Climate Change Science: Causes,

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Climate Change Science
Page left intentionally blank
 Climate Change Science
Causes, Effects, and Solutions
for Global Warming

Edited by

David S-K. Ting

Professor in the Department of Mechanical, Automotive and Materials
Engineering at the University of Windsor, ON, Canada

Jacqueline A. Stagner
Engineering Undergraduate Programs Coordinator
at the University of Windsor, ON, Canada
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To everyone who strives to make a positive impact in conserving our
environment, one starfish at a time.
Page left intentionally blank
Contents
Contributors xv
Preface xvii
Acknowledgment xxi

1 Enhancing crop water productivity under increasing water

scarcity in South Africa 1
Tafadzwanashe Mabhaudhi, Luxon Nhamo, Sylvester Mpandeli
1 Introduction 1
2 Understanding water productivity 3
2.1 Spatial distribution of water resources
in South Africa 4
2.2 Considerations in improving water productivity 5
2.3 Options to improve water productivity at all levels 5
2.4 Available options to improve water productivity
at field level 6
2.5 Options to improve water productivity at system
and basin levels 10
2.6 Policies related to water productivity
in South Africa 11
3 The value of water markets in water scarce regions 12
4 Improving water productivity from a WEF nexus
perspective 13
5 Recommendations 14
6 Conclusions 14
References 15

vii
viii Contents

2 Can renewable energy sources be a viable instrument for

climate change mitigation? Evidence from EU countries
via MCDM methods 19
Fazıl Gökgöz, Engin Yalçın
1 Introduction 20
2 Literature review 21
3 Research methods 22
3.1 CRITIC method 22
3.2 TOPSIS method 23
3.3 COPRAS method 25
4 Data and descriptive statistics 27
5 Climate change mitigation profile of EU countries 28
6 Empirical results 31
7 Conclusion and policy implications 34
References 37

3 Carbon emission as a result of forest land change

in Islamabad, Pakistan 41
Umer Khayyam, Sarah Waseem
1 Introduction 41
1.1 Forestland change 41
1.2 Reasons behind foreland change 41
1.3 Trend of carbon emission change 42
1.4 Problem statement 43
2 Aim & research questions 43
2.1 Research questions of the study 43
3 Materials and methods 43
3.1 Study area 43
3.2 Tools and techniques 44
 Contents ix

4 Results and discussion 46

4.1 LULCC—1992–2000, 2000–08, 2008–17 47
4.2 Forestland to other land and carbon
emissions—1992–2000, 2000–08, and 2008–17 50
4.3 Forestland change for individual study sectors 51
5 Conclusion 54
References 54

4 “Integrated coastal management” enhances coastal

resilience to climate change—The East Asia experience 59
Loke-Ming Chou, Thia-Eng Chua, Danilo Bonga
1 Introduction 59
2 ICM system 61
3 ICM adoption in the East Asian Seas region 63
4 Climate change impacts on the coastal area 66
5 ICM strengthens environmental and societal resilience 68
6 Conclusion 73
References 74

5 Underground methanation, a natural way to transform

carbon dioxide into methane 81
Isabel Amez, Sergio Gonzalez, Laura Sanchez-Martin,
Marcelo F. Ortega, Bernardo Llamas
1 Introduction 81
1.1 Integration of the renewable energies into the
electricity system 82
2 Power to gas 82
2.1 Power to hydrogen versus power to methane 83
3 Underground methanation 85
3.1 Underground hydrogen storage 85
3.2 Underground methanation reactor 96
x Contents

4 Conclusions 102
References 104

6 Analysis of plant oil-based fuel characteristics

for green supply chains 107
Lutfu S. Sua, Figen Balo
1 Introduction 107
2 Model structure: fuel-related properties of plant oils 113
3 Conclusions 119
References 121

