (tetrapenes)
(b) Xanthophylls : (Yellow) - contain oxygen
(3) Phycobilin
Water soluble, open tetrapyrrole pigments found in
red algae and blue green algae.
Found in phycobilisomes attached to thylakoids and
transform light energy to chlorophyll. 3 types i.e.,
Phycocyanin (blue), Allophycocyanin (blue) and
Phycoerythrin (red).
Quantasome
Present as small units on the membranes of thylakoids.
This term coined by Park and Biggins (1964) for a
group of pigment molecules required for carrying out
a photochemical reaction.
Each quantasom e consists of about 250-300
chlorophyll m olecules, carotenoids, quinone
compounds, sulpholipids, phospholipids, proteins etc.
PHOTORESPIRATION (DICKER AND TIO,
1959)
Respiration which is initiated in chloroplasts and takes
place in light only is called Photorespiration.
The enzyme Rubisco catalyses the carboxylation
reaction where CO 2 combines with RuBP, called
oxygenation.
Also called Photosynthetic Carbon Oxidation Cycle
and involves an interaction of three organelles i.e.,
chloroplast, peroxisome and mitochondria.
The function of photorespiration is to recover some of
the carbon from the excess glycolate. However, there
is a wasteful loss of carbon as CO2 and loss of energy.
It is stimulated by high light intensity, high
temperature, ageing of leaf and high oxygen
concentration.
Two molecules of phosphoglycolate (2C) produced
by oxygenation of RuBP are changed into one
molecule of phosphoglycerate (3C) and one molecule
of CO 2.
75% of carbon lost to oxygenation is recovered by
PCO cycle.
HATCH-SLACK PATHWAY OR
C4-PATHWAY OR DICARBOXYLIC ACID
PATHWAY
C4 plants possess a characteristic leaf anatomy (Kranz
anatomy). In which vascular bundles are surrounded
by two rings of cells i.e. inner ring (bundle sheath
cells having starch-rich chloroplasts lacking grana)
and outer ring (mesophyll cells).
It C4 plants CO2 is picked up by phosphoenol pyruvate
(PEP - 3 Compound) in the cytoplasm of mesophyll
cells and form oxaloacetate (4C) which is converted
to malic acid or aspartic acid (4–C) for transport to
bundle sheath cells.
In bundle sheath cells, CO 2 is released and is
assimilated through Calvin cycle. Pyruvate is released
which passes back into mesophyll cells where PEP is
regenerated.
The C4 Pathway is more efficient than the C3 Pathway
due to the absence of photorespiration.
SIGNIFICANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Helps in conversion of solar energy into organic
matter.
Consumes atmospheric carbon dioxide and yields
carbohydrates and molecular oxygen.
Evolves molecular oxygen for use by other living
organisms and maintains the level of atmospheric
oxygen which is continuously consumed by plants
and animals during respiration.
Produces carbohydrates and used by plants and
animals to synthesize organic acids, proteins, fats,
nucleic acids, pigments, hormones, vitamins, alkaloids
and other metabolites.
RESPIRATION
RESPIRATION
It is an energy liberating enzymatically controlled multistep
catabolic process of stepwise breakdown of organic
substances inside the living cells.
RESPIRATORY SUBSTRATES
The organic substances which can be catabolised to liberate
energy inside the living cells e.g., carbohydrates, fats and
proteins.
TYPE OF RESPIRATION
1. Aerobic : Takes place inside the mitochondria in the
presence of molecular oxygen in most of plants and
animals called aerobes. Divided into 4 phases-
Glycolysis, oxidative decarboxylation, Krebs or TCA
cycle and Electron Transport system.
2. Anaerobic (Fermentation) : Involves the production
of energy from the food nutrients in the absence of
oxygen.
Respiratory Ratio or Quotient (RQ)
The ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide released to the
volume of oxygen taken in respiration in the given period
of time at standard temperature and pressure.
 30
Moles of CO 2 produced
RQ 
Moles of O 2 absorbed
It provides the nature of the substrate being respired by
a particular tissue.
(1) Carbohydrate RQ = 1 or unity
(2) Fats RQ = 0.7 i.e., less than one
(3) Proteins RQ = less than unity (usually 0.5 to 0.9)
