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CHAPTER SIX: LEARNING

Learning Objectives
LO 6.1: Describe learning.
LO 6.2: Explain classical conditioning.
LO 6.3: Explain operant conditioning.
LO 6.4: Understand observational learning.
LO 6.5: Describe the role of cognition in learning.
LO 6.6: Identify biological, cultural, and psychological factors in learning.
LO 6.7: Describe how principles of learning apply to health and wellness.
I. Chapter Overview
II. Chapter Features
III. Connections
IV. Teaching the Chapter
a. Lecture Outlines by Section
b. Suggested Activities
V. Critical Thinking Questions
King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-6 | 1
Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 6
VI. Polling Questions

VII. Apply Your Knowledge
VIII. Suggested Readings and Media
IX. Activity Handouts
X. Answer Key to Activity Handouts
I. Chapter Overview
Experiencing Psychology: Service Dogs: Using Learning to Save Lives
▪ It is estimated that over 30,000 service dogs are active in the U.S. Service dogs are
even trained to assist individuals who have diabetes and may not always know when
their blood sugar is too low. Three individual cases of service dogs saving their
owner’s lives are discussed.
▪ How are these dogs trained and their amazing skills acquired? Using the basic
principles of learning, service dogs learn to assist people in a variety of ways which
are often life-saving and heroic.
I. Types of Learning
A. Learning involves a relatively permanent change in behavior.
B. Behaviorism is a theory of learning that involves observable behavior. It does not
include mental activity such as thinking, wishing, and hoping.
C. Associative learning occurs when an association is made between two events.
Conditioning occurs when you have learned about the association. There are two
types of conditioning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
D. Observational learning occurs when an individual observes and then imitates another
individual’s behavior.
II. Classical Conditioning
▪ Classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus is associated with a meaningful
stimulus and then acquires a similar response.
A. Pavlov’s Studies
▪ Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, is a pioneer in classical conditioning. He
conducted research looking at digestion in the body. He discovered that dogs
salivated to more than just meat powder being placed in their mouth. The dogs
salivated to the sight of the meat powder, the individual that brought the meat
powder, and the sound of the door closing when the meat powder arrived.
▪ The dog’s behavior included both learned and unlearned components. The
unlearned components are known as reflexes.
▪ An unconditioned stimulus (US) is a stimulus that brings about a response without
any prior learning.
▪ An unconditioned response (UR) is the unlearned response to the US.
▪ The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a neutral stimulus that when associated with the
US elicits a conditioned response.
▪ A conditioned response (CR) is the learned response of the CS.
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▪ Neutral stimulus refers to a stimulus that has no signal value at all. This stimulus
would not naturally elicit the unconditioned response.
1. Acquisition
a. Acquisition is the learning of the association between the stimulus and the
response.
b. The timing interval between the CS and US determines the contiguity in time
and space. Conditioned responses are learned best when the CS and US occur
close together.
c. Not only must there be contiguity, but there also must be contingency, which
is the predictability of the occurrence of one stimulus from the presence of
another stimulus.
d. Once the association between the CS and US has been formed, the meaning of
the CS changes. This once arbitrary object now has meaning or is
motivational.
e. In animal learning studies, some have shown that the CS is even more
powerful than the US it signals. This high level of attachment to the CS is
known as sign tracking.
2. Generalization and Discrimination
a. Generalization occurs when a new stimulus that is similar to the original
stimulus elicits a response that is similar to the CR.
b. Discrimination is learning to respond to certain stimuli while not responding
to others.
3. Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
a. When the US is taken away and no longer associated with the CS, then
extinction occurs. Extinction is the weakening of the CR in the absence of the
US.
b. Spontaneous recovery occurs when the CR returns after a time delay without
any further conditioning occurring.
c. Renewal refers to the recovery of the conditioned response when the organism
is placed in a novel context.
B. Classical Conditioning in Humans
1. Explaining Fears
a. Classical conditioning provides an explanation for phobias, which are
described as irrational fears.
b. John Watson and his graduate student Rosalie Rayner described phobias in an
experiment involving an infant named Albert. They brought a white rat into
the room and Albert was not afraid of the rat; he played with it. Later, when
Albert played with the white rat, Watson made a loud noise behind Albert’s
head and Albert began to cry out of fear from the loud noise. The next time
Watson and Rayner brought the white rat into the room, Albert started crying
Chapter 6
at the sight of the white rat. He associated the white rat with the previous loud
noise that occurred the last time he was playing with the white rat.
c. If fears can be established through classical conditioning, then should they
also be able to be eliminated through the same process?
2. Breaking Habits
a. Therapists use counterconditioning, which occurs when the CR is weakened
because the stimulus is associated with a new response that is not compatible
with the unwanted behavior.
b. Aversive conditioning is a form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings
of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus. To reduce drinking, every time
a person drinks an alcohol beverage, he or she also consumes a mixture that
induces nausea. Antabuse continues to be used in the treatment of alcoholism
today.
3. Classical Conditioning and the Placebo Effect
a. The principles of classical conditioning help us to explain how the placebo
effect works in research on the immune system and the endocrine system.
4. Classical Conditioning and the Immune and Endocrine Systems
a. Even the human body’s internal organ system can be classically conditioned.
Research has found evidence that suggests classical conditioning can produce
immunosuppression, a decrease in the production of antibodies, which can
lower a person’s ability to fight a disease.
b. Similar results in the endocrine system have been found that link the taking of
placebo pills with an increase in secretion of hormones that were produced
when patients had previously been taking the actual drugs.
c. Stress also has an important role in the learned associations between
conditioned stimuli and immune and endocrine functioning.
5. Taste Aversion Learning
a. A special type of classical conditioning is called taste aversion, by which an
individual learns an association between a particular taste and nausea. It is a
special case because it only requires one pairing of the neutral stimulus with
the conditioned response.
b. To combat this special type of learning, researchers have designed specific
medications with flavorful, more appealing tastes to reduce the often negative
responses to these drugs. This way, the patient is more likely to develop taste
aversion to the flavor and not to the medication itself.
c. Some researchers suggest that taste aversion is a demonstration of how
learning through classical conditioning happens in the natural world, where
associations matter to survival.
6. Classical Conditioning and Advertising
a. Many advertisers use classical conditioning by associating something
naturally good, which is the US, with something neutral, which is the CS such
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as the advertisement of the E*Trade baby. When these stimuli occur together,
the neutral stimulus brings on the same response as the naturally occurring
response.
b. Advertisers use classical conditioning when it comes to product placement or
embedded marketing.
7. Classical Conditioning and Drug Habituation
a. When drugs are taken at a certain time of day and in a certain place, the body
will react in anticipation of the upcoming drug ingestion. Habituation refers to
the decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations.
b. This aspect of drug use has been found to play a role in death caused by drug
overdose. The drug user usually takes the drug in a certain place, for example,
their bedroom. A CR is acquired to this location. Because of classical
conditioning, as soon as the drug user enters the bedroom, the person’s body
begins to prepare for the upcoming drug ingestion in order to lessen the
effects of the insult of the drug. But, let’s say the drug user is at a friend’s
house and they go into the friend’s bedroom to take the drug. The effect of the
drug is greater because there was no CR built up from the friend’s bedroom
and therefore, the body is not prepared for the drug ingestion.
III. Operant Conditioning
A. Defining Operant Conditioning
▪ F. Skinner developed what is known as operant conditioning (instrumental
conditioning), which is a form of associative learning where the consequences of
behavior produce changes in the probability of a behavior’s occurrence.
1. Operant behaviors are voluntary and bring about either rewards or punishments.
2. Just as in classical conditioning, contingency is important in operant conditioning.
B. Thorndike’s Law of Effect
1. E. L. Thorndike established the power of consequences of an individual’s
behavior. In his historical experiment, he placed a hungry cat inside a box. The
cat could exit the box and receive a reward of food if it could figure out how to
manipulate a string by pulling to lift a door for escape. After many attempts, the
cat pulled the string and escaped. With subsequent trials the cat increased its time
of escape.
2. The law of effect established by Thorndike states that those behaviors followed by
positive outcomes will be strengthened and those behaviors followed by negative
outcomes will be weakened.
C. Skinner’s Approach to Operant Conditioning
1. Skinner believed that the basic principles of operant conditioning could be applied
to all species. During WWII, he carried out studies using pigeons to guide
missiles. He placed pigeons in the warhead of the missile and the pigeon would
peck at a moving image on a screen and would receive a food reward when it kept
Chapter 6
the designated target in the center of the screen. The U.S. military never used
Skinner’s pigeon-guided missile concept.
2. Skinner wrote a novel called Walden Two where he presented his ideas about a
scientifically managed society that could be fully operated through operant
conditioning.
D. Shaping
1. The term shaping refers to rewarding approximations of a desired behavior. Each
step toward the desired behavior is rewarded until the desired behavior occurs.
2. The concept of shaping can be used to examine complex behaviors of service
dogs.
3. Research indicates a connection between brain activity and operant conditioning
that helps us determine which reinforcers are rewarding.
E. Principles of Reinforcement
1. Reinforcement occurs when a stimulus or an event strengthens the probability of a
behavior occurring again.
a. Positive and Negative Reinforcement
i. Positive reinforcement occurs when something is given as a reward to
increase the likelihood of the behavior occurring again.
ii. Negative reinforcement occurs when something bad is taken away to
increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.
iii. Both positive and negative reinforcement refer to rewarding desired
behavior. Positive and negative are not references to good or bad, rather
they indicate the process in which something is either given or removed
that reinforces the behavior.
iv. A special kind of response to negative reinforcement is called avoidance
learning. In this case, the organism learns that by making a particular
response, a negative stimulus can be altogether avoided. However, in
some cases, this can produce learned helplessness which means that the
organism has learned that it has no control over negative outcomes.
b. Types of Reinforcers
i. Primary reinforcement involves reinforcers that are biological in need,
meaning they are needed for survival. Some primary reinforcers are
food, water, sex, etc.
ii. Secondary reinforcers gain their positive value through experience. They
are usually used to gain access to primary reinforcers. Money is a good
example of a secondary reinforcer.
iii. Secondary reinforcers can be linked to primary reinforcers through
classical conditioning. Consider pairing the sound of a whistle and food
to reward a desirable behavior for an animal to perform, such as a trick.
2. Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction
a. Generalization
Chapter 6
i. Generalization occurs when the same response is given to similar stimuli.

