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NanoScience and Technology

Mircea Dragoman
Daniela Dragoman

2D
Nanoelectronics
Physics and Devices of Atomically
Thin Materials
NanoScience and Technology

Series editors
Phaedon Avouris, Yorktown Heights, USA
Bharat Bhushan, Columbus, USA
Dieter Bimberg, Berlin, Germany
Klaus von Klitzing, Stuttgart, Germany
Cun-Zheng Ning, Tempe, USA
Roland Wiesendanger, Hamburg, Germany
The series NanoScience and Technology is focused on the fascinating nano-world,
mesoscopic physics, analysis with atomic resolution, nano and quantum-effect
devices, nanomechanics and atomic-scale processes. All the basic aspects and
technology-oriented developments in this emerging discipline are covered by
comprehensive and timely books. The series constitutes a survey of the relevant
special topics, which are presented by leading experts in the field. These books will
appeal to researchers, engineers, and advanced students.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/3705

Mircea Dragoman Daniela Dragoman
•

2D Nanoelectronics
Physics and Devices of Atomically
Thin Materials

123
Mircea Dragoman Daniela Dragoman
National Research and Development Faculty of Physics
Institute in Microtechnologies University of Bucharest
Bucharest Bucharest
Romania Romania

ISSN 1434-4904 ISSN 2197-7127 (electronic)

NanoScience and Technology
ISBN 978-3-319-48435-8 ISBN 978-3-319-48437-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-48437-2
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016955307

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

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Preface

We have started to work in the area of graphene at the end of 2006, discovering that
the fascinating Dirac equations could drive to new discoveries in solid-state phy-
sics. At that time, although the Dirac equation, which governs the transport of
carriers in graphene, was discovered by Wallace long time ago (P.R. Wallace, The
Band Theory of Graphite, Phys. Rev. 71, 622, 1947), many theoretical issues were
still unsolved, and some of them are not solved even today. For instance, the
problem of metal–graphene contact resistance, which should clarify how to match
two physical systems in which carrier transport is described either by the Dirac
equation (graphene) or by the Schrödinger equation (metal), is currently under
investigation. In 2006, however, the experiments were in infancy, and the
Manchester group led by A. Geim and K.S. Novoselov just published their papers
about the amazing electrical properties of graphene (K.S. Novoselov et al., Electric
Field Effect in Atomically Thin Carbon Films, Science 306, 666, 2004). In a
subsequent major publication (M.I. Katsnelson, K.S. Novoselov, A.K. Geim, Chiral
Tunneling and Klein paradox in graphene, Nature Physics 2, 620, 2006), the
Manchester group has cited one of our finest scientific work (D. Dragoman,
M. Dragoman, Optical Analogue Structures to Mesoscopic Devices, Progr.
Quantum Electronics 23, 131, 1999) completely ignored at that time by the sci-
entific community. This paper is at the foundation of our book Quantum-Classical
Analogies, published in 2004 at Springer, and which can be found in hundreds of
libraries worldwide according to WorldCat. The Manchester group has cited us
because they discovered that the ballistic transport properties of graphene at room
temperature, which manifest over large distances (from few hundreds of microns up
to few microns depending on how graphene is encapsulated), can be applied to
various electronic devices mimicking optics. Today, after ten years, we can say that
we have successfully followed the path of ballistic electron transport-optics
analogies, and in the last two years we have experimentally evidenced the first
ballistic transistors working at room temperature with impressive electrical and
optical properties, and we have developed theoretically the first quantum gates
based on ballistic transport. Meanwhile, we have written tens of papers about

v
vi Preface

graphene devices, reviews, and we have investigated together with our colleagues
the first microwave devices based on graphene and the first photodetectors.
Many expectations regarding graphene were immediately spread all over the
world, and many groups have started to work in this new area of science. It was
thought that in few years graphene will replace silicon, and a new era in applied
sciences, especially in nanoelectronics and photonics, will emerge.
However, at that time “the wonder material” could be barely found even in the
form of flakes with maximum dimensions of 1 mm or graphene inks. We have
obtained some graphene flakes from Peter Blake due to A. Geim, and in this way
the long experimental work with graphene has started. We have understood from
the beginning that the road to graphene devices will be long and hard. Despite very
optimistic reports spread on the net and in many influential journals, we have
known since 2008 that from the graphene flakes, which allows you to fabricate 2–3
devices, up to the high degree of integration of Si technology, which is able today to
integrate more than 5 billions of transistors, is a long, very long way. Indeed, today
integrated circuits based on graphene and containing 3–4 devices are a rarity,
although graphene wafers of 4 in. and even 6 in. are fabricated by companies such
as Graphene Laboratories, known also as Graphene Supermarket, or Graphene
Industries, with which we cooperate since five years. Why? There are two main
ways to grow graphene: via CVD, which requires a transfer of graphene grown on
copper on a certain substrate, or via epitaxial growth on SiC at very high tem-
peratures. If you examine such a wafer on SEM, you will find cracks, wrinkles, and
defects in many places of the wafer. If we fabricate a device on such a wafer, the
yield is 30–60% depending on the substrate. This is the main reason why graphene
and many other atomically thin materials cannot compete with Si technology yet,
although a lot of money is invested in the research. Moreover, if now graphene
devices have gained a certain maturity, this is not the case for other 2D materials,
where flakes are still used and devices at the wafer level are still a rarity.
We have reflected a lot if it is necessary to write a book about graphene and other
2D materials, their physics, and applications, since the subject is still immature
despite thousands of published papers, and theoretical works prevail too much over
experimental results. The best book about graphene theory in our opinion is the
book of M.I. Katsnelson, Graphene-Carbon in Two Dimensions, Cambridge Univ.
Press, 2012. However, a book about devices based on graphene and other 2D
materials and their physics is still missing, the results being spread in papers and/or
books edited by various editors.
The present book is divided into three chapters. The first and main chapter,
containing about 50% of the book, is dedicated to graphene devices such as tran-
sistors, diodes, sensors, integrated circuits, optoelectronic circuits, and biosensors
based on graphene. The remaining two chapters are dedicated to other 2D materials,
especially to transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), and describe their physics,
growth techniques, and devices based on them, such as transistors, photodiodes,
tunneling diodes, memristors, and even elementary circuits. Many figures, maybe in
excess, accompany the explanations. The book was written having in mind many
Preface vii