(4) Fermentation RQ =  or infinity
(5) Succulents RQ = 0 or zero
(6) Maturing fatty seeds RQ = more than one
(7) Organic acids RQ = more than one
(8) Germinating fatty seeds RQ = less than one
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
 Plant growth : A vital process which brings about a
slow, permanent and irreversible increase in size or
volume or mass accompanied by an increase in dry
weight.
 Development : A process in which there is sequence
of qualitative changes, towards a higher or more
complex state. Plants exhibit a regular sequence of
seed germination, growth, differentiation, maturation,
seed formation and senescence.
 The growth of a multicellular organism can be divided
into 3 phases i.e., cell division, cell expansion and
cell differentiation.
DORMANCY AND SEED GERMINATION
 Internal inhibition of germination of an otherwise
viable seed even when it is placed in most favourable
external conditions is called as dormancy.
 The suspension of growth of a viable seed may be due
to exogenous control such as a change in
environmental conditions and is called as quiescence.
 Dormancy of seed may be due to : Tough seed coats
(e.g., Capsella, Lepidium), rudimentary embryos
(Eranthis hiemalis), impermeable seed coat
(Chenopodium, Brassica, Xanthium), mechanically
resistant seed coats, excess salts (Atriplex), after
ripening (Oat, Barley, Wheat/and even by the presence
of germination inhibitors e.g., abscisic acid, phenolic
acids, short-chain fatty acids and coumarin).
 Natural breaking of seed dormancy : Leaching of
inhibitors and salts ; development and after-ripening
of embryo ; development of growth hormones ;
destruction of inhibitors by heat, cold, light and
oxidation ; weakening of impermeable and tough
seed coats by mechanical abrasions, microbial activity
and digestive eyzymes of the alimentary canal of
animals.
 Artificial breaking of seed dormancy : By
mechanical scarification (machine threshing, chipping
or filing), chemical scarification (hot water, fat
solvents, mineral acid etc.), vigrous shaking, pressure
(about 2000 kg for 5-20 min), chilling treatment,
light (red light breaks dormancy and induces seed
germination in Lettuce and Tobacco), counter acting
inhibitors (soaking seeds in KNO3, thiourea, ethylene
chlorohydrin, gibberellin etc.).
 Seed germination : This is the first step towards plant
growth. After seed dormancy and necessary conditions
for growth are present, the dormant embryo resumes
metabolic activities and growth. This process is called
seed germination.
 Water, oxygen and temperature are the essential
condition for seed germination. Red region of visible
spectrum is most effective for the onset of seed
germination.
 Internal factors for seed germination are completion
of after-ripening, completion of seed-dormancy,
maturity of embryo, presence of sufficient food and
viability.
 Vivipary : Phenomenon of producing young ones in
advanced state of development. Seed germinate inside
the fruit, while still attached to the parent plant. It is
found in mangrove plants e.g., Rhizophora, Sonneratia
and Heritiera, such plants grow in marshy land. The
seedling of such plant is heavy and falls down into
salt rich marshy water with plumule remaining outside.
PLANT HORMONES
AUXIN
 Weak organic acids with the acidic group.
 Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and other natural or
synthetic growth regulating substances having
structures and functions similar to IAA are called
auxins.
 First plant growth hormone to be discovered.
 First indication of their existence came from the work
of Darwin (1880).
 F.W. Went (1928) proved that the coleoptile tips
contained a substance auxin and found that the degree
of curvature of coleoptile is proportional to the
amount of active substance in the agar blocks. This
test is known as avena curvature test.
 Maximum concentration of auxins are found in the
growing tips of the plant. From tip, it is transported
towards the base.
 Same concentration of auxin exhibit different
responses in different parts of the plant.

