Agriculture Management Approaches

Pankaj Kumar Saraswat

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Agriculture Management
Approaches
 AGRICULTURE MANAGEMENT
APPROACHES

Pankaj Kumar Saraswat, Khushboo Chaudhary and

Meraj Alam Ansari

www.delvepublishing.com
Agriculture Management Approaches
Pankaj Kumar Saraswat, Khushboo Chaudhary and Meraj Alam Ansari

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DEDICATION

Dedicated to
My Parents
Mr. Rakesh Chaudhary
Mrs. Ajesh Chaudhary
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Pankaj Kumar Saraswat graduated from R.B.S. College Bichpuri (Agra
University) Agra in 1996, completed post-graduate and Ph.D. in Soil Science
& Agricultural Chemistry from Banaras Hindu University Varanasi in 1999
and 2004, respectively. Dr. Saraswat started his career at H.N.B.G. University
Srinagar Garhwal Uttrakhand in 2005 as a lecturer in Soil Science and moved
as Subject Matter Specialist (Soil Science) to KVK Banasthali Vidyapith Tonk
Rajasthan. In October 2015, Dr. Saraswat joined ICAR-RC for N.E.H Region
Umiam as Sr. Scientist & Head at KVK Tamenglong Manipur. Dr. Saraswat as
P.I. completed two research projects externally funded from SERC-DST Govt.
of India New Delhi and DST-Govt. of Rajasthan Jaipur. At the same time, he also
conducted four INSPIRE-Internship Science Camps under the SEAT program
of DST for 10th pass top 1% students of Rajasthan. Presently Dr. Saraswat has
been working on agricultural technology assessment and demonstrations for its
wider application at farmers’ fields along with capacity development programs
for farmers, farm women, rural youth, line departments and other stakeholders
and also as P.I. in an NEC Shillong funded demonstration based projects in
Tamenglong district Manipur.
Dr. Khushboo Chaudhary is presently working as a Research Associate in
NRCE, Hisar Haryana, India and has 1 year of teaching experience. Previously,
she worked on “Improvement of Phytoremediation efficiency of Fluoride”.
She has published several research papers in international and national
journals. She has published three international textbooks. She has got seven
best paper and poster presentation awards from the Indian Society of Genetics
and Biotechnology Research and Development and received the president
appreciation awards also at the International Conference. She has got the best
poster award from ISSGPU Central Institute Research on Goats, Makhdoom.
She has published several gene banks in NCBI Pubmed. She has also published
a research article in a virology journal. She is likely to be a co-author in several
publications and coauthor in J. Virological Methods.

Dr. Meraj Alam Ansari is presently working as a Scientist under the Agronomy
Division from ICAR-RC for NEH Region, Manipur Centre Imphal. Dr. Ansari
M.Sc. (Agriculture) Agronomy from CSA University of Agril & Technology
Kanpur and Ph.D. from IARI New Delhi joined Agricultural Research. He is
a Scientist, Agronomy at ICAR-RC for NEH Region, Manipur Centre Imphal,
he has been engaged in farming system research including soil management
crop production and the development of integrated farming system (IFS) model
suitable and profitable for Jhumland hill farming.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Glossary.....................................................................................................xv
Acknowledgment................................................................................................ xix
Preface............................................................................................................ ....xxi

Chapter 1 Spatial Characterization of Groundwater Quality...................................... 1

Introduction................................................................................................ 2
Survey of the Area and Groundwater Sampling .......................................... 5
Groundwater Quality Analysis.................................................................... 5
Principal Component Analysis and Geospatial Characterization
of Groundwater................................................................................. 6
Chemical Characteristics of Banasthali Block Groundwater........................ 9
Chemical Characteristics of Newai Block Groundwater............................ 10
Geospatial Characteristics of Groundwater Quality................................... 11
Principal Component Analysis of Individual Layers................................... 12
Spatial Dependence of Groundwater Quality Parameter........................... 14
Spatial Distribution of Groundwater Quality Parameters........................... 16
Conclusion............................................................................................... 18
References................................................................................................ 19