7 The effects of couple layout on thermoelectric

generator performance 125
Xi Wang, Paul Henshaw, David S-K. Ting
1 Introduction 126
1.1 Applications of TEG technology 126
1.2 Improvements in TEG performance 128
1.3 Objectives and scope 130
2 Methodology 130
2.1 Electrical characteristics 131
2.2 Thermal transfer process 131
2.3 Efficiency 132
2.4 Governing equations for TEG model 133
2.5 Boundary conditions for TEG model 135
2.6 Numerical solution 135
3 TEG model establishment and validation 135
3.1 Establishment and simplification of TEG model 136
3.2 Model validation 137
4 Effects of layout on the TEG performance 138
5 Conclusions 140
References 141
 Contents xi

8 Spatio-temporal patterns for human-based architecture

to solve metropolitan collapse in Latin America 143
Natalia A. Alonso, Alberto T. Estévez, Yomna K. Abdallah
1 Introduction 143
2 Architecture as an intelligent living organism 143
2.1 “Space-Time” rule of growth 144
2.2 Intelligence of evolution 144
3 Realizing spatio-temporal architecture 151
3.1 Materials and methods 151
3.2 Spatio-temporal mathematical models 153
4 Developing the spatio-temporal architecture
in Latin America (case study) 154
4.1 Demographic and anthropogenic study
of the Colombian population 155
5 Conclusion 168
References 168

9 The nexus of climate change and urbanization 171

Mohammadsoroush Tafazzoli, Arezou Sadoughi
1 Introduction 171
2 Part 1: how urbanization impacts climate change 172
2.1 Transportation 173
2.2 Buildings’ energy demand 175
3 Part 2: how climate change impacts urban life 177
3.1 Increasing buildings’ energy demand for cooling 177
3.2 Exacerbating air pollution 178
3.3 Affecting the quality of adjacent waters 179
3.4 Affecting city dwellers’ health and productivity 180
3.5 Causing acid rains 180
3.6 Ripple impacts on the economy 181
xii Contents

3.7 Contributing to the wildfires impacting cities 182

3.8 Affecting the quality of life and welfare 183
3.9 Damaging building structures and deterioration 184
4 Part 3: Fundemental climate change mitigation strategies
in cities 184
4.1 Emission control through transportation
management 185
4.2 Preservation and restoration of green space and
open space in cities 186
4.3 Smart growth and compact development 187
4.4 Building and neighborhood renovations 188
4.5 Maximized collaboration and holistic
approaches 189
4.6 Worldwide commitment to sustainable
development in action 189
5 Summary 190
References 191

10 Bioshading system design methodology (BSDM) 195

Maria João de Oliveira, Vasco Rato, Carla Leitão
1 Introduction 195
2 Related work 196
3 Bioshading system design method 199
4 Architecture domain—definition process 201
5 Nature domain—abstraction process 208
6 Artifact domain—emulation process 213
7 Discussion 219
8 Conclusions 220
References 220
 Contents xiii

11 Green science: smart building technology to mitigate

global energy and water crises 223
Md. Faruque Hossain
1 Introduction 223
2 Material, methods, and simulation 224
2.1 Design of PV panel 228
2.2 Electrostatic force generation 230
3 Results and discussion 233
4 Electricity transformation 238
4.1 Electrostatic force analysis 240
4.2 On-site water treatment 242
5 Conclusions 243
References 243

12 How green energy giants increase their revenues?

Impacts on global warming 247
Sanchita Baral, George Xydis
1 Introduction 247
2 Stock market data variation 250
2.1 Iberdrola 250
2.2 E.ON 252
2.3 Alstom 252
2.4 ENEL 254
2.5 General Electric 255
2.6 Scottish and Southern Energy 256
3 Influencing factors for share price variation 257
3.1 Strategic decisions 257
3.2 Financial activities 257
3.3 Management 260
xiv Contents