Uses of Some Synthetic Auxins
Type of Auxin Examples
Indoles and Naphthyls NAA
(Naphthalene acetic acid)
IBA (Indole butyric acid)
IPA (Indole propionic acid)
Phenoxyacetic acids 2, 4–D
(2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid)  Prevents fruit drop (abscission)
Benzoic acids 2, 3, 6-trichlorobenzoic acid
2, 4, 6-trichlorobenzoic acid
GIBBERELLINS (GA)
 The discovery of gibberellin (GA) was based upon the
observations made in Japan in early 1800s on the
bakane or foolish seedling disease of rice.
 Widely distributed in nature particularly in
angiosperms.
 Chemically, all GA are terpenes and weak acids.
 Found in abundance in young, expanding organs;
being synthesised especially in embryos, young apical
leaves, buds seeds and root tips.
Functions
Overcoming genetic dwarfism (help in stem elongation) ;
bolting (elongation of intermodes to floweing in hosette
plants) and flowering (e.g., Cabbage) ; breaking of
dormancy and germination of seeds (after imbibition of
water, the embryo secretes gibberellin which diffuses to the
aleurone layer, stimulating the synthesis of several enzymes
including amylase, proteases, lipases) ; breaking of bud
dormancy ; control of flowering (promote flowering in
some long days plants even under short day conditions,
control of fruit growth; promoting growth (in both stems
and leaves) ; overcoming vernalisation; stimulate maleness
(e.g., cucurbits and Cannabis) ; increases fruit yield etc.
 Gibberellin bioassay is performed through dwarf
maize/pea test and cereal endosperm test.
 Yabuta (1935) coined the term gibberellin.
 About 100 different types of gibberellins have been isolated.
They are denoted as GA1, GA2, GA3 and so on.
 Antigibberellins like maleic hydrazide, phosphon D
and chorocholins chloride (CCC) are also called
antiretardants.
CYTOKININS
 Skoog (1954 – 1956) found that coconut milk
contained a substance which stimulated cell division
in tobacco pith cultures.
31
Uses
 Flower initiation in litchi and pineapple
 Root initiation in cuttings.
 Help in natural fruit setting.
 Methyl ester of NAA is used to prevent
sprouting of potatoes.
 Induces rooting of cuttings.
 Induces rooting of cuttings.
 Help in natural fruit setting.
 Flower initiation in litchi and pineapple
 Selective weed killer i.e., kills broad leaved
plant (dicots) but does not affect mature
monocots
Powerful weed killers
 Miller and his colleagues isolated and purified the
substance in crystalline form from herring sperm
DNA. This substance was identified as 6-furfuryl
aminopurine. They named this compound kinetin
because of its property to activate cell division
(cytokinesis).
 First naturally occurring cytokinin to be chemically
identified was from young maize (Zea mays) grains in
1963, and was called zeatin.
 Cytokinins are quite abundant wherever rapid cell
division occurs, especially in growing tissues such as
embryos, developing fruits and roots. In mature plants,
these are frequently synthesized in the roots and move
to the shoots through xylem.
 Functions : Cell division and differentiation (in the
presence of auxins, cytokinin promote cell division
even in non-meristematic tissues); control of apical
dominance (cytokinin stimulate the growth of lateral
buds); delaying senescence (by controlling protein
synthesis and mobilisation of resources) ; induce
flowering ; breaking the dormancy of seeds and
initiation of interfascicular cambium.
 The common bioassays for cytokinins include
promotion of cell division in tobacco pith culture,
expansion of excised radish cotyledons, delay in
senescence etc.
ETHYLENE
 Crocker et al. (1935) identified ethylene as natural
plant hormone.
 Ethylene is formed from amino acid methionine.
 Auxin IAA is known to stimulate ethylene formation.
 Only gaseous natural plant growth regulator.
 It does not generally move through the air spaces in
the plants. Rather, it escapes from the plants surface.
 32
Functions
Apical dominance (in pea seedlings and suppresses the
growth of apical buds); stem swelling (transverse
expansion of stem); leaf abscission (formation of
abscission zone is leaves, flowers and fruits); epinasty
(leaf bending); fruit growth and ripening (a rise in the
rate of respiration); accelerates flowering; sex expression
(increases the number of female flowers and fruits in
c u c u m be r p la n ts) a n d g ra v iperceptio n ( r e d u c e s
sensitivity to gravity, seedlings develop tight epicotyl
hook).
 Commercial compound “Ethaphone (2-chloroethyl
phosphoric acid) breaks down to release ethylene in
plants.
ABSCISIC ACID (ABA)
 Fredericle Addicott (1963) and P.F. Wareing (1964)
discovered this hormone.
 Liu and Crans (1961) isolated ABA from mature cotton
fruit.
 It is also called stress hormone or dormin because the
production of hormone is stimulated by drought, water
logging and other adverse environmental condition.
 Chemically, ABA is a Terpenoid.
 ABA synthesized in the leaves, stems, fruits and seeds
and distributed through the vascular system especially
phloem.
 Isolated chloroplasts can synthesize it either from
mevalonic acid or xanthophyll like violoxanthin.
Functions
Growth inhibitor (antagonistic to all the three growth
promoters) ; bud dormancy (by inhibiting growth processes);
senescence (of leaves) ; abscission (of leaves, flowers and
fruits in plants) ; stomatal closure ; hardiness (promotes
cold hardiness and inhibits growth of pathogens) ; promotes
flowering (in some short day plants) etc.
 It is a stress hormone i.e., helps the plants to cope
with adverse environmental conditions.
 ABA is sprayed on tree crops to regulate fruit drop at
the end of the season.
VERNALIZATION
 Term Vernalization was coined by Lysenko (1928)
to refer to the method of accelerating the flowering
ability of biennials or winter annuals, by exposing
their soaked seeds to low temperature for a few weeks.
 The various requirements of vernalization are:
(i) Actively dividing cells
(ii) Proper nourishment
(iii) Proper hydration
(iv) Continuous low temperature for a few days
(v) Aerobic respiration.
 The site of vernalization is believed to be shoot apical
meristem.
 Vernalisation effect is reversible and the reverse
process is called devernalization.
 The vernalisation stimulus can be transmitted between
plants by grafting hence the stimulus is believed to
be a hormone called vernalin.
 A. Lang discovered that during vernalization, the
levels of gibberellins increase and also that the
application of gibberellins to unvernalised plants can
substitute for vernalization.
SENESCENCE
 The sum of deteriorative processes which naturally
terminate that functional life of an organism.
 Ageing is a sum total of changes in the total plant or
its constituents w hile senescence represents
degenerative and irreversible changes in a plant.
 Senescence may be whole plant senescence (e.g.,
monocarpic plants) ; shoot senescence (some
perennials e.g., banana, gladiolus) ; sequential or
progressive senescence (perennials e.g., mango,
Eucalyptus) and simultaneous or synchronous leaf
senescence (perennial polycarpic deciduous plants e.g.,
maple, elm, poplar etc.).
 Senescense can be delayed by removing flowers from
the plants.
ABSCISSION
 Shedding of leaves, foliage branches, floral parts, fruits
etc. without causing any injury is called abscission.
 It generally occurs due to change in the hormonal
balance.
 Abscission zone is usually located at the base of
petiole which is made up of two distinct layers i.e.,
(i) The abscission (or separation) layer where
breakdown of cells takes place and
(ii) The protective layer, which develops next to
abscission layer to protect the exposed surface.
 Abscisic acid is known to play an important role in
abscission.
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Häpeä
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Title: Häpeä
Romaani