Ph.D. students, postdocs, and young researchers, which need to absorb a lot of new
knowledge, not taught at universities, in a rather short time.
The book is written with the hope that this ultimate research area in applied
physics, dealing with atomically thin materials, will evolve and develop in the next
years. The maturity of the growth processes of graphene and other 2D materials is
the main challenge for the years to come. No serious application will be developed
until hundreds of devices will be fabricated on the same wafer, and the repro-
ducibility will be comparable to that in semiconductors.
Graphene is zero-bandgap semiconductor. Therefore, designing and fabricating
devices that are analogous to semiconductor devices is a straightforward, but many
times unsuccessful way to develop new applications. The best example is the
transistor, which originates from semiconductor physics. The lack of a bandgap in
graphene results in graphene transistors to underperform compared to their semi-
conductor counterparts, due to the lack of a saturation region and the lack of an off
state. So, graphene transistors are not suitable for digital applications and cannot be
used as amplifiers beyond few GHz, although better graphene quality and clean
fabrication processes could increase the frequency up to 1 THz, especially when
ballistic transport is used. On the other hand, opening a bandgap in graphene
destroys its main attractive properties, such as high mobility or temperature inde-
pendence of its physical parameters.
The main idea for developing nanodevices based on atomically thin materials is
to use specific physical properties of 2D materials and to develop specific devices
based on them. All semiconducting devices originate from semiconductor physics.
Therefore, new devices should result from the new physics of atomically thin
materials. For example, the ballistic transport and/or the nonlinear electromagnetic
properties of graphene can be used for innovative devices in electronics and optics.
Or, the large effective mass in TMDs can be exploited to reduce the detrimental
effects in transistors with gate length of 5 nm and even less.
We hope that in few years, the devices based on atomically thin materials will
fully exploit their unprecedented physical properties as well as the possibility to
scale down electronic devices to atomic scale. The first such device—a transistor
based on a single atom—was recently reported. Moreover, the ultimate computer
will be based on atomic switches, which are now under development in the area of
memristors and artificial learning. Thus, the adventure to atomic scale electronics
has just started.
We are deeply indebted to our colleagues and friends with whom we have
worked these years and have shared ideas and experience. Many thanks to
Dr. George Konstantinidis and Dr. George Deligeorgis from FORTH, Heraklion,
who have fabricated the first graphene devices on flakes, Prof. Dan Neculoiu, who
has modeled and measured together with us the first microwave devices ever made
on graphene, Dr. Antonio Radoi, who fabricated one of the first graphene pho-
todetectors using a small bottle of graphene ink received for free from Nanointegris,
Prof. Hans Hartnagel, with whom we have designed the first electronic THz gra-
phene emitters and multipliers, Dr. Peter Blake, who provided us with the first
graphene flakes and continues to do it, and to Dr. Mircea Modreanu, from whom
viii Preface

we learned oxide physics and fabrication tricks. Many thanks also to our colleagues
from the NanoRF project and FP7 project founded by EU, who shared with us
novel ideas and methods.
Many thanks to many unnamed colleagues, who encouraged us to work in the
area of the physics and devices based on atomically thin materials. This book,
involving ten years of intense research, short holidays, and few weekends, is
dedicated to all of them.
Last, but not least, we thank Dr. Claus Ascheron, who is the editor of our books
since 1998. He has trusted us from the beginning, and we hope that this book will
please him as have the other four books previously published at Springer in various
editions.

Bucharest, Romania Mircea Dragoman

Daniela Dragoman
Contents

1 2D Carbon-Based Nanoelectronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Physical Properties of 2D Carbon-Based Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Nanoelectronics on 2D Carbon-Based Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2.1 The Graphene FET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2.2 Graphene Diodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.2.3 Graphene Detectors and Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.3 Electronic Sensors on 2D Carbon-Based Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.4 Graphene Photonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2 Two-Dimensional Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.1 Two-Dimensional Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.1.1 Bottom-up Growth Methods for TMDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.1.2 Top-Down Growth Methods for TMDs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.1.3 Growth of 2D TMDs Alloys and Heterostructures . . . . . . . 131
2.1.4 The Growth of X-nes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2.2 Physical Properties of Two-Dimensional Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
2.2.1 Traps and Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
2.2.2 Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.2.3 Electronic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3 Electronic Devices Based on Atomically Thin Materials . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.1 Atomically Thin Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.2 Atomically Thin Devices and Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.3 Optoelectronic Devices Based on 2D Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

ix
About the Authors

Mircea Dragoman was born in Bucharest in 1955.

He was graduated from the Polytechnical Institute in
Bucharest, Electronic Faculty, in 1980. He received
the doctoral degree in electronics in 1991.
Mircea Dragoman is a senior researcher I at the
National Research Institute in Microtechnologies,
since 1996. He is teaching since 2008 at Univ.
Politehnica Bucharest, Romania, a course termed
Advanced Technological Processes, which is related
to nanotechnologies and advanced materials. He has
realized the first carbon nanotube and graphene
devices and circuits for high-frequency applications
enriching the novel area of carbon-based electronics. In the period 1992–1994, he
was the recipient of the Humbold Fellowship award and he has followed post-
doctoral studies at Duisburg University, Germany. He was invited professor at:
CNR- Istituto di Electtronica dello Stato Solido-Roma (1996), Univ. Saint-Etienne–
Franta (1997), Univ. Mannheim (1998–1999, 2001–2002), Univ. Frankfurt (2003),
and Univ. Darmstadt (2004); in the periods 2005–2006 and 2008–2010, he was
nominated directeur de recherche at CNRS LAAS Toulouse. He has published
more than 250 scientific papers in the following areas: nanoelectronics, micro-
waves, MEMS, and optoelectronics. He received the “Gheorghe Cartianu” award
of the Romanian Academy in 1999. He is co-author of the following books:
D. Dragoman, M. Dragoman “Advanced Optoelectronic Devices,”Springer (1999),
D. Dragoman, M. Dragoman, “Optical-Characterization of Solids”,Springer
(2002), D. Dragoman, M. Dragoman “Quantum-Classical Analogies,”Springer
(2004). M. Dragoman, D. Dragoman-Nanoelectronics. Principles and Devices,
Artech House, Boston, USA, 1st edition, 420 pages, (2006), second edition (2008).
D. Dragoman, M. Dragoman, “Bionanoelectronics”, Springer 2012. D. Dragoman
and M. Dragoman, “Sheng Wu Na Mi Dian Zi Xu” [Bionanolectronics, Chinese
Edition, Science Press (2015)].