3.4 Dividend 261

3.5 Other factors 261
4 Results, evaluation, and discussion 262
5 Conclusions 266
References 266
Index 273
Contributors

Yomna K. Abdallah
Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, iBAG—UIC Barcelona (Institute for Biodigital Architecture
and Genetics), Barcelona, Spain
Natalia A. Alonso
Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, iBAG—UIC Barcelona (Institute for Biodigital Architecture
and Genetics), Barcelona, Spain
Isabel Amez
Etsi Minas y Energía, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Figen Balo
Department of Industrial Engineering, Firat University, Elazığ, Turkey
Sanchita Baral
Department of Business Development and Technology, Aarhus University, Herning, Denmark
Danilo Bonga
Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA), Quezon,
Philippines
Loke-Ming Chou
National University of Singapore, Singapore
Thia-Eng Chua
Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA), Quezon,
Philippines
Alberto T. Estévez
Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, iBAG—UIC Barcelona (Institute for Biodigital Architecture
and Genetics), Barcelona, Spain
Fazıl Gökgöz
Faculty of Political Sciences, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
Sergio Gonzalez
Etsi Minas y Energía, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Paul Henshaw
Turbulence & Energy Laboratory, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
Md. Faruque Hossain
College of Architecture and Construction Management, Kennesaw State University, Marietta,
GA, United States
Umer Khayyam
Department of Development Studies, School of Social Sciences and Humanities (S3H), National
University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan

xv
xvi Contributors

Carla Leitão
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
Bernardo Llamas
Etsi Minas y Energía, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Tafadzwanashe Mabhaudhi
Centre for Transformative Agricultural and Food Systems, School of Agricultural, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN), Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
Sylvester Mpandeli
Water Research Commission Pretoria, South Africa; School of Environmental Sciences, University
of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa
Luxon Nhamo
Centre for Transformative Agricultural and Food Systems, School of Agricultural, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN), Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
Water Research Commission Pretoria, South Africa; Water Research Commission, Pretoria, South
Africa
Maria João de Oliveira
Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL), DINÂMIA’CET, Lisboa, Portugal; Iscte-Instituto
Universitário De Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL), DINÂMIA’CET, Lisboa, Portugal
Marcelo F. Ortega
Etsi Minas y Energía, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Vasco Rato
Iscte-Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL), ISTAR_iscte, Lisboa, Portugal
Arezou Sadoughi
Department of Sustainable Technology and the Built Environment, Appalachian State University,
Boone, NC, United States
Laura Sanchez-Martin
Etsi Minas y Energía, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Lutfu S. Sua
School of Entrepreneurship and Business Administration, Auca, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic
Mohammadsoroush Tafazzoli
School of Design and Construction, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
David S-K. Ting
Department of Mechanical, Automotive and Materials Engineering at the University of Windsor,
Windsor, ON, Canada
Xi Wang
Turbulence & Energy Laboratory, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
Sarah Waseem
Department of Development Studies, School of Social Sciences and Humanities (S3H), National
University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan
George Xydis
Department of Business Development and Technology, Aarhus University, Herning, Denmark
Engin Yalçın
Institute of Social Sciences, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
Preface

The push for large-scale interventions of the entire atmosphere that drives the Earth’s cli-
mate system is gaining ground. The educated can sit on the sideline and assume that this
is but far-fetched science fiction that will never take place. After all, who in their right
mind would take a risky action such as setting up an atomic explosion in the outer atmo-
spheric layer in an effort to reduce the solar radiation reaching the surface of the earth?
Then again, human beings have been proven to do crazy things when overcame by fear.
Let us be reminded of the “2020 toilet paper crisis” for many years to come, hopefully
to better prepare us in preventing, mitigating, and/or dealing with the next impasse. As
Andersen (2017) put it, “Many fear that, when global leaders finally realize the peril of
climate change, they will jump at engineering projects without any evidence base, risk-
ing side effects of unknown magnitude.” The idea of controlling and engineering the vast
population of the human race is more real than just entertaining movies. What about en-
gineering human beings to become meat intolerance in order to eliminate greenhouse
emissions from the livestock industry? Not to mention shrinking future generations into
smaller beings so that they consume less. These and other forms of human engineering
are entering mainstream scientific discussion; see (Liao, 2017), for example.
According to Reader (2021), “The emphasis, perhaps overemphasis, of carbon dioxide’s
role in actual climate change may well moderate as more data becomes available, but only
in so far as the role of other contributing factors to actual changing climates need to be
clarified, measured, and embedded in better predictive models.” What other contribut-
ing factors are there? Let us be enlightened by astrophysicist Khabibullo Abdusamatov
who supervised the Astrometria project of the Russian section of the International Space
Station and headed Space research laboratory at the Saint Petersburg-based Pulkovo
Observatory of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Abdusamatov concluded that, “Glob-
al warming results not from the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, but
from an unusually high level of solar radiation and a lengthy - almost throughout the last
century - growth in its intensity. It is no secret that when they go up, temperatures in the
world’s oceans trigger the emission of large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmo-
sphere. So the common view that man’s industrial activity is a deciding factor in global
warming has emerged from a misinterpretation of cause and effect relations.” This, by no
means, excuses us from good stewardship of the beautiful planet that we reside in, and
share with abundant and fascinating species. Case in point, Swithinbank et al. (2019) de-
lineated how Christian theology promotes sustaining the environment and fosters grass-
roots social movements for sustainable development.