Author: Veikko Korhonen

Release date: October 25, 2023 [eBook #71956]

Language: Finnish

Original publication: Helsinki: Kust.Oy Fundament, 1918

Credits: Juhani Kärkkäinen and Tapio Riikonen

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HÄPEÄ ***

HÄPEÄ

Romaani

Kirj.

VEIKKO KORHONEN

Helsingissä, Kustannusosakeyhtiö Fundament, 1918.

I.

Kesäkuun sunnuntaiaamu valkeni poutaisena ja kirkkaana. Kaste oli

maasta haihtunut auringon paisteessa ja hiljainen etelätuuli värisytti
puiden lehtiä. Heinämäen Tuomas käveli morsiamensa Annan
kanssa kirkkomaan aitaviertä mietteisiin vaipuneena.

— Tänään siis meitä ensikerran kuulutetaan, virkkoi Anna

naurahtaen.

— Niin.

Tuomas sanoi sen alaspainetuin katsein ja hieman masentuneella

äänellä.

— Mikä sinun on? kysyi ihmetellen Anna. Sinähän näytät niin

kovin alakuloiselta.

— En ymmärrä itsekään, mikä minua vaivaa. Se on jokin outo

ahdistus, jota minä en ymmärrä. Olethan sinä, Anna, minun aivan
yksin, aivan kokonaan?

Tuomas käänsi katseensa Annaan ja hapuili tämän kättä

omaansa.
 Anna naurahti iloisesti, melkeinpä vallattomasti.

— Etkö sinä nyt sitä tiedä? Kenenkäs muunkaan minä nyt enää
olisin.
Kuulethan sen kohta kirkossa, jollet muuten usko.

Tuomaankin täytyi jo naurahtaa. Mitä hän turhia kyselikin.

Hänenhän oli kaunis, Rotkan mökin kaksikymmenvuotias Anna.
Kohta hän tulisi liitolleen saamaan vahvistuksen, jota hän oli
odottanut rauhoittuakseen. Tästä huolimatta hän ei voinut vapautua
kokonaan painostavasta tunteestaan. Niinkuin jokin näkymätön,
raskas käsi olisi häntä painanut. Ja niinkuin jokin salainen ääni
hänen korvaansa kuiskannut outoja, selittämättömiä aavistuksia.

Anna pyörähti portista kirkkotarhaan ja Tuomas seurasi hänen

perässään.

— Vieläkö sinä yhä vain murjottelet? virkkoi Anna happamesti.

Tällaistako se nyt onkin? Toisenlaiseksi minä tämän päivän
kuvittelin.

Anna käveli ripeästi nurmettunutta käytävää ja heitti olkansa yli

halveksivan katseen Tuomaaseen.

