Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Advances in Bio-based
Fiber
Moving Towards a Green Society
Edited by
List of contributors xv
Preface xxiii
4.3 Layer-by-layer 66
4.4 Compression molding 67
4.5 Injection molding 68
4.6 Extrusion molding 69
4.7 Resin transfer molding 70
4.8 Spinning 71
4.9 Melt mix 77
4.10 3D printing 79
4.11 Inkjet printing 79
4.12 Vacuum bagging 81
4.13 Vacuum infusion 82
4.14 Roll-to-roll 82
4.15 Solvent casting 83
4.16 In situ polymerization 85
4.17 One pot directed synthesis 86
4.18 Freeze-drying 87
4.19 Micropatterned 88
4.20 Sol gel techniques 88
References 89
Index 783
List of contributors
1.1 Introduction
Currently, researchers and scientists have paid more attention toward the development
and use of biofibers and their composites alternative to the synthetic fibers due to envi-
ronmental harm caused by manmade materials (Thyavihalli Girijappa, Mavinkere
Rangappa, Parameswaranpillai, & Siengchin, 2019). These biofibers exist in cellulose
and protein-based forms, which also contain lignin and they are divided into plant, ani-
mal, and mineral fibers based on their origin. The whole plant fibers consist of cellulose
contents, while animal fibers contain protein contents. The increasing use of these mate-
rials are associated with less cost, recyclable nature, non-toxicity, eco-friendly features,
and having good strength-to-weight ratio in comparison with the synthetic material
(Vinod, Sanjay, Suchart, & Jyotishkumar, 2020; Wei & McDonald, 2016). The biofiber-
reinforced composites are used as a replacement for metals in automobile, aerospace,
construction, defense and electronic applications. These bio-fibers are having less flame
retarding property and less CO2 emission on burning (Idumah & Hassan, 2016). The
hydrophilic nature of these fibers attracts the water molecules when added with a mix-
ture, which leads to reduction in consistency of mixture and also the adhesive nature
with the matrix material. To avoid these problems, the bio-fibers are subjected to chemi-
cal treatment and also it increases the compatibility with the matrix phase (Ajouguim,
Stefanidou, Abdelouahdi, Waqif, & Saâdi, 2020; Kabir, Wang, Lau, & Cardona, 2012;
Sanjay et al., 2019). To get the best quality of fiber, three phase parameters should be
considered. In the first growth phase, the fiber type, place of growth, and climate condi-
tions were accounted. In the second harvest phase fiber age, fiber physical properties
and adhesive nature is accounted and finally in third supply phase transportation method,
storage conditions and time are accounted (Dittenber & GangaRao, 2012). In the current
century, environmental friendly biocomposites are given more importance, which are
developed using bio-fiber and bio-plastics, which is the best solution for avoiding envi-
ronmental damage. The composites developed by the insertion of bio-fibers (banana,
kenaf, sisal, areca, jute, flax, hemp) with the polymer matrix material gives competition
with the synthetic composites in composite field (Koruk & Genc, 2015). The use of syn-
thetic materials has difficulties in manufacturing field because of energy consumption,
cost of the material and availability; hence, biofibers are used as alternative renewable
resources because of processing conditions and low energy requirement (Ramesh,
Palanikumar, & Reddy, 2017). These biocomposite application is found in various sec-
tors like automotive industry, aerospace applications, construction materials, circuit
boards, and domestic applications. The natural fiber reinforced polymer composites were
also fabricated using an agricultural waste, and these are compatible with the environ-
ment (Bharath & Basavarajappa, 2016). This review explores the detailed description of
biofibers, properties, chemical treatment of biofibers, mechanical and thermal properties
of bio composites, and applications of biocomposites.
Persia are the native countries for hemp plant, and Russia is the largest hemp fiber
producing country of around 33% of total world production (Manaia, Manaia, &
Rodriges, 2019). The primary chemical constituents of hemp fibers are cellulose
content, hemicellulose, pectin and lignin, and the inter layer of fibers were bound
together by high concentration lignin-pectin middle lamella (Liu et al., 2015). The
fiber is extracted from the bast using retting process, and the surface properties are
enhanced by mercerization and hydrothermal treatment. It is a strong and stiffen
material and used as a potential reinforcement in composites (Nunes et al., 2017).
also changes occur within the 500 mm from ground (Ali et al., 2018; Sreenivas,
Krishnamurthy, & Arpitha, 2020).
around $200 million. Due to the higher potentiality, these fibers can be used in both
textile and non-textile industries (Hazarika et al., 2018). The PALF has unique
property such as sound absorption and the frequency range varies with density of
the fibers. The studies reveals that PALF has 0.9 sound absorption co-efficient on
an average from 1 kHz frequency (Putra et al., 2018).
"Siellä missä laivoja on, ainoastaan siellä hän viihtyy", sanoi vanha
rouva, "se on minun vakaumukseni. Ollen itse kapteeni ja vanha
merimies ei hän voi elääkään muualla kuin meren läheisyydessä ja
ainoastaan siellä voi hän ansaita toimeentulonsa — miesraukka —
ellei hän jo ole lähtenyt ulkomaille, joka kuitenkin on hyvin
epäiltävää."
"Ei!"
"Niin, kapteeni?"
"No, jos tulet, niin tule nyt, vanha hullu", toisti Dick. "Tosiaankin
olisi parasta, ettet koskaan joisi mitään maitoa väkevämpää."
"Ei", vastasi vanha mies. "Älkäähän nyt hätäilkö niin riivatusti; kyllä
se takaisin tulee."
Kokki myönsi.
"Vai niin! Olette siis niitä koko maailman rahain kokoojia", sanoi
isäntä leikillisesti. "Miten pitkälle aiotte?"
"No, eipä juuri", sanoi kokki. "Etsin vaan erästä John Dunnia."
Kokki seurasi käskyä ja sulki oven tarkkaan perässään. Hän oli nyt
pienessä salissa, vanhan suuttuneen näköisen, nojatuolissa
sanomalehteä lukevan herrasmiehen edessä.
"Vai niin", sanoi ukko. "Kyllä sittenkin haluatte." Hän astui ovelle ja
huusi rappusille: "Roger!"