b. Discrimination
i. Discrimination occurs when an individual responds to stimuli that signal
when a behavior will or will not be reinforced.
c. Extinction
i. Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer
reinforced and therefore, the individual is less likely to perform the
behavior.
3. Continuous Reinforcement, Partial Reinforcement, and Schedules of
Reinforcement
a. Continuous reinforcement occurs when the behavior is reinforced every time
it occurs.
b. Partial reinforcement occurs when the behavior gets reinforced only some of
the time.
c. Schedules of reinforcement determine when a behavior will be reinforced.
i. A fixed-ratio schedule reinforces a behavior after a set number of
behaviors. For example, a child may receive a piece of candy after
practicing the piano for 5 days instead of every time he plays.
ii. A variable-ratio schedule occurs when a behavior is reinforced after an
average of times it occurs, but that average is unpredictable. A good
example of a variable-ratio schedule is slot machines. The payout on the
slot machines is set, but the player doesn’t know when that is.
iii. A fixed-interval schedule rewards the desired behavior after a specific
amount of time has passed. An example of a fixed-interval schedule is
election time. Politicians beef up their campaigns around election time
and then after they are elected they become more relaxed until election
time rolls around again.
iv. A variable-interval schedule occurs when the desired behavior is
rewarded after a varying amount of time has passed. Pop quizzes are a
good example of variable-interval schedules because the students do not
know when the quizzes will occur, but they do know there will be a quiz
at some point in time.
4. Punishment
a. The effect of punishment is usually used to extinguish some behavior.
b. What Is Punishment?
i. Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.
ii. In the case of punishment, the behavior is weakened; therefore, it is not
the same as negative reinforcement.
iii. Positive punishment occurs when something bad is given to decrease the
likelihood of a behavior occurring again.
iv. Negative punishment occurs when something good is taken away to
decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. A time-out is a
Chapter 6
form of negative punishment. In this situation, the child is removed from

a positive reinforcement situation.
5. Timing, Reinforcement, and Punishment
a. Immediate Versus Delayed Reinforcement
i. In operant conditioning the shorter the time span between the behavior
and reinforcer the better. It works best if it is a few seconds. This is
especially true in lower intelligence animals. Humans, however, have the
ability to learn from delayed reinforcers.
ii. Sometimes in life the decision comes down to whether to receive a small,
immediate reinforcer or wait for a larger reinforcer.
b. Immediate Versus Delayed Punishment
i. Immediate punishment is more effective than delayed punishment. Again.
this is more the case with lower animals than with humans.
c. Immediate Versus Delayed Reinforcement and Punishment
i. Sometimes the potential delayed consequences are negative, but the
immediate consequences are difficult to override. Such is the case with
eating and obesity. Individuals know that eating too much and gaining
weight is a health risk, but the immediate satisfaction of eating is often
too great to stop the overeating.
ii. When the delayed consequences are punishers, but the immediate
consequences are reinforcers, the immediate ones usually win.
6. Applied Behavior Analysis

a. Also called, behavior modification, applied behavior analysis uses operant
conditioning techniques to change human behavior by analyzing and
manipulating unwanted behaviors through the enhanced use of rewards and
punishers.
b. If we can figure out what rewards and punishers are controlling a person’s
behavior, we can change them—and impact the behavior itself.
c. Applied behavior analysis has a wide range of uses: training autistic
individuals, children and adolescents with psychological problems, instruction
of effective parenting, and to enhance environmentally conscious behaviors.
IV. Observational Learning
A. Bandura’s Model of Operational Learning
1. Observational learning occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior. It
takes less time than operant conditioning.
2. For attention to occur a person must attend to what another individual is doing or
saying.
3. Retention occurs when the individual must encode the information and keep it in
memory so that it can be retrieved.
4. Motor reproduction occurs when the individual imitates what the other individual
is doing.
Chapter 6
5. Reinforcement occurs when there are incentive conditions for imitating the
behavior. If there is no incentive, then the behavior will not be imitated.
6. Observational learning has been studied in a variety of contexts from examining
how gorillas learn from one another to how individuals use it to make economic
decisions. Researchers are interested in comparing learning from experience with
learning through observation.
V. Cognitive Factors in Learning
▪ Both Skinner’s approach to operant conditioning and Pavlov’s approach to classical
conditioning do not take into account how memory, thinking, planning, and
expectations might be important to learning.
A. Purposive Behavior
▪ The purposiveness of behavior is the idea that much of behavior is goal directed.
▪ E. C. Tolman believed that the whole behavioral sequence must be studied in
order to understand why a person engages in a behavior.
1. Expectancy Learning and Information
a. Tolman believed that the information value of the CS is important as a signal
that the US will follow.
b. Cognitive maps are an organism’s mental representation of the structure of
physical space.
2. Latent Learning
a. Latent learning is a type of unreinforced learning that is not immediately
reflected in behavior. What an individual learns may not be noticeable right
away, but at a later time that original learning comes out.
3. Insight Learning
a. Insight learning is a form of problem-solving in which the organism develops
a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem’s solution.
b. Insight learning is essentially different from learning through trial and error or
through conditioning. The floating peanut problem is an example of insightful
learning demonstrated by nonhuman primates.
c. Insight learning happens all of the sudden, as though things just pop into an
individual’s head.
d. Multicultural exposure for learning has been documented to show benefit in
higher education; consider the increasingly diverse campuses and student
bodies. Many universities recognize the need for students to be more
culturally diverse as they plan to enter the workforce.
VI. BIOLOGICAL, CULTURAL, AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN
LEARNING
A. Biological Constraints
Chapter 6
▪ The structure of an organism’s body permits certain kinds of behavior and inhibits
others.
1. Instinctive Drift
a. Instinctive drift refers to the tendency of animals to revert back to instinctive
behavior that then interferes with learning.
2. Preparedness
a. Preparedness is an organism’s biological predisposition to learn in certain
ways but not others.
b. Taste aversions occur when an organism eats something and then gets ill.
Most of the time it was not the food that made the organism ill, but just the
same the organism develops a distaste for the last food that was eaten prior to
getting ill.
B. Cultural Influences
1. Culture can influence the way in which classical conditioning, operant
conditioning, and observational learning are used.
2. Culture can determine the content of learning.
3. Organisms cannot learn about something they do not experience.
C. Psychological Constraints
1. Mindset is described as the way a person’s beliefs about their ability dictate what
goals are set for them, what they think they can learn, and what they actually do
learn.
2. Entity theory says that some people have to work hard to achieve academic goals
and therefore are just not gifted. Incremental theory, on the other hand, says that
intelligence is something that a person increases and improves upon.
3. Effective strategies for developing a growth mindset: Understand that your
intelligence and thinking skills are not fixed but can change, become passionate
about learning and challenging your mind, think about the mindset of people you
admire, and start now—commit to change!
VII. Learning and Health and Wellness
A. What a Rat Can Tell Us About Stress
1. Predictability
a. When something stressful is going to happen, it is less stressful if it is
predicted to occur beforehand.
2. Control
a. Having a sense of control can help in avoiding feelings of stress over
difficulties.
b. It can be especially stressful when an individual feels a lack of control over
aversive stimuli.
Chapter 6
c. Learned helplessness occurs when an individual learns that outcomes are not
controllable and therefore stops trying to gain control at all.
3. Improvement
a. The perception of improvement, even when one situation is worse than
another, is related to lowered stress.
4. Outlets for Frustration
a. Having an outlet for life’s frustrations helps in alleviating stress.
II. Chapter Features
Intersection: The Psychology of Learning and Clinical Psychology: Can classical conditioning
help us to understand drug abuse?
Psychological Inquiry: From Acquisition to Extinction (to Spontaneous Recovery)
Psychological Inquiry: Schedules of Reinforcement and Different Patterns of Responding
Critical Controversy: Do Learning Styles Matter to Learning?
III. Connections
Assignable Through Assignable Within the Instructor Resources