— Kuulehan! ehätti Tuomas hänen rinnalleen. Enhän minä sillä

mitään tarkoittanut. Et nyt suuttuisi tuommoisesta. Olenhan minä sitä
jo niin monesti sinulta ennenkin kysynyt.

Anna katseli Tuomaaseen epäluuloisesti.

— Etkä vieläkään sitä tiedä?

— Kyllähän minä sen jo…

 — Niinpä elä sitten…

— Ka, kun ihan suuttui.

Tuomas koetti naurahtaa ja laskea kätensä Annan vyötäiselle.

— Mitäs kun aina sitä samaa…

Anna pyörähti edelleen kävelemään Tuomasta odottamatta.

— Anna.

— Mitä?

— Muistatko illan siellä Halmeahon rinteellä? Silloin lupasit, ettei

enää milloinkaan riideltäisi.

— Itsehän sinä riitaa rakennat aina epäilemällä minua.

— Mutta itsehän sinä olet sanonut…

— Mitä?

— Että sinulla on ollut muitakin…

— Eikö sinulla sitten ole ollut?

— Ei. Sinä saat minut aivan koskemattomana. Kaikki unelmani ja

tuulentupani olen sinun kanssasi rakennellut.

— Niin mitä sitten?

Annan kysymys oli särmikäs eikä Tuomas ehtinyt siihen mitään

vastaamaan, kun kellot tapulissa helähtivät soimaan. Hän paljasti
päänsä ja seisahti Annan rinnalle. Hänen vakavat kasvonsa
värähtivät liikutuksesta ja hän etsi Annan käden omaansa ja puristi
sitä lujasti.

— Meidän on mentävä kirkkoon, sanoi Anna hiljaa.

Kirkkomäellä kulki heidän ohitseen Topias Isotalo hymyillen ilkeästi

morsiusparille. Anna huomasi tämän ja punastuen kiirehti Tuomaan
edellä kirkon ovelle, josta kuului ulos urkujen humina ja virren
veisuu.

Kirkonaidan luona seisoi ryhmä miehiä verkkaisesti keskustellen.

Hekin olivat huomanneet Heinämäen Tuomaan morsiamineen

kirkkoon menevän ja vaikenivat hetkeksi.

— Nuorenpa se Tuomas vielä saikin, virkkoi vihdoin yksi joukosta.

— Vaikka itse on jo yli kolmenkymmenen…

— Muuten on kunnon mies.

— Miesten parhaita. Saa syntymään käsistään mitä vain tahtoo.

— Olisi Tuomas ollut paremmankin vaimon veroinen, virkkoi

Isotalon vanha isäntärenki.

— Miten niin? kysyi joku.

— Niin vain, että pietyn piikaisen taisi Tuomas saada, virkkoi

edellinen.

— Olisikohan…?
 — Isotalon palveluksessa ei kukaan säily koskemattomana. Omin
silmin sen olen tullut näkemään, vahvisti isäntärenki ja lähti
astumaan kirkkoon.

— No sen korvaa nuoruus ja kauneus. Anna on pulskin tyttö

paikkakunnalla, virkkoi siihen joku miehistä ja keskustelu raukesi.
II.

Tuomas kyntää paloa helteisenä kesäkuun päivänä, yllään hurstiset

housut ja paita, hattu kannon nenään nostettuna, jaloissa paikatut
lapikkaat, saumoista auenneet.

Jo varhain aamulla on Tuomas käynyt työhönsä ja raatanut

levähtämättä joskus hihallaan hikeä otsalta pyyhkien.

Taloissa on ruokakello kutsunut aamiaiselle, mutta Tuomas ei ole

sitä huomannut. Vasta keskipäivällä hän seisottaa ruunansa, painaa
sahrat kannon juureen ja istuu kärventyneen koivunrungon tyvelle
lepäämään.

Kohta kaksi vuotta ummelleen on Heinämäen Tuomas raatanut

isältään Korpi-Tuomaalta perimässään mökissä Isontalon
takalistolla. Parannellut kartanon, perkannut peltoja, lisää raivannut
niittyä koskemattomaan korpeen ja iloinnut työnsä tuloksista. Anna,
hänen vaimonsa, ei vaan osannut iloita. Pyrki mukisemaan muka
puutteista, joita ei ollut, ei edes torppaa rakennellessa. Valitteli aina
paljoja töitä, vaikka Tuomas oli vuosi sitten, kun pikku Matti syntyi,
ottanut palvelijan vähentääkseen työtä vaimoltaan.
 Tuomas pyyhkieli hikeä otsaltaan koivunrungolla istuessaan ja
mietti sitä yhtä ja samaa, mitä oli jo viikkokausia miettinyt.