Chapter 2 Effect of Long Term Treated Sewage Water Irrigation on Profile

Characteristics, Macro and Micronutrients in Soils at Farmer’s Field....... 23
Introduction.............................................................................................. 24
Irrigation Quality of Treated Sewage Water............................................... 27
Effect of TSW Irrigation on Basic Soil Properties........................................ 28
Effect of TSW Irrigation on Available NPK................................................. 30
Effect of TSW Irrigation on Available Micronutrients................................. 31
Correlation Matrix.................................................................................... 33
Conclusion............................................................................................... 34
References................................................................................................ 35
Chapter 3 Effect of Gypsum and Green Manuring Interventions on Mustard
Productivity and Sodic Soil Quality under on Farm Testing (OFT)
at Farmer’s Field....................................................................................... 37
Introduction.............................................................................................. 38
Nutrient Potential of Green Manure Crops................................................ 41
Effect of Technological Interventions on Mustard Yield.............................. 42
Effect of Green Manuring on Soil Properties.............................................. 43
References ............................................................................................... 46

Chapter 4 Characterization of Long Term Treated Sewage Water Irrigated Soils..... 49

Introduction.............................................................................................. 50
Irrigation Quality of Treated Sewage Water............................................... 53
Basic Soil Properties................................................................................. 53
Available NPK.......................................................................................... 58
Available Micronutrients........................................................................... 59
Conclusion............................................................................................... 60
References................................................................................................ 61

Chapter 5 Integrated use of Fertilizers, Manures and Amendments for

Improving Soil Quality, Input use Efficiency and Crop Productivity........ 65
Introduction.............................................................................................. 66
Soil Quality.............................................................................................. 69
Transfer of Technology for Improving Soil Quality..................................... 71
Integrated Nutrient Management.............................................................. 75
Importance of Integrated Nutrient Management........................................ 77
Strategies Adopted to Promote Soil Health and Crop Production .............. 79
Nutrient Potential of Summer Green Manures........................................... 81
Rice-Wheat Grain Yield............................................................................ 82
Macronutrient Content in Rice-Wheat and Their Uptake By Grain ........... 83
Soil Parameters......................................................................................... 85
Effect of Formulated Compost Application on Soil and Wheat Yield ......... 87
Steps Involved in the Preparation of Formulated Compost......................... 89
Nutrient Content in Different Organic Wastes and Formulated Compost... 89
Response of Wheat to Different Formulations........................................... 90
Practical Utility of The Findings and Summary.......................................... 92
Use of Soil Amendments Through INM Approach..................................... 93
Fly Ash Properties and Crop Response...................................................... 95

x
 Studies on Soil Response to Flyash Application....................................... 100
Soil Physical Properties........................................................................... 105
Effect on Soil Biological and Biochemical Quality.................................. 119
Integrated Use of FA With Amendments in Soil....................................... 121
Recycling of FA in the Soil Through Production and Use of Biomanures.124
Summary................................................................................................ 132
Conclusion............................................................................................. 135
References ............................................................................................. 139

Chapter 6 Plant Microbe-Interactions..................................................................... 153

Introduction............................................................................................ 154
Phytoremediation................................................................................... 155
Rhizosphere Activity............................................................................... 157
PGPR (Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria) ...................................... 159
Microbial Activity .................................................................................. 160
Plant-Organism Interactions in the Rhizosphere ..................................... 161
Molecular Mechanism Activity in Hyperaccumulation Plants................. 162
Conclusion............................................................................................. 166
References.............................................................................................. 168

Chapter 7 Phytoremediation Approaches Technique for Improving

Agriculture Land.................................................................................... 175
Introduction............................................................................................ 176
Phytoremediation Technique Involving Trace Different Elements............. 177
Cadmium Pollution ................................................................................ 178
Cadmium Accumulation By Phytoextraction Process.............................. 179
Chromium Pollution Through Industries ................................................. 180
Chromium Hyperaggregation Through Phytoextraction .......................... 180
Impact of Arsenic on Environment.......................................................... 182
Arsenic Hyperaccumulation Through Phytoextraction ............................ 182
Arsenic Stress- Tolerant Gene Participates In Phytoextraction ................. 184
Copper In Marine Water ........................................................................ 185
Clean Up of Copper by Phytoextraction Process..................................... 185
Nickel Hyper Accumulate Quantification Efficiency............................... 187
Zinc Translocation Through Phytoextraction Technology ........................ 188
Molecular Mechanism Efficiency of Heavy Metal Tolerant Plants............ 188

xi
 Role of Arabidopsis Genes ..................................................................... 189
Conclusion............................................................................................. 195
References.............................................................................................. 196