Connect Chapter
Types of Reading Quiz Polling Question: 6.2 Activity Suggestions:
Learning • Types of Learning
Learning and the Brain • What Does It Mean
LO 6.1: (Video) to Learn?
Describe
learning. LearnSmart module PowerPoints
Apply Your Knowledge: #1
Classical Reading Quiz Intersection: The Activity Suggestions:

Conditioning Psychology of Learning • Classical
Classical Conditioning and Clinical Psychology: Conditioning Terms
LO 6.2: Explain (Concept Clip) Can Classical • Extinction and
classical Conditioning help us Spontaneous
conditioning. Classical Conditioning in understand drug abuse? Recovery
Advertising (Interactive • Phobias
Learning Activity) Psychological Inquiry: • Advertising
Acquisition to Extinction
Classical Conditioning (to Spontaneous PowerPoints
Example (Learning Recovery)
Exercise) Apply Your Knowledge: #3
Critical Thinking
LearnSmart Module Questions: #1, #2
Chapter 6
Polling Question: 6.3
Handout: 6.1
Operant Reading Quiz Psychological Inquiry: Activity Suggestions:
Conditioning Schedules of • Shaping
Operant Conditioning Reinforcement and • Schedules of
LO 6.3: Explain (Concept Clip) Different Patterns of Reinforcement
operant Responding • Partial
conditioning. Shaping (Interactive Reinforcement
Learning Activity) Critical Thinking • Punishment
Questions: #1, #3 • Timeout
Reinforcement and • Behavior
Punishment (Interactive Handouts: 6.2, 6.3, 6.4 Modification
Learning Activity)
PowerPoints
Schedules of
Reinforcement (Concept Apply Your Knowledge: #1,
Clip) #2, #4
Schedules of
Reinforcement
(Interactive Learning
Activity)
Continuous vs. Partial

Reinforcement (Learning
Exercise)
Schedules of
Reinforcement (Learning
Exercise)
NewsFlash: Virtual
Learning
NewsFlash: Smoking
LearnSmart Module
Observational Reading Quiz Activity Suggestions:
Learning • Bandura’s
Observational Learning Approach
LO 6.4: (Interactive Learning • Blame the Video
Understand Activity) Game
observational
learning. LearnSmart Module PowerPoints
Apply Your Knowledge: #5
Chapter 6
Human Reading Quiz Critical Thinking Activity Suggestion:

Cognitive Question: #4 • Latent Learning
Factors in LearnSmart Module
Learning Polling Question: 6.4 PowerPoints
LO 6.5:
Describe the
role of
cognition in
learning.
Biological, Reading Quiz Critical Controversy: Do Activity Suggestions:
Cultural, and Learning Styles Matter • Taste Aversions
Psychological LearnSmart Module to Learning? • Entity and
Factors in Incremental
Learning Critical Thinking Theories
Question: #4
LO 6.6: PowerPoints
Identify Polling Question: 6.1
biological,
cultural, and
psychological
factors in
learning.
Learning and Reading Quiz Handout: 6.5 Activity Suggestion:
Health and • Learned Stress?
Wellness LearnSmart Module
PowerPoints
LO 6.7:
Describe how
principles of
learning apply
to health and
wellness.
IV. Teaching the Chapter
LO 6.1: Describe learning.

Lecture Outline
How service dogs are trained
▪ Complex behaviors developed through learning principles.
▪ Service dogs have trained skills that have saved the lives of their owners in cases where
diabetics are unaware of their very low blood sugar.
I. Types of Learning
Chapter 6
A. Associative Learning
1. Classical Conditioning
2. Operant Conditioning
B. Observational Learning
Suggested Activities
Types of Learning: Ask the students to compare and contrast associative learning and
observational learning. Ask the students to come up with examples in the discussion of each.
Break the students up into groups and have them discuss with each other the examples they came
up with. The students should increase their understanding of the differences between the two
types of learning. They will also gain understanding about each by sharing their examples with
each other.
What Does It Mean to Learn: Engage your students in a healthy dialogue/debate on the
meaning of learning. What does it mean to have learned something? Are students learning in
your class? How do they know that they have learned something? Further your discussion about
“knowing information” versus “learning information.” You can comment on the process of
learning and how most learning takes time. What is the impact of technology on learning? How
does the scheduling of accelerated courses benefit the student from a learning perspective?
LO 6.2: Explain classical conditioning.

Lecture Outline
II. Classical Conditioning
A. Pavlov’s Studies
1. Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
2. Unconditioned Response (UR)
3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
4. Conditioned Response (CR)
5. Neutral Stimulus
6. Acquisition
7. Sign Tracking
8. Generalization and Discrimination
9. Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
B. Classical Conditioning in Humans
1. Explaining fears
a. Phobias
2. Breaking Habits
a. Counterconditioning
b. Aversive conditioning
Chapter 6
3. Classical Conditioning and the Placebo Effect

4. Classical Conditioning and the Immune and Endocrine Systems
a. Immunosuppression
b. Role of stress in learned associations
5. Taste Aversion Learning
a. An example of classical conditioning in a natural world where associations
matter to survival
b. Influences in medical treatment and alcoholism
6. Classical Conditioning and Advertising
a. Embedded marketing
7. Drug Habituation
Suggested Activities
Classical Conditioning Terms: Use Activity Handout 6.1: Identify the US, CS, UR, and CR as a
way for students to better understand the terms that accompany classical conditioning. In this
activity, the students have to read examples and identify the US, CS, UR, and CR in each.
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery: Have students complete Activity Handout 6.1 for
homework and on the following day, break the students into groups and have them share with
each other the various examples they came up with. Have them exchange papers and in the
examples they have in front of them, have them discuss how the examples would demonstrate
extinction and spontaneous recovery.
Phobias: Have students choose a phobia and then search on the Internet for information
regarding that phobia. They should then write a one- to two-page paper summarizing what they
found in their research. They should also include ideas for counterconditioning of their phobia.
Advertising: In a group, have students design an advertisement using the principles of classical
conditioning. As an alternative, have the group of students recall a specific advertisement and
illustrate the principles of classical conditioning for that advertisement in a short presentation. To
make this activity more interactive, have the group bring in the item that the advertisement is for
to use as a “prop” during their presentation.
LO 6.3: Explain operant conditioning.