Miksi Anna oli yhtämittaa pahalla tuulella ja tyytymätön oloonsa?

Mikä häntä vaivasi? Olihan kaikkea mitä tarvitsi, leipää yltäkyllin ja
koti semmoinen, josta olisi saattanut moni ylpeillä, toki olla ainakin
kiitollinen. Anna vaan ei ollut. Yhtämittaa mutisi, milloin mistäkin.
Viimeksi tänä aamuna siitä, että hän vaati joka aamu varhain
nousemaan. Ja siitäkin, ettei saanut kylissä käydä, vaikka mieli teki.

Tuomas puraisi piippunsa vartta. Hänen sisässään kuohahti.

Maatkoon, maatkoon vaikka päivät läpeensä. Juoskoon kyliä, kun
haluttaa ja kun ei koti miellytä. Menköön, menköön vaikka hiiteen.
Moni tyttö olisi varmaankin ollut kiitollisempi saadessaan semmoisen
kodin kuin Heinämäki. Anna ei vaan ollut.

Kylillä häntä kiitettiin uutterimmaksi ja kykenevimmäksi mieheksi

paikkakunnalla, mutta tuskin sitä Anna huomasi, koskapa yhtämittaa
kohteli olantakaisesti.

Semmoiseksiko se elämä nyt muuttuikin? Ainako vain saisi

Annalta nurjan mielen palkaksi vaivoistaan ja hyvyydestään?
Tokkohan Anna enää rakastikaan häntä?

Se ajatus sattui kipeänä ja vihlaisevana.

Tuomas tuli tahtomattaan muistelleeksi menneitä päiviä. Valoisat,

vuoroin synkät kuvasarjat alkoivat kulkea hänen ohitseen.

*****

Keväinen lauantai-ilta.
 Koivuissa on lehti hiirenkorvalla ja hakametsässä laulaa rastas.
Poika kävelee karjapolkua mietteisiin vaipuneena. Takaapäin kuuluu
askeleita. Mökin Anna on lähtenyt vispilänvarpoja taittamaan. Poika
kääntyy katsomaan ja jää odottamaan. Tytöllä on kimppu
koivunvarpoja kainalossa, joista hän yhtä kuorii huomaamatta
poikaa, joka odottaa hymy suupielissä.

— Hyvää iltaa, sanoo poika.

— Hui, kun minä säikähdin!

Ja tyttö nauraa niin, että valkoiset hampaat välkkyvät.

— Mitä sinä täällä teet?

— Tulin vain huvikseni kävelemään ja etsimään variksenpesiä,

sanoo poika.

— Näytänkö minä sinun mielestäsi nyt niin variksenpesältä? kysyy

tyttö suupielessä veitikka värähdellen.

Poika hämmästyy.

— Enhän minä sinua… enkä minä luullut sinua täällä

tapaavanikaan.

Molemmat nauravat. Hakametsä tuoksuu, rastas katkonaisia

säveleitään kaiuttaa.

Poika kävelee tytön rinnalla, joka vikkelästi kuorii varpujaan ja

silmää joskus salaa poikaan. Tiesiköhän tuo minun tulevan? Mitähän
tuo aikoo?
 — Tuossapa olisi hyvä torpan paikka, sanoo poika ajatuksissaan
katsellen sileää rinnettä, jossa kasvaa muutamia nuoria koivuja.
Antaisikohan Isotalo rakentaa tuohon torpan?

— Rakentaisitko?

— Kyllä, jos vain…

Ja poika katsoo naurahtaen tyttöön.

— Jos mitä?

— Eipä mitään. Ajattelin vain, että kukapa siihen sitten emännäksi

tulisi.

Tyttö saa uuden lämpimän silmäyksen pojalta.

— Hui hai, eihän sinulla ole mökkiäkään vielä, sanoo tyttö

helähtäen nauramaan ja lähtien juoksemaan karjapolkua lehtoon.

Poika juoksee jälessä, koppaa tytön syliinsä ja sanoo läähättäen.

— Tulisitko…? sinä…

— Tulisin, sanoo tyttö ja karkaa metsään.

*****

Toinen kuva.