xi
xii About the Authors

Daniela Dragoman was graduated from the University

of Bucharest, Physics Faculty, in 1989, and received the
Ph.D. degree from the University of Limerick, in 1993.
Daniela Dragoman is a professor at the Physics
Faculty, University of Bucharest. She teaches solid-
state physics and nanophysics courses at the under-
graduate and postgraduate levels. Her areas of interests
include the physics and applications of nanostructures,
with a particular emphasis on carbon nanotubes and
graphene, and modeling of quantum nanoscale devices.
She was the recipient of the Alexander von Humboldt
fellowship during February 1998–June 1999, and
September 2001–March 2002, when she worked at the Univ. of Mannheim, Germany,
and occupied the position of Directeur de Recherche at LAAS-CNRS, Toulouse,
France, during July–September 2008, 2009, and 2010. She was also visiting professor
at several universities in France, Germany, and Italy.
Daniela Dragoman has published more than 270 scientific papers in areas including
quantum and classical optics, quantum mechanics, and nanostructures. She
co-authored the books Advanced Optoelectronic Devices (1999), Optical
Characterization of Solids (2002), Quantum-Classical Analogies (2004), and
Bionanoelectronics (2012, with an edition in 2014 at China Science Publishing and
Media Inc.) published by Springer, and Nanoelectronics: Principles and Devices
(1st edition in 2006 and 2nd edition in 2008) published by Artech House, as well as
other book chapters. She received the “Gheorghe Cartianu” award of the Romanian
Academy in 1999, for the book Advanced Optoelectronic Devices (Springer).
Chapter 1
2D Carbon-Based Nanoelectronics

Abstract This chapter is dealing with the physics and applications of graphene in
nanoelectronics, sensors and optoelectronics. Therefore, the physical properties of
graphene presented in this chapter, as well as the specific phenomena encountered
in this material, are directly linked to the electronic or optoelectronic devices.

1.1 Physical Properties of 2D Carbon-Based Materials

More than 10 years after the discovery of graphene (Novoselov et al. 2004), which
is a single sheet of carbon atoms with a thickness of 0.34 nm arranged into a
hexagonal structure, the main physical phenomena in this material seem to be well
understood, although some debates are still present even today.
Graphene distinguishes itself by its uncommon physical properties, which are at
the origin of unprecedented mechanical or electrical physical parameters that sur-
pass similar characteristics of any other materials, including semiconductors. Why?
The answer to this question is the subject of this section.
Graphene is formed from carbon atoms in the sp2 hybridization state, each atom
being covalently bonded to three others. Thus, graphene crystallizes in a honey-
comb lattice consisting of two interpenetrated triangular sublattices, which can be
visualised in Fig. 1.1. In this figure, one triangular sublattice is formed by “white”
carbon atoms denoted by A, while the other consists of “black” carbon atoms
denoted by B. Needless to say, the “white” and “black” carbon atoms in Fig. 1.1 are
identical, the labels A and B being introduced only for visualisation purposes and
for understanding the sublattices’ interplay.
Graphene is at the origin of other carbon-based materials. For instance, graphite
is formed from many graphene monolayers stacked as a pile, while carbon buck-
yballs are produced when graphene is wrapped as a sphere. On the other hand,
when rolled-up, graphene forms the carbon nanotube, which is a key material for
nanoelectronic devices working from few hundred of megahertz up to X rays.
Figure 1.2, which represents a side-view of the orbitals in graphene, tells us a lot
about the physical properties of this material. The strong and rigid r bonds resulted

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1

M. Dragoman and D. Dragoman, 2D Nanoelectronics,
NanoScience and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-48437-2_1
2 1 2D Carbon-Based Nanoelectronics

Fig. 1.1 Atomic honeycomb

structure of graphene and its
B
interpenetrated triangular
sublattices

σ bond

Fig. 1.2 The conduction in π bond

graphene via hybridization of
pz atomic orbitals

A B
σ bond

pz

from the hybridization of the nearest planar sp2 hybrid orbitals in graphene, are the
source of the extraordinary strength and flexibility of this material, characterized by
an exceptionally high breaking strength and Young modulus (Lee et al. 2008).
However, the r bonds are localized, and thus there are no free electrons to par-
ticipate at conduction. The conduction properties of graphene are dictated only by
the p and p* bonds produced via hybridization of the remaining pz atomic orbitals
of nearest carbon atoms, denoted by A and B, as in Fig. 1.1.
Because each of the two interpenetrating triangular sublattices of the honeycomb
lattice contributes to the wavefunction of charge carriers in graphene, the wave-
function is in this case a spinor rather than a scalar, as in common semiconductor
materials.
The tight-binding approximation, considering only interactions between nearest
neighbors, gives an energy dispersion relation of the form (Castro-Neto et al. 2009):
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi
EðkÞ ¼ t 3 þ 2 cosð 3ky aÞ þ 4 cosð 3ky a=2Þ cosð3kx a=2Þ ð1:1Þ

where a = 0.142 nm represents the distance between two C atoms and t = 2.75 eV
is the nearest-neighbor hopping energy. A rigorous deduction of (1.1) starting from
the tight-binding Hamiltonian is found in (Katsnelson 2012). The plus and minus
signs in (1.1) refer to the upper (p*) and lower (p) energy bands, the charge carriers
in these bands being considered as electron and hole states. The dispersion relation
of graphene is depicted in Fig. 1.3. From this figure it can be seen that at the
1.1 Physical Properties of 2D Carbon-Based Materials 3