Lecture Outline
III. Operant Conditioning
A. Defining Operant Conditioning
1. Respondent Behaviors
2. Involuntary Responses
3. Voluntary Behaviors
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well versed in the knowledge of the stars, he was the first who
offered sacrifices to the gods of heaven. We are also told, that in the
island just named is a mountain, where Uranus, holding the sceptre
of the world, took great pleasure in contemplating the firmament and
the stars. Among the sons of this monarch, according to the same
fiction, the two most distinguished were Atlas and Saturn, who
partitioned between them their father’s kingdom; and Atlas, who in
the division acquired the sea-coasts, is said to have excelled in
astrology: his reign is placed about sixteen hundred years before the
Christian era, and he is therefore ranked as a co-temporary of
Moses.
Such is the fabulous history of Uranus! whose name some

Christian philosophers seem desirous to perpetuate, with honour, by
attaching it to a newly-discovered world! It would be extremely
difficult if not impracticable (and, perhaps, even if practicable, the
attempt would not be advisable at this time of day,) to abolish such of
the names of the heavenly bodies as are derived from the
appellations of the false gods of antiquity. But it appears very
questionable, whether it be consistent with propriety and a due
regard to truth, to connect fable, in any manner, with established and
important realities; or whether it be right to dignify the heathen
mythology and the preposterous annals of fabulous ages, by
unnecessarily associating any thing relating to them, with objects of
genuine and useful science.
Baron Bielfeld seems to entertain similar sentiments on this head,

when (treating of the mathematics, in his “Elements of Universal
Erudition,”) he observes, that “the fables of ancient poets concerning
the stars, and,” he adds, “the fancies of some modern Christian
astronomers, who have given them names borrowed from the holy
scriptures, do not deserve the least attention, when we would treat
seriously on this science.” There is much justness in this observation
of the learned and ingenious baron: But if the application of names
derived from sacred writ, to the stars, be censurable; how much to
be condemned among Christians is the practice of giving, even in
our day, and in a science which has philosophical truth for its object,
the names of heathen deities, and fabulous persons of antiquity, to
the celestial bodies! Is it proper, can it, in any way, promote the
interests of true science or the attainment of useful knowledge, thus
to commemorate any of the absurdities of a false and impious
mythology; or any of those traditional personages of the early ages,
whose history, as handed down to us in the reveries of the ancient
poets and other profane writers, are either enveloped in fable or
inexplicable mystery? But to return from this digression:—
Mr. Lalande remarks in his great work on astronomy, which was

published in the year 1792, that Louis XIV. gave to astronomers
unceasing marks of the interest he took in their labours; and that
George III. occupied, with great delight, much of his time in his
Observatory at Richmond, as well as in Herschel’s at Slough. In his
own, in Richmond Gardens, the king of England has noble and
beautiful instruments; among which are a mural arch of 140° and 8
feet radius, made by Sisson, a sector of 12 feet, a transit telescope
of 8 feet, made by Adams, and a telescope of 10 feet of Herschel.
This grand Observatory was erected in the year 1770, under the
direction of Dr. Bevis: it is 140 feet in front, and consists of two
stories.
Such princes, then, as Louis XIV. and George III. deserve to be

honourably mentioned in the records of astronomical science: and it
was meritorious in Dr. Herschel, to dedicate to so munificent a patron
and promoter of astronomy as the latter sovereign, in the way he has
done, his important discovery of a new planet.
It is noticed by the writer of the article “Astronomy,” in Dr.

Brewster’s New Edinburgh Encyclopædia, (the first volume of which
has been very lately reprinted in Philadelphia,) that the venerable
Herschel,[85c] at the advanced age of seventy-two years, still
continued to observe the heavens with the most unwearied assiduity:
and that his contemplated “successor,” who, it is presumed, is his
son, “promises to inherit the virtues and the talents of his father.”
85a. Herschel, in calling his newly-discovered planet by the name of his

patron, was not without illustrious precedents for so doing. When Galileo
discovered the four Satellites of Jupiter, in the year 1610, he named them the
Medicea Sidera, in honour of the family of Medici, his patrons. And Cassini, who,
in the years 1671, 1672, and 1684, successively, discovered the fifth, the third, and
the first and second Satellites of Saturn, denominated these stars, Sidera
Lodoicea, in honour of Louis XIV. in whose reign, and observatory, they were first
discovered. The fourth Satellite of Saturn (but the first of them, in the order of time,
that was known) had been previously discovered by Huygens, sixteen years
before any one of the others was known to exist.
85b. So written by Lalande. There is an Asiatic island called Panay: it is one of

the Philippines, and lies, as Panchay is said to do, “to the east of Africa.”
85c.
“Herschel, with ample mind and magic glass,

Mid worlds and worlds revolving as they pass,
Pours the full cluster’d radiance from on high,
That fathomless abyss of Deity.”
Purs. of Lit. dial. the fourth.
86. Philip III. king of Spain, first offered a reward for the discovery
of the longitude, about two centuries ago; and the States of Holland,
soon after, followed his example. The Regent of France, during the
minority of Louis XV. also promised a great reward to any person
who should discover the longitude at sea.
In the year 1714, the parliament of Great Britain offered a reward

for a like discovery; and if the method, to be proposed, should
determine the longitude to twenty geographical miles, the premium
was to be twenty-thousand pounds sterling. The act of parliament
established a board of Commissioners of the Longitude. Several
other acts were passed, in the reigns of Geo. II. and III. directed to
the same purpose. Finally, in the year 1774, all those acts were
repealed, by one offering separate premiums for finding the
longitude; either by the lunar method, or by a watch keeping true
time,—or by any other method practicable at sea. This act proposes
as a reward for a time-keeper, 5000l., if it determine the longitude to
one degree or sixty geographical miles,—7500l., if to forty miles,—
and 10,000l., if to thirty miles. If the method be by improved Solar
and Lunar Tables, constructed upon Sir Isaac Newton’s theory of
gravitation, the author is to receive 5000l.; provided such Tables
shall show the distance of the Moon from the Sun and Stars within
fifteen seconds of a degree, answering to about seven minutes of
longitude, after making an allowance of a half a degree for the errors
of observation. The Commissioners have the power of giving smaller
rewards, at their discretion, to persons making any discovery for
finding the longitude at sea, though it may not be within the above
limits.
The set of Solar and Lunar Tables which were sent to the Board of
Longitude, about the year 1763, by the widow of the celebrated
astronomer, Tobias Mayer, were honoured with a reward of 3000l.
sterling, by an act of the British parliament, in consideration of their
great usefulness in finding the longitude at sea.
87. See Mr. de Zach’s great work, entitled, Tabulæ Motuum Solis
novæ et correctæ, &c.
88. For the use of such readers as may not be acquainted with the
Latin language, the following translation of the above is given, from
the original of Mr. de Zach.
“Concerning the means of determining the longitude, this is not the

proper place to treat: of one, however, the marine or nautical time-
keeper, it will not be foreign to our purpose to say something.
“It is now about thirty years, since those very ingenious makers of
time-keepers, Harrison, Cummings, Kendal, Arnold, and Mudge,
among the English,—Le Roy, and Berthoud, among the French,—
devised various and excellent ones for the use of navigators, and
brought to a great degree of perfection those marine watches, called
by the English, Time-keepers. As every one knows their use in
ascertaining the longitude, on a sea-voyage, I shall not say any thing
more of them here.—A similar time-piece, made by the celebrated
watch-maker Mr. Thomas Mudge, and often referred to in the royal
observatory of Greenwich, was, in 1784, made use of by the Hon.
Vice-Admiral (John) Campbell, commander of the naval squadron[88a]
on the Newfoundland station,—going thither and returning; and from
that time was diligently examined, at the observatory of his
Excellency Count Bruhl, in Dover street London.
“This very marine time-piece was confided to my charge, in the