xvii
xviii Preface

Even so, how can we make a positive impact without resorting to large-scale interven-
tions? The impending challenge seems overwhelming for a layperson, at least it appears
that individual efforts are not going to make a dent. Is there then nothing we can do? The
answer to this vital question is in the “Starfish Story” by Loren Eiseley. Here is our edited
version that conveys the salient message.
One day a man was walking along the beach when he noticed a boy picking
up stranded starfish and throwing them into the sea. Approaching the boy he
asked, “Young man, what are you doing?” The boy replied, “If I don’t throw the
starfish back, they’ll surely die.” The man exclaimed, “But there are thousands
of them. What difference does it make?” The boy smiled as he threw another
starfish into the sea, “It makes a difference to this one.”
This one-starfish volume aims at disseminating the open-minded state-of-the-art sci-
entific knowledge on climate change and the engineering solutions for mitigating it. It
promotes the discussion of big ideas, such as erecting a net along the beach to prevent
the up-washing of the starfish to the shore, or analogously, a global-scale solar shield. The
uncertain after effects of these methods should not be whitewashed; for example, the title
of the article by Langin (2018), “A solar shield could save us from climate change. But its
sudden collapse would doom the planet,” alone says it all. On the same topic, Sillmann
et al. (2015) sound the alarm, “The danger of declaring a climate emergency is further
exacerbated when one considers the political stakes of doing so. Emergencies are by no
means simple geophysical occurrences, but rather the outcome of highly complex interac-
tions between the natural environment, political interests and social norms. In the context
of considerable scientific uncertainty - and hence the multiple possible interpretations of
scientific results and arguments - climate emergencies will be declared on largely politi-
cal grounds. This interlinking of scientific uncertainty and political opportunism should
caution against implementing SRM (solar radiation management) as a climate emergency
measure, a conclusion we reach on the basis of sound scientific arguments, good gover-
nance and ethical principles.”
More so, this volume or forum calls for small, more certain and low-risk actions. Every
earth inhabitant can execute these seemingly inconsequential actions, that is, all beach
and starfish lovers can have the pleasure to save some starfish. Let the collective effort
speak for itself.
Case in point, we need food, food is intimately interrelated with precious water, and
both food and water are directly influence by climate change. Mabhaudhia, Nhamo, and
Mpandeli disclose rainwater harvesting and soil water conservation as options to enhance
crop water productivity in Chapter 1.
How do we know if a solution to alleviate climate change is working in real life? Gökgöz
and Yalçin recommend the multi criteria decision-making approach to assess climate
change mitigation performance, where such an appraiser is conducted for the European
Union countries in Chapter 2.
 Preface xix