K’

K
K

K’

Fig. 1.3 Dispersion relation in graphene (left), and its contour plot (right)

inequivalent points K and K′ in the first Brillouin zone, called also Dirac points, the
energy bandgap vanishes. From Fig. 1.3 it follows that graphene monolayer is a
zero-bandgap semiconductor.
Near the Dirac points, i.e. at low energy values, the dispersion relation is:

E ¼ 
hjkjvF ; ð1:2Þ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
where vF ¼ 3ta=2
h ffi c=300 is the Fermi velocity and jkj ¼ kx2 þ ky2 , with k ¼
ðkx ; ky Þ the wavevector of charge carriers relative to Dirac points. This linear dis-
persion relation is the hallmark of graphene monolayer and implies that the effective
mass of charge carriers vanishes near Dirac points, unlike in common semicon-
ductors. Another difference from common semiconductors is that the transport
properties in graphene are the same for electron or hole states, since the dispersion
relation is completely symmetric around the Dirac point.
In the k  p approximation, the Dirac equation for the graphene monolayer is
written as (Wu et al. 2010a):

i
hvF r  rw ¼ ðE  UÞw ðaround the K pointÞ ð1:3aÞ

i
hvF r  rw0 ¼ ðE  UÞw0 ðaround the K 0 pointÞ ð1:3bÞ

where r ¼ ðrx ; ry Þ; r ¼ ðrx ; ry Þ; with

   
0 1 0 i
rx ¼ ; ry ¼ ; ð1:4Þ
1 0 i 0

and w ¼ ðwA ; wB Þ and w0 ¼ ðw0A ; w0B Þ represent the spinorial wavefunctions around
the K and K′ points, respectively.
4 1 2D Carbon-Based Nanoelectronics

The eigenvalues and eigenvectors are obtained from (1.3a, 1.3b) (considering the
potential energy U ¼ 0Þ as

Ea ¼ a
hvF ðkx2 þ ky2 Þ1=2 ð1:5Þ

and
 
1 expðibh=2Þ
wab ðkÞ ¼ pffiffiffi ; ð1:6aÞ
2 aexpðih=2

respectively, where a ¼ 1 corresponds to the conduction and valence band, and

b ¼ 1 corresponds to K and K′ valley regions. The angle h is given by

h ¼ tan1 ðky =kx Þ ð1:6bÞ

The relation above implies that for both K and K′ valleys a rotation in the ðkx ; ky Þ
plane by 2p produces a shift of the wavefunction with p, phase shift called Berry
phase.
An extended version of the Dirac equation, of the form

fvF ½r; p þ mv2F rz gw ¼ ðE  UÞw ð1:7aÞ

where w ¼ ðwA ; wB ÞT is the spinor wavefunction and p ¼ ðpx ; py Þ is the momentum

operator, can include interactions with the substrate via the term / mv2F . In this
case, expressing the wavefunction components as wA ¼ /A expðiky yÞ and wB ¼
i/B expðiky yÞ; we obtain the following differential equation (see Dragoman and
Dragoman (2009) and the references therein):

d 2 /=dn2 þ ðX2  b2 Þ/  u0 =X ð d/=dn  b/Þ ¼ 0; ð1:7bÞ

where the positive and negative signs correspond to / ¼ /A and / ¼ /B , respec-

tively. In (1.7b) we used the notations: n ¼ x=L; X ¼ e  u  D,
X ¼ ðX þ X Þ1=2 , e ¼ EL=
hvF , u ¼ UL=
hvF , u0 ¼ du=dn, D ¼ mvF L=
h, and b ¼
ky L: The shape of the potential U dictates different numerical solutions.
The linear dispersion relation in (1.2), which is a specific characteristic of gra-
phene monolayers, is retrieved in physics in only one other case: that of photons
propagating in vacuum. However, the linearity of the dispersion relation has rad-
ically different meanings in these cases. In graphene, it signifies that the effective
mass of charge carriers, which are fermions, is zero, and hence the interaction
between electrons or holes and the crystalline lattice is very weak. As a result, the
charge carriers in graphene propagate without collisions, i.e. ballistically, with the
velocity vF ¼ 3ta=2 = 106 m/s ≅ c/300, where c is the speed of light. Thus, gra-
phene can be modelled as a 2D gas of massless fermions. In the case of photons,
which are bosons, the linear dispersion relation in vacuum E ¼
hx ¼ hc=k tells us
that photons propagate with the speed of light. Therefore, the graphene monolayer
1.1 Physical Properties of 2D Carbon-Based Materials 5

can be viewed as a slow-wave structure, in which the charge carriers propagate with
a velocity much slower than c.
One of the most important properties of graphene is the electrical doping. If we
transfer or deposit a graphene monolayer on a SiO2 layer with a thickness
t = 300 nm, grown thermally over a doped silicon substrate, the doped Si substrate,
which has a metal-like behaviour and acts as backgate, modulates the density of
charge carriers n (see Fig. 1.4) via the relation (Novoselov et al. 2004).

n ¼ e0 ed VG =te; ð1:8Þ

where VG is the gate voltage and e0 and ed are the dielectric permittivities of air and
SiO2, respectively.
Graphene was discovered well before 2004 (see in this respect Geim (2012)), but
Novoselov and Geim (Novoselov et al. 2004) evidenced experimentally the
amazing transport properties of this material. Their work was motivated by the
quest of proving the electrical field effect in a metallic transistor (Geim 2011). The
graphene transistor is, however, not a metallic one since n is orders of magnitude
smaller than the electron density in metals. Note that the first experimental metallic
transistor was found later (Dragoman et al. 2012a), and behaves similarly to the
graphene field-effect-transistor (FET) depicted in Fig. 1.4.
The backgate modulation moves up and down the Fermi energy level in gra-
phene, which is initially situated at the Dirac point, where n = 0. The Fermi energy
shift is displayed in Fig. 1.5, which shows that electrical doping is able to actually
select the transport carrier type (n or p) in graphene devices. Electrical doping is
similar to chemical doping, and is commonly used for changing the transport type
in semiconductor devices. Depending on the position of the Fermi energy/gate
voltage, the transport in graphene is ambipolar, i.e. it is performed by either elec-
trons or holes. Moreover, unlike in other materials, the transport properties of
graphene monolayers are the same for electrons and holes due to the linear dis-
persion relation and its symmetry with respect to the Dirac points (Dragoman and
Dragoman 2014), as suggested by Fig. 1.5. Therefore, electrons and holes in