year 1786, for the purpose of determining the longitudes of my
journey by land; when, called from London by his Serene Highness
the Duke of Saxe-Gotha,—the patron of all the sciences and liberal
arts, but more especially favouring astronomy,—I returned to
Germany; where the erecting of a complete and splendid
Observatory, at Gotha, was placed under my direction.[88b] I then took
with me, by the command of his Serene Highness, a watch of a
smaller size, which he usually carried in his fob,—called by the
English a Pocket-chronometer,—made by a London artist, Mr. Josiah
Emery:[88c] which, being made with the greatest accuracy and
ingenuity, yielded nothing in point of correctness to the larger
nautical time-keepers, as may be seen from three tables of their
movements by the illustrious Count Bruhl, and also of others, by Dr.
Arnold, lately established by authenticated certificates.
“About the end of the year 1786 and the beginning of 1787, I
accompanied His Serene Highness, in a tour through Germany,
France and Italy. In this journey, the longitudes of several places and
astronomical observatories were determined, from a comparison of
the time of a nautical time-keeper (which was set by the solar mean
time in Dover street, London,) with the mean time of the place; which
appears by the altitudes of the sun, by Hadley’s sextant—those
which we call corresponding, or by a comparison with it, as
transmitted to us in observatories, by those astronomers. By the
same instruments, therefore, when I arrived at Gotha, I ascertained
the longitude of the future observatory there, with the greatest care
and attention; which the Duke, going to London a few days after,
taking with him his chronometer, at length fully verified.”
88a. Here is a reference, in the text, to note 89.
88b. Here is a reference, in the text, to note 90.

88c. Here is a reference, in the text, to note 91.
89. Sundry astronomical observations were made by this officer,

while a captain in the British navy, in the years 1757, 8, and 9; which
were reported to the admiralty on the 14th of April, 1760, by Dr.
Bradley, then astronomer-royal. See Dr. Bradley’s letter of that date,
to the Secretary of the Admiralty; published (among other papers) in
the year 1770, by order of the board of longitude, at the end of T.
Mayer’s Tables and Method of finding the Longitude; edited by Dr.
Maskelyne.
90. The Observatory, a very handsome and respectable one, was

constructed at Gotha in the year 1788, under the auspices of the
then reigning Duke of Saxe-Gotha, a zealous patron of astronomy. It
is placed on an eminence, a league from the city, and is built entirely
of hewn stone. Mr. de Zach, a native of Hungary, an experienced
astronomer, was appointed by the duke its director.
The instruments with which the Gotha Observatory is furnished

are chiefly English, as are those of most of the celebrated European
observatories. Among these, is a transit telescope, by Ramsden; and
Mr. Lalande mentions, in his Astronomie (in the year 1792,) that
there were to be added, two murals of eight feet radius, an entire
circle of eight feet diameter, a great zenith-sector, &c. but that Mr.
Ramsden, who was employed to make them, found great difficulty in
supplying all the demands for instruments, which his great reputation
occasioned.
It is well known, that the first improvements in astronomical

instruments took place in Great-Britain; and both Lalande and de
Zach, as well as other foreign astronomers of eminence, have done
ample justice to the superior ingenuity and skill of the artists of that
country, in this department of mechanism. The ingenious Mr.
Edmund Stone, in his Supplement to the English Translation of Mr.
Bion’s Construction and Use of Mathematical Instruments,
(published in 1758, nearly forty years after he translated Mr. Bion’s
work into English,) observes—that, having set about the business
(the translating of this latter work,) he soon perceived that many
French instruments were excelled by some of the English of the
same kind, in contrivance; and that, as to workmanship, he never did
see one French instrument so well framed and divided as some
English have been. “For example,” says Mr. Stone, “Mr. Sutton’s
quadrants, made above one hundred years ago,” (before the middle
of the seventeenth century,) “are the finest divided instruments in the
world; and the regularity and exactness of the vast number of circles
drawn upon them, is highly delightful to behold. The mural quadrant
at the Royal Observatory, at Greenwich, far exceeds that of the
Royal Observatory at Paris. Also, the theodolites of Messrs. Sisson
and Heath, the clocks and watches of Messrs. Graham, Tompion
and Quare, the orreries of Mr. Graham and Mr. Wright, and many
more curiously contrived and well executed mathematical
instruments which I could mention, far exceed those of the French,
or indeed any other nation in the world.—The making good
mathematical instruments,” continues Mr. Stone, “is almost peculiar
to the English; as well as their skill in all branches of the
mathematics and natural philosophy has been generally superior to
that of other nations.”
Without wishing to derogate from the justly acquired fame of

British artists, for the excellence of their mathematical and
astronomical instruments, M. Rittenhouse’s skill and accuracy,
displayed in such as he made, stand unsurpassed by similar works
of their most celebrated mechanicians: while his profoundness in
astronomical science, and his wonderful ingenuity of invention and
contrivance, manifested in the construction of his Orrery, leave him
without a rival, in the two-fold character of an Astronomer and a
Mechanic. The idea of the fine planetarian machine constructed by
Mr. Rowley, under the name of the Orrery, and supposed to have
been invented by Mr. Graham, is said to have been taken from a
very similar machine, of which that eminent philosopher, Dr. Stephen
Hales, had the credit of being the original contriver. But Mr.
Rittenhouse was, incontrovertibly, the Inventor, as well as the Maker,
of that sublimely-conceived and unrivalled machine, which bears the
name of the Rittenhouse-Orrery: and Dr. Morse, in noticing some of
the more prominent productions of scientific ingenuity and skill, in
America, observes, with good reason, that “every combination of
machinery may be expected from a country, a native son of which,”
(referring in a note to “David Rittenhouse, Esq. of Pennsylvania,”)
“reaching this inestimable object in its highest point, has epitomised
the motions of the spheres that roll throughout the universe.” See
Morse’s American Geography, first published in 1789.
91. The accuracy of some of the fine pocket-chronometers

constructed by the celebrated artists named by Mr. de Zach, and by
some others, such, for instance, as the one made by Emery for the
count de Bruhl, mentioned in the text, has rendered them, on some
occasions, useful assistants in making astronomical observations on
land. Dr. Rittenhouse occasionally used one for such purposes,
many years. It was an excellent pocket-watch, made by Le Roy of
Paris for the late Matthias Barton, Esq. who was induced to let Dr.
Rittenhouse have it. After his decease, this watch was gratuitously
restored to its former proprietor, by Mrs. Rittenhouse’s desire, and as
a testimonial of what she knew to have been her late husband’s
regard for his nephew. Mr. M. Barton bequeathed it, by his last will,
to his brother and physician, Dr. Benjamin S. Barton.
92. The Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, for

the year 1729, contain an article that furnishes additional evidence of
the extraordinary skill and ingenuity manifested by English artists in
the construction of watches, as well as other pieces of mechanism
which require great accuracy in the workmanship: it forms a pleasant
little narrative in an eulogium on Father Sebastian,[92a] a Carmelite
Friar of singular mechanical ingenuity; and it indicates, at the same
time, that the repeating-watch was invented in England. The story is
thus told:—
“Charles II. roy d’Angleterre, avoit envoyé au feu roi deux Montres
à Repetition; les premieres qu’on ait vues en France. Elles ne
pouvoient s’ouvrir que par une secrete précaution des ouvriers
Anglois, pour cacher la nouvelle construction, et s’en assurer
d’autant plus la gloire et le profit. Les montres se dérangérent, et
furent remises entre les mains de M. Martineau, horloger du roi, qui
n’y put travailler faute de les sçavoir ouvrir. Il dit a M. Colbert, et c’est
un trait de courage digne d’etre remarqué, qu’il ne connoissoit qu’un
jeune Carme capable d’ouvrir les montres, ques’il n’y réussissoit
pas, il falloit se resoudre à les renvoyer en Angleterre. M. Colbert
consentit qu’il les donnât au P. Sebastien, qui les ouvrit assez
promptement, et de plus les raccommoda sans sçavoir qu’ elles
étoient au roi, ni combien étoit important par ses circonstances
l’ouvrage dont on l’avoit chargé.”
92a. His baptismal name was John Truchet.
93. This great man, who was the son of Christian Huygens lord of
Zuylichem, a counsellor of the prince of Orange, was born in the
year 1629, at Zuylichem, in the province of Guelderland, the country
of the ancestors of Rittenhouse. Having resided for some time in
France, he quitted that country on account of his religion, in 1684, in
consequence of the revocation of the edict of Nantes. He died in
Holland in 1695, at the age of sixty-six years.
Galileo, who was a native of Florence, lived to the age of eighty-

seven years. He died fifty-three years before Huygens; and about
fourteen before Huygens’s application of the pendulum to clocks, so
as to effect an isochronal regulation of their movements. Galileo’s
use of the pendulum, for the purpose of measuring time, seems to
have been nothing more than the annexation of a short pendulum to
clock-work.
94. This celebrated naturalist and physician, who was styled by