Juhannus-yö. Kyläkeinulta ovat kokkotulien viimeiset liekit

sammuneet ja nuoriso parvittain hajaantunut kyläteille. Tanssiin on jo
kyllästytty ja soittajan hanurin sävelet kaikuvat kastepisaraisessa
metsässä.
 Muuan pojista on istunut syrjässä tanssia katsellen, palannut yksin
hämärään pirttiin ja painunut penkille pää käsien varaan. Hän on
saanut istua koko illan yksin. Mökin Anna on lentänyt käsivarrelta
käsivarrelle tanssin pyörteessä. Tuskin yhtään sanaa on häneltä
riittänyt pojalle koko iltana. Joku pojista on osoittanut häntä
sormellaan: "Kas, mikä körri tuo Takalan Tuomas, kun ei puhu eikä
pukahda".

Pojan sydäntä raastaa pakahduttava tunne ja kurkkua kuristaa

pidätetty nyyhkytys. Toinen käsi on nyrkkiin puristettuna ja toisella
tukee hän päätään, jossa suonet takovat niin hurjasti.

— Kurja nainen!

Kello tuvan mustuneella seinällä lyö rämisten. Montako? Poika ei

sitä huomaa. Hänen päänsä painuu yhä alemma ikkunalautaa
vasten ja kuumat pisarat putoilevat penkille.

Tuvan ovi aukeaa hiljaa ja tyttö astuu sisään hiljaisin askelin.

— Tuomas… täälläkö sinä oletkin?

Poika ei vastaa mitään. Hänen povessaan värähtää oudosti ja käsi

pusertuu nyrkiksi.

Tyttö tulee lähemmäksi ja istuu penkille. Raollaan olevasta

ikkunasta kuuluvat hanurin mollisävelet jostakin hyvin kaukaa, yli
hiljaisien vesien.

— Oletko sinä minulle vihainen? kysyy tyttö hiljaa koettaen olla

vakava, vaikka toisessa suupielessä nytkähtelee pidätetty nauru.
 — En minä sinulle voi vihainen olla, sanoo poika nostaen kostean
katseensa tyttöön, joka siirtyy lähemmäksi istumaan ja tapailee
pojan kättä omaansa.

— Kyllä sinä olet suuttunut minuun, minä näen sen. Mutta enhän
minä voinut olla tanssimatta, kun minua aina vain pyydettiin.

— Eikö sinulla siellä olisi ollut yhtään ystävällistä sanaa minulle?

— Elä viitsi nyt enää… Voinhan minä olla vasta tanssimattakin.

— Mitäpä nyt siitäkään…

Aurinko nousi ja värähteli tuvan ikkunassa ja kukkaan puhjenneen

verenpisaran lehdillä. Poika painoi päänsä tytön syliin ja puhkesi
rajuun nyyhkytykseen.

— No mitä nyt…?

Painava, hiljainen äänettömyys.

Hetken kuluttua kohotti poika kirkastuneen katseensa tyttöön ja

virkkoi.

— Minä olen antanut sinulle kaikki parhaimpani. Unelmani ja mitä

kauniita ajatuksia minulla on ollut. Ja tämä kaikki on minulla ensi
kertaa niinkuin tuolla kukkasella tuossa ikkunalla, mutta sinä leikit
vain minun kanssani ja lennät milloin minkin käsivarrella. Minä näin
nytkin, kenen kanssa sinä läksit kokoilta ja nyt… nyt sinä jo istut
tuossa. Voinko minä enää koskaan sinuun luottaa?

— Voit. En minä enää koskaan…

 Aurinko hymyili yhä kultaisemmin. Tyttö koetti hänkin hymyillä ja
kurotti punaisen suunsa suudeltavaksi.

Poika ei voinut enää vastustaa, vaan nosti tytön syliinsä.

— Oletko sinä sitten yksin minun?

— Olen, virkkoi tyttö miettien äskeistä saattajataan.

— Kun minä sen vain oikein varmasti tietäisin, niin minun onneni
olisi niin suuri ja kokonainen. Mutta sano minulle, onko sinulla
koskaan ennen ollut tällaista? Onko tämä sinulla ensimäistä kertaa?

— On, virkkoi tyttö miettien kyläsoittajaa, joka oli ollut hänen

luhdissaan viime yönä. Voiko sitä tällaista olla muuta kuin yhden
kerran vain, jatkoi hän.

Poika puristi tytön lujasti syliinsä.

— Nyt minä aloitan jo huomisen päivän perästä tupani veistoksen

ja laulaen käyn työhöni ja pian nousee yhteisen pesän seinät.
Kuulehan, virkkoi poika hetken kuluttua, nyt minä vasta käsitän,
miten suuri onni on antaa koskemattoman suoruutensa
koskemattomalle, niinkuin sinä nyt olet.

Tyttö katseli ulos eikä puhunut mitään.

— Syksyn tullen minä sitten vien sinut omaan tupaani, niinhän?