Graphene
SiO2 Drain Source

VG

Doped Si - gate

Fig. 1.4 Typical configuration of a graphene FET

6 1 2D Carbon-Based Nanoelectronics

Fig. 1.5 Electrical doping in

E
graphene

EF > 0 electrons

+VG

kx
0 EF = 0 Dirac point
-VG

EF < 0 holes

graphene are analogous to matter and antimatter particles, such as electrons and
positrons, which are another groundbreaking consequence of the Dirac equations,
this time for massive particles.
The conductivity dependence on the gate voltage, shown in Fig. 1.6, illustrates
the similar transport properties of electrons and holes in an ambipolar monolayer
graphene flake. Moreover, by modifying the gate voltage, graphene conductivity r
can be changed significantly; this behavior is similar to conductivity changes in a
reversible metal-insulator transition in a large range of temperatures, including
room temperature, since the conductivity in graphene depends only weakly on
temperature. The dependence rðVG Þ is essential in any graphene-based applica-
tions, and can be used to determine other parameters (Tan et al. 2006).
For instance, the mobility of charge carriers can be deduced from resistivity q or
conductivity as:

l ¼ ðenqÞ1 ¼ r=en: ð1:9Þ

Fig. 1.6 Typical

σ (mS)
gate-voltage dependence of
conductivity in graphene 10

Minimum
conductivity
VG (V)

-50 -25 0 25 50
1.1 Physical Properties of 2D Carbon-Based Materials 7

In this Drude model

n ¼ CG ðVG  VDirac Þ=e ¼ CG VG =e þ nimp ð1:10Þ

where CG is the experimentally deduced or calculated gate capacitance and nimp is

the carrier density associated to impurities. In other words, expression (1.10)
implies that impurities induce an offset voltage, given by VDirac ¼ enimp =CG ; in
the absence of impurities, VDirac ¼ 0 V: The impurity concentration can be deter-
mined from VDirac , which is the voltage where the conductivity is minimum.
Typical impurity concentrations in graphene samples are around 1–3  1011 cm−2.
From (1.9) and (1.10) it follows that the mobility in graphene is divergent near
VG ¼ VDirac .
Other parameters linked to graphene conductivity are the scattering rate, given
by

s ¼ lEF =ðe2 vF Þ ¼
hrðVG Þðp=nÞ1=2 =ðe2 vF Þ ð1:11aÞ

and the mean-free-path, defined as

l ¼ vF s ¼ ðh=2eÞlðn=pÞ1=2 ð1:11bÞ

Both mobility and mean-free-path have impressive values in graphene, sup-

porting the extensive research for graphene-based nanoelectronic devices. Even in
the first published paper about this material (Novoselov et al. 2004) the mobility
was as high as 10,000 cm2/V s for n = 5  1012 cm−2 with a room-temperature
mean-free-path value of 400 nm. Two years later, it was reported that mobility
values vary very much for the same carrier concentration, depending on the sample
quality (Tan et al. 2006). For example, at n = 2  1012 cm−2 the mobility on five
samples took values from 2,000 up to 20,000 cm2/V s at low temperatures. The
corresponding variation of the scattering time, from 50 to 500 fs, indicated that
sample quality, i.e. a low or large defect concentration, dictates the mobility value.
In addition, the mobility in graphene is strongly dependent also on the substrate
on which graphene is deposited. In the above mentioned first paper on electrical
properties of graphene (Novoselov et al. 2004), the substrate was SiO2 with a
thickness of about 300 nm grown over doped Si, which plays the role of a backgate.
However, the suspension of graphene at 150 nm above SiO2 deposited over Si, as
shown in Fig. 1.7, drives the mobility up to 200,000 cm2/V s in vacuum and at low
temperatures of 5 K, for graphene samples annealed at 400 K (Bolotin et al. 2008).
The gate voltage in this case was maintained within the range (−5 V, 5 V) to avoid
the generation of too much strain in the sample.
Note that, although very large mobilities in suspended graphene, of about
100,000–200,000 cm2/V s, are obtained only in vacuum and at low temperatures,
such values are considered as a hallmark for graphene, without any specification
regarding measurement conditions and temperature. The last parameter affects
much more the conductivity of suspended graphene than that of graphene on
8 1 2D Carbon-Based Nanoelectronics

Fig. 1.7 Suspended Gold

graphene configuration Graphene

SiO2 VG

Doped Si

various substrates (Du et al. 2008). Moreover, suspended graphene is extremely

fragile in ambient conditions and very difficult to anneal. Room-temperature bal-
listic transport over 1 lm and a mobility of 100,000 cm2/V s at n ffi 1011 cm−2 was
obtained, nevertheless, in a graphene monolayer sandwiched between two hexag-
onal boron nitride (h-BN) layers with thicknesses of about 10 nm (Mayorov et al.
2011). In addition, exceptional ballistic transport, i.e. a mean-free-path of 10 lm,
and a mobility exceeding 100,000 cm2/V s was reported at room temperature in
graphene nanoribbons grown epitaxially on SiC and having a width of 40 nm
(Baringhaus et al. 2014). Exceptional charge transport properties of graphene
transferred on (100) Ge were also demonstrated (Cavallo et al. 2014), the mobility
attaining 5  105 cm2/V s at 20 K and 103 cm2/V s at room temperature at a carrier
density of 1014 cm−2.
Very often, the mobility of graphene is measured from electrical characteristics
of a graphene FET-like configuration, whether in the form of backgate configura-
tion, top gate configuration, or side gate geometry (see Fig. 1.8). The mobility is
then extracted from the relation