Boerhaave, Monstrum Eruditionis, was born at Zurich in 1516: He
was, probably, of the same family as that of the late Solomon Gesner
the poet, who was a native of the same city, and appeared more
than two centuries afterwards. Conrad Gesner was so distinguished
a writer, as a naturalist, that he was called the Pliny of Germany. A
splendid edition of Pliny’s Natural History, under the title of the
Historia Mundi of Caius Plinius Secundus, with a dedication by
Erasmus to Stanislaus Turzo, bishop of Olmutz, was printed at Basil,
by Froben, so early as 1525. This copy of Pliny (which is now very
rare) having been published in the vicinity of Conrad Gesner, during
his youth, that circumstance may have prompted him to direct his
attention to those pursuits in science, which distinguished this
learned Swiss.
95. About two centuries after that period when the sciences had
begun to revive and the mechanical arts to flourish, the construction
of clocks appears to have been much improved. And in the reign of
Henry VIII. a stately clock was made by an artist, the initials of
whose name are “N. O.” in the year 1540, and placed in the royal
palace at Hampton-Court. This not only shewed the hour of the day,
but an orrery-part, connected with it, exhibited the motion of the sun
through all the signs of the zodiac, and also of the moon, with other
matters depending on them. A similar one, in the cathedral of
Lunden in Denmark, is mentioned by Heylin: But Martin, in his
Philosophia Britannica, speaks of a piece of clock-work in the
cathedral of Strasburg, in Alsace; “in which, besides the clock-part, is
the celestial globe or sphere, with the motions of the sun, moon,
planets and fixed stars, &c.” This was finished in the year 1574, and
is represented as being much superior to a pompous clock at Lyons,
in France, which also has an orrery department.
96. The first pendulum-clock made in England, was in the year

1662, by Mr. Fromanteel, a Dutchman.
In the library-hall of the Philadelphia Library-Company, is one of

the clocks made by that artist, having this inscription engraven on its
face, “Johannes Fromanteel, Londini, fecit;” but without any date.
This clock was a donation to the library-company, in the year 1804,
by Mr. Samuel Hudson, of Philadelphia, whose ancestor purchased it
at an auction in London, after the restoration of king Charles II. The
traditional account of it is, that it belonged, originally, to the Cromwell
family; and, when presented, was said to be one hundred and forty
years old: but it could not have been the property of the protector,
Cromwell, the time of whose death was between three and four
years anterior to Fromanteel’s construction of a pendulum-clock.
97. Besides the testimony of so distinguished an astronomer as

Mr. de Zach, already given, respecting the very great accuracy to
which time-keepers have been brought, the following translation,
taken from what the celebrated Lalande has said in his treatise Des
Horloges Astronomiques, (in the second volume of his Astronomie,)
furnishes some curious and interesting facts on that subject.
“Short (the mathematical instrument maker,) upon the occasion of

the transit of mercury over the sun observed in 1753, assures us that
he had found by many observations, that his clock had not varied
more than one second, from the 22d of February to the 6th of May
(Philos. Trans. 1753, p. 200;) so that, with a like pendulum, it is
possible to obtain an exactness which, till this time, was thought
incredible. There are English astronomers who have assured me,”
continues Lalande, “that pendulum-clocks have been made which
did not vary more than five″ in a year:[97a] but that does not appear to
me to be yet established as a fact; the oils that one is obliged to use
in them are sufficient, by the change of consistency they undergo, to
prevent such preciseness. The count de Bruhl, a great amateur and
a perfect connoisseur also, on the subject of time-pieces, shewed
me in London a diary of the going of two pendulums of Mudge, one
of the most celebrated clock-makers in London: in one, there was a
difference of half a second a day, between winter and summer; and
in the other a second. Mr. Aubert has a pendulum made by Shelton,
which varies also nearly a second in the day, in extreme seasons.
Picard, in 1671, had a clock which did not lose a second in two
months. But, whatever may have been, since that period, the skill of
the clock-makers of Paris, we cannot obtain such exactness, but by
mere accident and an equality of temperature in the atmosphere that
is very rare: now, the correctness of our clocks is a necessary
consequence of their principles; but these do not go so far. Mr.
Emery has observed two clocks beat the same second, during three
months; they were, however, very near to each other, and probably
had some influence on one another by means of their foot-board or
support.”
97a. Even watches have been already brought to an inconceivable degree of
exactness. Mr. Arnold and Mr. Emery made some, in the year 1786, which did not
vary one second in a voyage of an hundred leagues.
98. This gentleman’s name is connected with another

circumstance in relation to Mr. D. Rittenhouse, which deserves to be
noticed. He is in possession of a finely-graduated thermometer,
made by our Philosopher; on the scale of which is engraved, by him,
the record of a memorable fact concerning the climate of
Pennsylvania, referring by a mark to 22° below 0, of Fahrenheit’s
scale; viz.—“Jan. 2. 1762—Great Cold in Pennsylvania.” This fact
was ascertained by Mr. Rittenhouse, from a reference to the
accurate Messrs. Masons and Dixon’s Journal; in which, such was
stated to have been the degree of cold in the forks of the Brandywine
(about thirty miles westward, and very little to the southward, from
Philadelphia,) on the day mentioned.
Mr. Rittenhouse had noticed, that, at his Norriton Observatory, (in

lat. 40° 9′ 31″ N.) the mercury in Fahrenheit’s thermometer, not
exposed to the sun-shine but open to the air, was at 94½°, on the 5th
of July 1769; “which,” says he, “was the greatest height it had ever
been observed to rise to, at that place.” But the writer is informed by
a judicious and attentive observer, that at Lancaster, Pennsylvania,
which is in lat. 40° 2′ 39″ N. (the long. of this borough-town is 5h 1′ 4″
W. from Greenw.) the mercury rose by Fahrenheit’s scale, on the 7th
of July, 1811, to 97½°. Admitting this to be correct, if 1½° be then
deducted, for the extra heat of so large a town as Lancaster in
comparison with a country-situation, there is in this case the great
range of 118° by Fahrenheit’s scale, for the extremes of heat and
cold in Pennsylvania.
The writer brought with him, from England, a meteorological diary

kept in London, during the severe frost there, from the 7th day of
January, 1776, to the 28th of the same month, both days inclusive.
The greatest cold, during that period, was 15° and it is thus noted, in
respect to the state of the atmosphere at the time; “Clear sky—
intense cold—wind west.” The mercury rose on one day, within that
time, to 34°. The mean degree of cold, in the same period, was there
26¾°.
The greatest cold at Philadelphia, during the same days of