— Ehtiihän siitä nyt vielä…

— Etkö sinä tahtoisikaan vielä niin pian?

— Kyllä, mutta…
 — Mitä?

— Puhutaan sitten toiste siitä. Sinun täytyy nyt jo mennä. Isäntä

voi pian nousta.

*****

Muutamia kuukausia myöhemmin.

Tuomas on saattanut häätaloon morsiamensa. Viulut vingahtelevat

ja lattia notkuu tanssivien parien alla. Anna on kiitänyt koko illan
Isontalon nuoren isännän Topiaan käsivarrella. Kun Tuomas pyytää
häntä jo lopettamaan tanssin, vastaa Anna niskojaan nakaten.

— Minä tahdon nyt tanssia vielä tämän kerran etkä sinä saa nyt
minua kiusata. Mene yksin kotiin, jos et jaksa, minua odottaa.

— Mutta enhän minä nyt hääyönä yksin…

— Istu sitten nurkassa ja odota.

Topias vie Annan uudelleen tanssiin ja väläyttää ilkeästi silmää

Tuomaalle.

Tuomaan kädet puristuvat nyrkeiksi ja uhkaava tuli pajaa hänen

poskipäillään.

*****

Ruuna kuopi maata ja hirnahteli. Tuomas heräsi ajatuksistaan.

Kuinka kauan hän siinä lienee istunutkaan. Kädet olivat tiukasti
nyrkeissä ja hengitys kulki raskaasti. Mitäs jos Anna ei pitäisikään
hänestä enää? Jos ei olisi pitänyt ennenkään? Mitä varten Isotalo
kävi heillä niin usein? Ja aina sillä oli vielä se ilkeä katseensa, josta
ei saanut selvää, mitä se oli. Eihän se nyt sentään Annaa katselle,
toisen vaimoa? Eihän toki. Mutta miksi Anna on yhtämittaa
nyreissään, eikä salli itseään hyväillä niinkuin ennen. Ja
mietteissään kulkee kesken askareittensa ja seisahtelee
tuijottamaan. Mitäs jos Anna ja Isotalo…?

Veri nousi Tuomaan päähän, niin että silmät säkenöivät, kun sitä
ajatteli. Uskaltaisiko se nyt semmoista? Olihan kyllä tapahtunut
ennenkin samanlaista.

Tuomas nousi, riisui ruunan, laski sen veräjästä hakaan ja läksi

miettien kävelemään pihaan.

— Minkä tähden sinä et tullut aamiaiselle, kysyi Anna Tuomaan

tupaan tultua.

— En muistanut. Ruuna viimein rupesi tahtomaan…

— Et muistanut… On siinä mies, kun ei muista syömään tulla…

Kun nyt ruunan piti ihan muistuttaa.

Ja Anna nauroi hytkähdellen.

— Mitä siinä nyt on virnuamista, virkkoi Tuomas kärsimättömästi.

— No eikö sinulle saisi yhtään nauraa?

— No jos niin haluttaa. Onko sinulla voita?

Ei jaksaisi paloa kyntää suolavesileivällä.

— Eipä sitä kannattaisi.

— Syöthän sinä itsekin. Miks'en minä saisi?

 — Ei sinun tarvitse minun syönnistäni sanoa. Saanhan minä olla
syömättäkin, jos se niin on.

— Enhän minä ole kieltänyt.

— Vai et. Kun sanoit, että syöthän sinä itsekin.

— Niin niin. Ei se nyt kieltämistä…

Anna toi voilautasen ja heitti sen kolisten menemään pöydälle.

— Siin' on!

— Elähän nyt noin vihassa…

— Mitäs sinä aina…

Tuomas söi vaieten ja Anna pesi karsinapuolella astioita. Pikku

Matti, ensimäisen vuotensa täyttänyt poika, leikki lattialla. Tuomas
katseli pojan piirteitä. Sillähän olikin melkein mustat silmät, nyt hän
sen vasta tuli oikein huomanneeksi. Heidän suvussaan ei ollut
kellään mustia silmiä. Annalla oli tosin tummat, mutta…

Poika jokelsi ja katsoi tuottavasti isäänsä. Mitä hän oli

ajatellutkaan. Tuomas tunsi häpeävänsä. Kaikkeakin sitä… Oma
poika…

Anna liikkui askareissaan mitään miehelleen virkkamatta.

Yhtämittaa se on vain äkeissään, mistä lienee. Onhan se kaunis

ihminen, kun vain olisi hyväluontoisempi. Tulleekohan tuo minun
aittaani ensi yöksi nukkumaan, vai menneekö omaan aittaansa.