l ¼ ðW=LÞð@ID =@VD Þ=ðenÞ ð1:12aÞ

or

l ¼ ðL=CG WÞð@G=@VG Þ ð1:12bÞ

where W, and L are the width and the length of the channel, respectively, VD and VG are
the drain and gate voltages, ID is the drain current and G the channel conductance. DC
measurements of a graphene FET and its geometry can be used to determine not only
the mobility of graphene (Sabri et al. 2009) but of any type of channel, either organic
or 2D material, such as black phosphorous (Koenig et al. 2014).
As discussed above, the mobility is dependent on the intrinsic carrier density n,
which in turn is determined by the density of states (DOS) in graphene Dgr as follows

Z1
n¼ dEDgr ðEÞf ðEÞ ð1:13Þ
0
1.1 Physical Properties of 2D Carbon-Based Materials 9

Fig. 1.8 Graphene FET with (a) Oxide

a backgate and top gate, and
TG - top gate
b side gates
S D Graphene

SiO2
Doped Si
Metal
BG - backgate

(b)
Graphene

Side gate

Side gate

where

1
f ðEÞ ¼ ð1:14Þ
1 þ exp½ðE  EF Þ=kB T

is the Fermi-Dirac distribution function. In the neighbourhood of the Dirac points,

the DOS can be approximated as (Castro Neto et al. 2009)
pffiffiffi
3 3a2 jEj
Dgr ¼ : ð1:15Þ
p v2F

At thermal equilibrium, the Fermi level is located at the Dirac point and cor-
responds to EF ¼ 0 eV: The intrinsic carrier concentration in graphene is then:

n ¼ p ¼ ni ¼ ðp=6ÞðkB T=
hvF Þ2 ð1:16Þ

the corresponding value of this parameter at room temperature being

9  1010 cm−2.
Although the DOS of graphene vanishes at the Dirac point, the conductivity has
a minimum finite value at this point, as shown in Fig. 1.6. The nature of the
minimum conductivity in graphene has no unique explanation, several theories
10 1 2D Carbon-Based Nanoelectronics

attempting to elucidate this phenomenon. Among these, it is believed that the

minimum conductivity rmin ¼ 4e2 =h originates in the quantum mechanical uncer-
tainty principle (Dragoman 2010).
The conductivity in graphene, which consists of two components: intraband and
interband conductivities:

r ¼ rintra þ rinter ð1:17Þ

depends on frequency (Hanson 2008). The frequency (and temperature, T)

dependence of the intraband term is given by
 
e2 kB T lc
rintra ¼ i þ 2 ln½expðl c =k B TÞ þ 1 ð1:18aÞ
p
h2 ðx  i2CÞ kB T

where lc is the chemical potential and C is the scattering rate, which is typically
0.11 meV. The intraband term dominates the graphene conductivity over an
ultrawideband of frequencies, from DC up to 1 THz (Sensale-Rodríguez et al.
2013), the real part of rintra being much larger than the imaginary part in this
frequency range.
On the contrary, in the range 1–30 THz the interband conductivity
 
2jlc j 
hðx  i2CÞ
rinter ¼ iðe =4p
hÞ ln
2
ð1:18bÞ
2jlc j þ

hðx  2iCÞ

is predominant, its real part being much smaller than the imaginary part.
Graphene exhibits unusual properties when subject to a magnetic field. These
properties are studied using a graphene Hall bar configuration, depicted in Fig. 1.9.
For example, despite the vanishing effective mass of electrons and holes in gra-
phene, a finite cyclotron mass of carriers can be defined as (Novoselov et al. 2005)
pffiffiffiffiffiffi
mc ¼ E=v2F ¼
h pn=vF : ð1:19Þ

If a magnetic field B is applied normally to the graphene plane, the linear

dispersion relation is modified due to the emergence of Landau levels. This is the
only known method to discretize the energy spectrum in 2D graphene, the energy
levels being given by (Castro-Neto et al. 2009)
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
En  V ¼ vF 2eB
hjnj ð1:20Þ

with n an integer. The Landau levels in (1.20) are different from those for charge
carriers with effective mass meff obeying the Schrödinger equation: En ¼
hðeB=meff Þðn þ 1=2Þ; and result in quantized values of the Hall conductivity:


1.1 Physical Properties of 2D Carbon-Based Materials 11

Fig. 1.9 Graphene Hall bar

configuration
Metal
contacts

Graphene
Dielectric,
e.g. SiO2

rxy ¼ ðn þ 1=2Þð4e2 =hÞ: ð1:21Þ

The above quantized conductance is dependent also on the gate voltage, which
changes n. The discretized energy levels in magnetic fields can be used in various
applications, such as electron spectrometers (Zubarev and Dragoman 2012).
Graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) are graphene stripes with widths that do not
exceed 100 nm. This spatial confinement of charge carriers in graphene changes
their properties. Considering the x axis as the longitudinal axis of the GNR, the
wave vector is quantized in the transverse direction, y, so that

ky ¼ np=W ð1:22Þ

where n ¼ 1; 2; . . . are integers. Thus, the dispersion relation becomes (Fang
et al. 2007)

Es ðn; kx Þ ¼ s
hvF ½kx2 þ ðnp=WÞ2 1=2 ð1:23Þ

where s ¼ þ 1 for electrons, and s ¼ 1 for holes. From (1.23) it follows that the
conduction and valence bands of graphene are broken into a series of 1D subbands.
More importantly, a band gap is opened with a width

Eg ¼ E þ 1 ð1; 0Þ  E1 ð1; 0Þ ¼ 2p
hvF =W; ð1:24Þ

which depends only on the width of the GNR. The equation above is similar to the
bandgap of semiconducting carbon nanotubes (CNTs), which is inversely propor-
tional to the nanotube diameter. The bandgap vanishes when the GNR becomes
wider than 90 nm. The Table 1.1 shows some values of the bandgap extracted from
experimental results (Han et al. 2007).
12 1 2D Carbon-Based Nanoelectronics