Deforestation is bad. Unfortunately, this obvious fact is often buried under the name of
progress. Such is the case in Pakistan, as detailed by Khayyam and Waseem in Chapter 3,
where they call for the halting of massive urbanization at the expense of deforestation.
Forget not the vulnerable coastline. In Chapter 4, Chou, Chua, and Bonga enlighten us
with integrated coastal management system for strengthening coastal resilience, beautify-
ing coastal cities and municipalities for future generations to enjoy. Integrated within this
system includes the conservation of natural resources and maintenance of environmental
quality for sustaining the ecosystem.
Is there a well-founded way to store carbon dioxide underground? What about convert-
ing it into methane via the hydrogen and carbon dioxide reaction? Amez, Sanchez-Martin,
Ortega, and Llamas reveal this ingenious idea in Chapter 5. What makes this idea practi-
cally attractive is its direct integration into the “power to gas” technology, where the excess
electricity during low demand is exploited to produce hydrogen or methane in the existing
natural gas networks.
As we are on the topic of fuel, we cannot escape being confronted with the fact that the
politically incorrect combustion of fuel will continue to drive us into the future. Accord-
ing to Sua and Balo, plant oil-based fuels can green the supply chains that are powered
primarily via fuel combustion. They analyze a multitude of plant oils with respect to diesel
and gasoline for the logistics industry in Chapter 6.
Waste heat is given for just about all engineering systems and hence, it is of significant
environment benefit to harnessing it for electricity. Thermoelectric generator (TEG) is a
gadget for such purpose. In Chapter 7, Wang, Henshaw, and Ting illustrate how to better
configure the underlying layouts of the n-type and p-type couples to further TEG perfor-
mance.
How do we sustain a dynamic city that changes continuously with time? Alonso,
Estévez, and Abdallah propose making its architecture alive in Chapter 8. Imitating organ-
isms develop in space and time the spatio-temporal architecture adjusts itself in response
to the dynamic interaction between the inhabitants and the environment.
Pandemic and climate change alike, they tend to have a larger impact on more populat-
ed areas. In Chapter 9, Tafazzoli and Sadoughi explain that intensely developed cities sub-
stantially contribute to climate change, and are more adversely affected by climate change.
Mitigation should initiate with the identification of the specific characteristics of the city.
Ever heard of bioshading system design methodology (BSDM)? Oliveira, Rato, and
Leitão explain in Chapter 10 that BSDM is an architectural problem-based methodology
that exploits nature to design responsive shading systems. Enjoy the inspiration instilled
by the ladybug.
It is evident that smart building plays a critical role on our road toward a greener future.
Hossain demonstrates that capitalizing active photovoltaic panels along a building exte-
rior curtain wall can power the entire building in Chapter 11. Furthermore, we can employ
static electricity to harness cloud water and treat it with ultraviolet to meet the building
water demand.
Another random document with
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"Is it in the country?" Annie asked, a wistful longing in her eyes. "Will there be
flowers, and trees, and birds? And shall I get well there?"

"I trust so, my dear," the old man replied, "and it's quite in the country. Your
mother will tell you all about it."

"And we shall never come back here any more," said Maggie reflectively,
casting a lingering look, not devoid of affection, round the garret which had
been home to them so long. "Poor old place! I shall never forget it!"

It had been a poor home, but after all, mother and children had had their
happy days there—days when no troubles had been able to obliterate the
sunshine of God's presence in their hearts, and they had felt secure in His
loving care.

There is little more to tell. When old John Mudford returned to Cornwall, he
took his daughter and her children with him, and in her native air Mrs. Blundell
soon lost her careworn looks, and her tired eyes regained their strength.
Maggie became quite rosy and blooming; but it was Annie who changed the
most. The following summer found her able to move about, and her poor back
grew stronger as time went on, and the fresh, country air did its work.

Mrs. Metherell still keeps on her lodging-house, and Clara remains with her as
servant; but she has lost her favourite lodger, for Mr. Blewett has been
appointed junior house surgeon at the hospital where he was once a student,
so that it is more than probable he will find his life's work in London, after all.

Meanwhile, first amongst the carefully guarded treasures of Maggie and Annie
Blundell is the doll, in its gaudy amber gown, that was the humble means of
bringing a shower of blessings in its train. The children declare they will never
forget their last Christmas in London, which, in the midst of their poverty and
many anxieties, was full of unlooked-for happiness and joy.

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