January, 1776, was at 17°, but the mercury rose there, on one of
those days, to 48°. The mean degree of cold at Philadelphia, in this
corresponding period of time, was 29⅓°; being about 2½° warmer
(or rather, less cold,) than the general temperature of the weather in
London, at the same time, in what was there called a “severe frost.”
Eighty-five degrees of Fahrenheit’s scale is considered as a very
extraordinary heat, in London: consequently, a range of 68° may be
presumed to reach the extremes of heat and cold in England, in the
latitude of nearly 52° N.[98a]
Notwithstanding the extremes of heat and cold, which thus appear

in the climate of Pennsylvania, Mr. Jefferson remarks (in his Notes
on Virginia,) that these extremes are greater at Paris than at
Williamsburg, the hottest part of Virginia. Yet Williamsburg, which is
only about 2¾° to the southward of Philadelphia, is nearly 11¾°
further south than Paris.
98a. Since writing the above, the author has ascertained, that in London,
during the four last years of the last century, Six’s thermometer, out of doors,
averaged 49.6; that on the hottest day within that period, the mercury rose to 86;
and that it fell, on the coldest day, to 4.
99. See a description of this Chronometer, in the Appendix.
100. Mr. Stanton died at Philadelphia, the 28th of June, 1770,

aged sixty-two years. He was, for above forty years, a distinguished
preacher among the people called Quakers; and is reputed to have
been a man, “who, from his youth, had been a conspicuous example
of Christian meekness, humility, and self-denial; a zealous promoter
of the cause of religion, and the essential good of mankind.”
Some elegiac verses, under the title of a “poetic tribute” to the

memory of this worthy man,—from the pen of a lady in Philadelphia,
—were published in the Port Folio, for April 1813.
101. This letter contains, likewise, a short narrative of an
occurrence which excited much feeling, and claimed a considerable
portion of the public attention, at the time. As Mr. Rittenhouse’s
account of the transaction referred to, will serve to shew that he was
not an indifferent spectator of the political events of that early day;
and, further, that he was zealously disposed to support the legitimate
authority of the government, in order to suppress illegal and
disorderly proceedings, subversive of the laws and dangerous to the
public peace and safety; this part of his letter to Mr. Barton (of the
16th of February, 1764,) is also presented to the reader.
It will be recollected that what was called the Paxton Riot in

Pennsylvania, in the year 1763, was occasioned by an attempt made
by many of the inhabitants of a district in the upper end of Lancaster
(now Dauphin) county, called Paxton, with some of their neighbours,
to destroy a number of Indians resident in and near that county; who
were extremely obnoxious to the Paxton people, by reason of the
supposed treachery, if not actual hostility, of these Indians to the
settlers on the Paxton frontier, in the war that had then recently
terminated. These unfortunate Indians had, nevertheless, uniformly
professed themselves to be friendly to the English, in that war; and
were so reputed by the government of Pennsylvania: but finding
themselves, notwithstanding, threatened with extermination by “the
Paxton Boys” (as they were then called,)—by whom a few old men,
women, and children had been destroyed, shortly before, at their
homes,—they sought the protection of the government. Part of them
were, accordingly, placed in the public prison in Lancaster, and the
remainder at the barracks in Philadelphia, as places of security.
Those in Lancaster, to the number of fourteen or fifteen, were soon
after, as is well known, killed by the Paxton people, one of the prison
doors having been forcibly broken open by them. The remnant of
these persecuted Indians, who were in Philadelphia, were more
fortunate than their brethren; they escaped the horrors of
assassination: And it is to the expedition against these wretched
fugitives—a mere handful of men, unarmed, and claiming from
Christians an asylum from massacre,—that Mr. Rittenhouse refers in
his letter.
“You are no doubt, long before this time, well acquainted,” said our
young philosopher, “with every particular of the Paxtonian expedition
to Philadelphia: nor need I tell you, that whatever information you
may have through the channel of ——, will be abominably corrupt.
About fifty of the scoundrels marched by my work-shop—I have seen
hundreds of Indians travelling the country, and can with truth affirm,
that the behaviour of these fellows was ten times more savage and
brutal than theirs. Frightening women, by running the muzzles of
their guns through windows, swearing and hallooing; attacking men
without the least provocation; dragging them by the hair to the
ground, and pretending to scalp them; shooting a number of dogs
and fowls;—these are some of their exploits.
“I received a letter from sister E. soon after the alarm at

Philadelphia was over, and will give you a part of it, which I doubt not
will be agreeable to you.”—It is as follows.
—“On Monday morning between one and two o’clock, an express

came to the governor, informing that the rebels were on their way,
and that a great number of them were on this side the White Horse.
There was one express after another, till there was certain
intelligence that some of them were at Germantown. When the first
express came, the bells were rung, the drums beat, and the
constables were ordered to go from house to house, to knock up the
inhabitants, and to bid them put candles at their doors: it had the
appearance of all the houses being illuminated. Before day, there
were above twenty men met at J. J.’s, and chose their officers.
Before night they were increased to nearly an hundred; as were
likewise most of the other companies: E—— and all our men were in
captain Wood’s company. They all appeared to be in high spirits, and
desirous to meet the rebels. On Tuesday, when the mayor and the
other gentlemen set off for Germantown, the heads of the companies
begged of them not to comply with any dishonourable terms, and
told them—“Gentlemen, we are ready to go wherever you may
command us; and we had much rather you would let us treat with
them (the rebels) with our guns.”—On their return, there was a
general murmur among the companies against the proceedings of
our great men; they knew it, and there was a long harangue made by
Mr. Chew: but it did not answer the end. On Wednesday morning I
went to —-—, as usual; and on my return home, I stopped at our
friend H. J.’s; when, on a sudden, the alarm-gun was fired, the bells
began to ring, and the men called “to arms,” as loud as possible. I
cannot describe, my dear brother, how I felt: we ran to the door,
when to add to my fright, I saw E——, amidst hundreds of others,
run by with his gun. They met at the court-house, formed themselves
into regular companies, and marched up Second-street as far as the
barracks; when they found it was a false alarm.
“It was a pleasing, though melancholy sight, to view the activity of

our men. In less than a quarter of an hour, they were all on their
march,—it is supposed above a thousand of them; and by all
accounts, there were not ten —— among them. It was the common
cry, while our men were parading—“What! not one —— among
us!”—Instead of joining with others, they would sneak into corners,
and applaud the “Paxton-boys.” Their behaviour on this occasion has
made them appear blacker than ever.”
Concerning these extraordinary transactions, to which much

importance was attached in their day, and which, moreover,
constitute a curious and interesting occurrence in the history of
Pennsylvania, in the time of our philosopher, the testimony of
another respectable witness is added; a person, besides, who bore a
principal part in arresting the progress of the insurrection referred to.
On the 2d of June, 1765, Dr. Franklin, who was then in London,
wrote a letter to the celebrated Henry Home, lord Kames, in which
the following interesting circumstances are related, respecting what
was called the Paxton Expedition: this letter is inserted entire in lord
Woolhousie’s Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Lord Kames. The
Doctor therein says—“In December (1763,) we had two insurrections
of the back inhabitants of our province, by whom twenty poor Indians
were murdered, that had from the first settlement of the province
lived among us, under the protection of our government. This gave
me a good deal of employment; for, as the rioters threatened further
mischief, and their actions seemed to be approved by an increasing
party, I wrote a pamphlet, entitled A Narrative, &c. to strengthen the
hands of our weak government, by rendering the proceedings of the
rioters unpopular and odious. This had a good effect: and
afterwards, when a great body of them with arms marched towards
the capital in defiance of the government, with an avowed resolution
to put to death one hundred and forty Indian converts, then under its
protection, I formed an association at the governor’s request, for his
and their defence, we having no militia. Near one thousand of the
citizens accordingly took arms: Governor Penn made my house for
some time his head-quarters, and did every thing by my advice; so
that, for about forty-eight hours, I was a very great man, as I had
been once some years before, in a time of public danger. But the
fighting face we put on, and the reasonings we used with the
insurgents, (for I went, at the request of the governor and council,
with three others, to meet and discourse them,) having turned them
back, and restored quiet to the city, I became a less man than ever;
for I had, by these transactions, made myself many enemies among
the populace.”
102. .fm rend=t The writer of these memoirs well remembers to

have heard Mr. Rittenhouse, when fully matured in years, speak of
the pleasure he derived from the reading of John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s
Progress, while a youth. It is, certainly, no faint compliment to the
“well-told tale” of that “ingenious dreamer,” that it engaged the
attention of David Rittenhouse, even at a very early period of his life:
and that compliment is greatly enhanced by the following beautiful
invocation, addressed to the long-since departed spirit of the
humble, yet persecuted, the pious, yet fanciful Bunyan, by the
amiable Cowper:—
“Oh thou, whom, borne on fancy’s eager wing,