Table 1.1 The bandgap of Width (nm) Eg (meV)

GNR
15 100
30 20
60 5
90 3

The DOS of the nth subband is given by

4 E
DGNR ðn; EÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi HðE  En Þ ð1:25Þ
p
hvF E 2  En2

where HðE  En Þ is the Heaviside step function, and

En ¼ np
hvF =W ¼ nEg =2: ð1:26Þ

The DOS of the GNR is then obtained as

X
DGNR ðEÞ ¼ DGNR ðn; EÞ ð1:27Þ
n

Similarly as in graphene, where the carrier density can be tuned via an applied
gate voltage VG , the carrier density in a GNR,
Z1
4kB T X u du
nGNR ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; ð1:28Þ
p
hvF n 1 þ expðu  gÞ
En =kB T u2  ðEn =kB TÞ2

where g ¼ EF =kB T; is also dependent on VG through the relation EF ¼ eVG . Then,

by denoting with ni the intrinsic carrier concentration corresponding to g ¼ EF ¼ 0
in (1.28), for an arbitrary Fermi level we have

n ffi ni expðgÞ; p ffi ni expðgÞ ð1:29Þ

The total charge, defined as Q ¼ eðp  nÞ; determines the quantum capacitance
Cq ¼ @Q=@VG as

Cq ¼ ½2e2 kB T=pð
hvF Þ2  ln½2ð1 þ coshðeVG =kB TÞÞ ð1:30Þ

which, when eVG [ [ kB T; becomes

Cq ffi e2 DGNR ðeVG Þ: ð1:31Þ

Because the massless charge carriers in graphene are described by a Dirac-like

equation, similar to that describing ultrarelativistic spin-1/2 massive particles, we
can test in graphene effects predicted by quantum field theories. One of them is the
1.1 Physical Properties of 2D Carbon-Based Materials 13

Klein paradox, which in graphene predicts that potential barriers, as those forming
at an interface between regions with potential energies V1 [ 0 and V2 \0 (see
Fig. 1.10), do not impede charge carrier transport. More precisely, charge carriers
propagate through such potential barriers by (successive) transformations of elec-
tron states into hole states and vice versa (Katsnelson et al. 2006). However, the
Klein paradox at a step-like barrier is more controversial since it predicts higher
than 1 reflection and negative transmission coefficients, associated to the creation of
electron-positron pairs at the potential discontinuity. Thus, transport experiments in
n-p junctions in graphene are able to test these predictions, which cannot be verified
up to now for relativistic massive particles. In particular, the Klein paradox at a
step-like barrier with the above-mentioned meaning is invalidated in graphene, both
by theory (Dragoman 2009) and experiments (Young and Kim 2009; Stander et al.
2009) demonstrating that even at a step-like barrier, i.e. at an n-p junction, the
reflection and transmission coefficients of charge carriers are less than 1.
The Dirac spinors W1 and W2 , which satisfy the Dirac-like equation for an
electron wavefunction incident at an angle u1 with respect to the x axis from region
1 on a barrier of height V0 ¼ V2  V1 and width D (see Fig. 1.11), are given by
8
< ½expðik1 xÞ þ r expðik1 xÞ expðiky yÞ; x 0
W1 ðx; yÞ ¼ ½aexpðik2 xÞ þ b expðik2 xÞ expðiky yÞ; 0\x\D ð1:32aÞ
:
t expðik3 xÞ expðiky yÞ; x D
8
< s1 ½expðik1 x þ iu1 Þ  r expðik1 x  iu1 Þ expðiky yÞ; x 0
W2 ðx; yÞ ¼ s2 ½a expðik2 x þ iu2 Þ  b expðik2 x  iu2 Þ expðiky yÞ; 0\x\D :
:
s3 texpðik3 x þ iu3 Þ expðiky yÞ; x D
ð1:32bÞ

In the above equations, the x wavevector components in the three regions can be
approximated by:

k1 ¼ kF cos u1 ¼ ½ðE  V1 Þ2 =

h2 v2F  ky2 1=2 ; ð1:33aÞ

Fig. 1.10 Klein paradox in E

graphene

electrons holes electrons

V = V1 V = V2 V = V1 x
14 1 2D Carbon-Based Nanoelectronics

Fig. 1.11 Tunneling of Dirac region 1 2 3

fermions through a
rectangular barrier E

V = V1 V2 V3

x
x=0 x=D

k2;3 ¼ ½ðE  V2;3 Þ2 =
h2 v2F  ky2 1=2 ; ð1:33bÞ

where kF is the Fermi wavenumber, ky ¼ kF sin u1 , the propagation angles in the

second and third regions are u2;3 ¼ tan1 ðky =k2;3 Þ; si ¼ sgnðE  Vi Þ; i = 1, 2, 3,
with E the electron energy. Note that (1.32a, 1.32b) and (1.33a, 1.33b) can describe
propagation of electrons through a gated region, which induces a potential V0 , in the
presence of a bias V applied on the structure, such that the potential energy can be
modelled as having a step-like variation (Dragoman and Dragoman 2007a). In the
last case V1 ¼ 0; V2 ¼ V0  eV=2; and V3 ¼ eV:
Then, the transmission coefficient through the barrier, defined as

T ¼ s3 cosðu3 Þjtj2 =s1 cosðu1 Þ; ð1:34Þ

is computed using the wavefunction continuity requirement at the x ¼ 0 and x ¼ D

interfaces. The results show that, when the electron energy E is higher than the
potential energy, as is the case in the first and third regions in Fig. 1.11, electrons are
involved in the transport, but in the barrier region, where the electron energy is smaller
than the potential energy, holes take over the charge transport role. The term “barrier”
in graphene does not refer to a region of evanescent propagation as in common
semiconductors, at least for normal incidence, but a region in which an abrupt change
in charge carrier concentration and/or type (holes or electrons) takes place.
In particular, in a gated region in the absence of an applied bias, i.e. when
V3 ¼ V1 ¼ 0 and V2 ¼ V0 , the reflection coefficient has a simple analytic formula
(Katsnelson et al. 2006):

2iexpðiu1 Þ sinðk2 DÞ½sin u1  s1 s2 sin u2 

r¼ ð1:35Þ
s1 s2 ½expðik2 DÞ cosðu1 þ u2 Þ þ expðik2 DÞ cosðu1  u2 Þ  2isinðkx DÞ

If jV0 j jEj; the transmission coefficient T ¼ jtj2 ¼ 1  jrj2 is

T ffi cos2 u1 =½1  cos2 ðk2 DÞ sin2 u1  ð1:36Þ

1.1 Physical Properties of 2D Carbon-Based Materials 15

and there are resonances, i.e. T = 1, when

k2 D ¼ pN; ð1:37Þ

with N an integer.
The fact that the transmission T is angle dependent was experimentally
demonstrated in (Sutar et al. 2012). More importantly, the barrier becomes trans-
parent, i.e. T = 1, at normal incidence, for u1 ¼ 0; which is a specific manifestation
of the Klein paradox, or Klein effect, in monolayer graphene. On the contrary, in
bilayer graphene, in which charge carriers have a finite mass, T = 0 at normal
incidence (Katsnelson et al. 2006).
The Klein paradox in graphene is an interesting effect from a physical point of
view, but a detrimental effect for graphene ballistic devices, since the modulation of
the transmission coefficient T using electrostatic gates at normal incidence is not
possible because always T = 1. This situation, encountered only in graphene
devices, is solved by using oblique incidence, i.e. oblique gates (Katsnelson et al.
2006), or magnetic fields.
In the case of an oblique electrostatic gate, as the one depicted in Fig. 1.12a, the
transmission coefficient can be tuned by varying either the applied gate voltage
V2 ¼ eVG or the applied drain voltage VD , as can be seen from Fig. 1.12b, where the
three curves correspond to different Fermi levels/gate voltages. The voltage region
where T = 0 in this figure corresponds to the range of parameter values for which the
wavenumber in the gated region is imaginary. As a result, the device displays a
negative differential resistance (NDR) region, the current decreasing dramatically in
the region with T = 0 while the voltage increases (Dragoman and Dragoman 2007a).

Fig. 1.12 a Carrier transport (a)

through an obliquely gated
y
graphene region and b voltage t
r
dependence of the ϕ3
transmission coefficient for
different gate values (from ϕ1 ϕ2
Dragoman and Dragoman x
2007a) Graphene

V=V1 V = V2 V = V3

(b)
16 1 2D Carbon-Based Nanoelectronics

Low transmission regions can be obtained also in periodically gated structures due to
the formation of minibands (Dragoman and Dragoman 2008a).
A ballistic graphene FET with an oblique gate was recently fabricated and the
NDR effect due to the modulation of the transmission was experimentally evi-
denced (Dragoman et al. 2014a) and is displayed in Fig. 1.13. A room-temperature
peak-to-valley ratio of 9 was obtained in the NDR region of this graphene FET with
a top gate having a tilting angle of 45° and a drain-source distance of 400 nm. Tens
of such devices were fabricated on a chip cut from a 4-in. graphene wafer grown by
CVD.
The Klein tunneling was experimentally evidenced in graphene p-n junctions
(Young and Kim 2009; Stander et al. 2009) by tuning the top gate and backgates of
devices fabricated on doped Si/SiO2 structures. More precisely, in (Young and Kim
2009) the Klein tunneling effect is evidenced by conductance measurements under the
hypothesis that the application of a magnetic field on ballistic heterostructures bends
the trajectories of carriers, so that the resulting Aharonov-Bohm phase modifies the
angle of incidence on the p-n junction. In this case, the conductance is given by
X
G ffi ð8e2 =hÞ jT þ j2 jT j2 jR þ j2 jR j2 cos uexpð2L=lÞ ð1:38Þ
ky

where T and R are the transmitted and reflected wavefunction amplitudes for the
forbidden regions located at x ¼ L=2; u is a sum of the semiclassical phase due to
interfering trajectories and the backreflection phase, L is the gate length of the Klein
device depicted in Fig. 1.14, and l is the mean-free path. In magnetic fields, the
conductance oscillates as a function of the carrier density, showing phase shifts that

Oblique
Graphene gate
monolayer

D S
400 nm

40 nm

Fig. 1.13 Ballistic graphene FET with oblique gate (from Dragoman et al. 2014a)
1.1 Physical Properties of 2D Carbon-Based Materials 17

Fig. 1.14 Ballistic device for

Klein tunneling Magnetic
measurements field

Graphene Top gate

D S
Oxide

Backgate

indicate perfect transmission. When T ¼ 1; i.e. when Klein tunneling occurs, a

phase jump of p is observed. The measurements are made at low temperature. In
(Stander et al. 2009) Klein tunnelling was evidenced by resistance measurements in
top-gated graphene structures with abrupt gate-induced potential steps, using a
four-probe measurement setup.
A graphene Klein tunneling transistor based on a gate having a prism chain
configuration was recently proposed (Wilmart et al. 2014) and is illustrated
schematically in Fig. 1.15. Total reflection can be induced in this n-doped prism
surrounded by p-doped regions, depending on the gate voltage. The reflection angle
and the angle-dependent transmission of carriers are determined by the refractive
index-like parameter

m ¼ ðn=pÞ1=2 ð1:39Þ

Denoting by ai and ar the angles of incidence and transmission of ballistic

carriers at the tunnelling prism, respectively, the Snell law applied to the prism is
expressed as

sin ai ¼ msinar ð1:40Þ

Fig. 1.15 Klein tunneling

transistor d
n-doping
gate

p-graphene
p-graphene

L
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G 26
Sept
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2 Sept
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59 Aug
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34 Sept
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19 Oct
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18 Mar
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18 Aug
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18 Nov
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32 June
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23 June
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56 Aug
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