Back to the season of life’s happy spring,
I pleas’d remember, and, while mem’ry yet
Holds fast her office here, can ne’er forget;
Ingenious dreamer, in whose well-told tale
Sweet fiction and sweet truth alike prevail;
Whose hum’rous vein, strong sense, and simple style;
Witty, and well-employ’d, and, like thy Lord,
Speaking in parables his slighted word;
I name thee not, lest so despis’d a name
Should move a sneer at thy deserved fame:
Yet, ev’n in transitory life’s late day,
That mingles all my brown with sober gray,
Revere the man, whose Pilgrim marks the road,
And guides the Progress of the soul to God.”
Cowper’s Tirocinium.
The celebrated Benjamin Franklin too, in the account of his Life

written by himself, informs us, that the Pilgrim’s Progress (which
Franklin there, inadvertently, calls “Bunyan’s Voyages,”) was a
favourite book of his, in his earlier years. “I have since learned,” says
the Doctor, “that it has been translated into almost all the languages
of Europe; and, next to the Bible, I am persuaded, it is one of the
books which has had the greatest spread.”
103. This was about the year 1764.
104. In the earlier part of this interval of time, and before he

became more seriously engaged in those great works and
researches, the construction of his Orrery, and the Observation of
the Transit of Venus with the operations preparatory to it, which
about that time engrossed his attention, he occasionally amused
himself with matters rather speculative than practical: though he very
seldom devoted any considerable portion of his time to things which
he did not consider as being in some degree useful.
The following is one of those instances in which his active mind

was diverted from severer studies, to some objects of a more playful
nature.
In the year 1767, some ingenious country-gentleman published in

Messrs. Hall and Sellers’s paper, under the signature of T.T. the
result of calculations he had made on Archimedes’s famous vaunting
assertion, Δος που στω, και την γην κινησω. Mr. Rittenhouse
published, some short time after, calculations (or rather the result of
calculations) of his own, on the same problem. This appeared in a
piece under the signature of “A Mechanic,” dated the 8th of October,
1767: and a reply to it, by T. T. dated October the 29th, appeared in
the same paper. These little speculations will be found in the
Appendix. It is not improbable that Mr. Rittenhouse, under the
disguise of “A Mechanic,” appeared in print on this occasion, for the
purpose of drawing the attention of ingenious men to subjects of this
nature.
105. It was between the years 1766 and 1770—the interval of time
above mentioned,—that the two important circumstances occurred,
which gave great celebrity to the reputation of Mr. Rittenhouse, as an
astronomer: these were the Construction of the Orrery invented by
him, and the admirable result of his observations of the Transit of
Venus, as published in the Philosophical Society’s Transactions.
Amidst those objects of importance in which he was principally

occupied, he occasionally amused himself with matters of minor
consequence. Among other things, he contrived and made, in the
beginning of the year 1767, an ingeniously contrived thermometer,
constructed on the principle of the expansion and contraction of
metals, by heat and cold, respectively. This instrument had, under
glass, a face upon which was a graduated semi-circle: the degrees
of heat and cold corresponded with those of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer; and these were also correspondently designated, by
an index, moving on the centre of the arch. Its square (or rather
parallelogramical) form, its flatness and thinness, and its small size
—together with its not being liable to the least sensible injury or
irregularity, from any position in which it might be placed,—rendered
it safely portable; insomuch, that it could be conveniently carried in
the pocket.
He presented one of these metaline Thermometers to Dr. Peters,

in June 1767: Another, which he made for himself, was a
considerable time in the hands of Mr. Barton, at Lancaster. They
were found to agree very well with Fahrenheit’s. In a letter to Mr.
Barton, dated the 26th of July 1769, he said—“You will oblige me by
sending the metaline thermometer by..., and let me know the
greatest height you have seen it, this season, Fahrenheit’s
thermometer, in my Observatory, not exposed to the sunshine but
very open to the air, was 94½° on the 5th of this month, at 3 in the
afternoon; which is the highest I have ever seen it.”
106. The Rev. Ebenezer Kinnersley, A. M. Professor of English and

Oratory in the college of Philadelphia. This venerable and worthy
man, who was a clergyman of the Baptist church, was a very
eminent Electrician. In this branch of philosophy, he was an able
lecturer and ingenious experimentalist: and perhaps to no person—
at least in America,—were his cotemporaries more indebted, than to
him, for the light which he shed, at a very early day, on this
interesting and pleasing science.
107. According to the American historian, Marshall, Lord Berkeley

assigned his interest in the Jersies to Penn and his three associates,
in the year 1674; and they, soon perceiving the inconvenience of a
joint property, divided the province, in 1676, with Carteret, who still
retained his interest: to him they released East-Jersey; and received
from him, in return, a conveyance for the western part of the
province. The Duke of York resigned the government of East Jersey
to the proprietor, retaining that of West-Jersey as an appendage to
New-York, until August 1680; when, on a reference to Sir William
Jones, the title was decided against the Duke: after which, he
formally released all claim upon East-Jersey. Soon after this,
Carteret transferred his rights to Penn, and eleven other persons of
the same religious persuasion, who immediately conveyed one half
of their interest to James Drummond, Earl of Perth, and eleven
others; and these, in March 1683, obtained a conveyance from the
Duke of York directly to themselves.—During these transactions,
continual efforts were made to re-annex the Jerseys to the province
of New-York. [See Marshall’s Introduction to the Life of Washington,
ch. vi.]
108. There will not be another transit of Venus over the Sun’s disk,
until the 8th of December, 1874; which, it is probable few persons

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Chapter 6

Solution Manual: https://testbankpack.com/p/solution-manual-for-

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CHAPTER SIX: LEARNING

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-6 | 1

VI. Polling Questions

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-6 | 2

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-6 | 3

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-6 | 4

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-6 | 5

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-6 | 6

i. Generalization occurs when the same response is given to similar stimuli.

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-6 | 7

form of negative punishment. In this situation, the child is removed from

6. Applied Behavior Analysis

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-6 | 8

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-6 | 9

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-6 | 10

II. Chapter Features

Assignable Through Assignable Within the Instructor Resources

Apply Your Knowledge: #1

Classical Reading Quiz Intersection: The Activity Suggestions:

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-6 | 11

Polling Question: 6.3

Continuous vs. Partial

Apply Your Knowledge: #5

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-6 | 12

Human Reading Quiz Critical Thinking Activity Suggestion:

IV. Teaching the Chapter

LO 6.1: Describe learning.

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-6 | 13

LO 6.2: Explain classical conditioning.

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-6 | 14

3. Classical Conditioning and the Placebo Effect

LO 6.3: Explain operant conditioning.

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-6 | 15

Such is the fabulous history of Uranus! whose name some

Baron Bielfeld seems to entertain similar sentiments on this head,

Mr. Lalande remarks in his great work on astronomy, which was

Such princes, then, as Louis XIV. and George III. deserve to be

It is noticed by the writer of the article “Astronomy,” in Dr.

85a. Herschel, in calling his newly-discovered planet by the name of his

85b. So written by Lalande. There is an Asiatic island called Panay: it is one of

“Herschel, with ample mind and magic glass,

In the year 1714, the parliament of Great Britain offered a reward

“Concerning the means of determining the longitude, this is not the

“This very marine time-piece was confided to my charge, in the

88b. Here is a reference, in the text, to note 90.

89. Sundry astronomical observations were made by this officer,

90. The Observatory, a very handsome and respectable one, was

The instruments with which the Gotha Observatory is furnished

It is well known, that the first improvements in astronomical

Without wishing to derogate from the justly acquired fame of

91. The accuracy of some of the fine pocket-chronometers

92. The Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, for

Galileo, who was a native of Florence, lived to the age of eighty-

94. This celebrated naturalist and physician, who was styled by

96. The first pendulum-clock made in England, was in the year

In the library-hall of the Philadelphia Library-Company, is one of

97. Besides the testimony of so distinguished an astronomer as

“Short (the mathematical instrument maker,) upon the occasion of

98. This gentleman’s name is connected with another