Chapter 8 Plant Growth-promoting Rhizosphere Role for

Improving Soil Fertility........................................................................... 211
Introduction............................................................................................ 212
Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizosphere .................................................... 213
Mechanisms By Which Microbes Influence Heavy Metal Accumulation.216
Molecular Mechanisms .......................................................................... 218
Conclusion ............................................................................................ 220
References.............................................................................................. 221

Chapter 9 Fluoride and its Effect on Environment.................................................. 225

Introduction............................................................................................ 226
Fluoride Accumulation Pathway in Plants .............................................. 228
Effect of Fluoride on Single Cell Microorganisms.................................... 229
Fluoride Pathway Through Hyperaccumulator on Plants.......................... 232
Visible Symptoms of F Wound ............................................................... 234
Technologies Used for the Removal of Fluoride from Water.................... 235
Fluoride Removal from the Soil............................................................... 235
Conclusion............................................................................................. 238
References.............................................................................................. 239

Chapter 10 Role of Pseudomonas Fluorescence and Pseudomonas Aeuroginosa

on Antioxidant Parameters, Polyphenols and Total Flavonoids of
Flouride (F) Hyperaccumulator Plant Prosopis Juliflora and
Improving Crop Productivity.................................................................. 247
Introduction............................................................................................ 248
Soil Characteristics Before Harvesting ................................................... 249
Pot Experimental Design......................................................................... 250
Antioxidant Activity................................................................................ 250
Determination of Polyphenols................................................................ 250
Estimation of Total Flavonoids................................................................. 251
Soil Analysis........................................................................................... 251
Growth Parameters Under Given Treatments........................................... 252
Antioxidant Enzyme Mechanism............................................................. 252

xii
 Total Polyphenols Estimation.................................................................. 252
Total Flavonoids Analysis........................................................................ 253
Conclusion............................................................................................. 253
References.............................................................................................. 254

Chapter 11 Effect of Plant Growth-promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) on

Plant Growth and Flouride Uptake by Prosopis Juliflora........................ 257
Introduction............................................................................................ 258
Pot Experiment....................................................................................... 259
Antioxidant Activity................................................................................ 260
Determination of F.................................................................................. 260
Growth Parameters................................................................................. 261
Antioxidant Enzyme Mechanism............................................................. 261
Organ-Wise F Uptake............................................................................. 263
Conclusion............................................................................................. 266
References.............................................................................................. 267

Chapter 12 Bioremediation....................................................................................... 271

Introduction............................................................................................ 272
Hyperaccumulator Plants........................................................................ 273
Role of Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria............................................... 276
Conclusion............................................................................................. 279
References.............................................................................................. 280

Chapter 13 Impact of Phytochelatins (PCs), Metallothionines (MTs) and

Heavy metal ATPase (HMA) Genes to Activate Plant Signaling.............. 287
Introduction............................................................................................ 288
Phytoremediation Techniques: An Overview........................................... 290
Hyperaccumulator Plants: A Base for Phytoremediation Technology....... 292
Heavy Metals Toxicity Mechanism.......................................................... 293
Heavy Metal Transportation Pathway ...................................................... 294
Types of Genes Used in Phytoremediation.............................................. 295
Future Possibilities ................................................................................. 300
Conclusion............................................................................................. 300
References.............................................................................................. 302

Index...................................................................................................... 315

xiii
LIST OF GLOSSARY

Bio Compost: Bio-compost is manufactured by composting press mud received from

cane juice filtration and spent wash received from distilleries.
Bio Manure: Bio Manure is rich in micro-organs and micronutrients that are the most
essential constituents required to improve the soil structure.
Compost: Compost is organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as a
fertilizer and soil amendment.
Composting: Composting is a natural process that turns organic material into a dark
rich substance. This substance, called compost or humus, is a wonderful conditioner
for soil
Crop: A crop is a volunteered or cultivated plant (any plant) whose product is harvested
by a human at some point in its growth stage.
Fertilizers: Fertilizer(or fertilizer) is any organic or inorganic material of natural or
synthetic origin (other than liming materials) that is added to soil to supply one or more.
Flushing: Washing away the surface accumulated salts by flushing water over the
surface is sometimes used to desalinize soils having surface salt crusts. Because the
amount of salts that can be flushed from soil is rather small, this method does not have
much practical significance.
Fly ash: Fly ash, also known as flue-ash, is one of the residues generated in combustion
and comprises the fine particles that rise with the flue gases.
Functional Nutrients: Nicholas (1961)proposed the term functional nutrient for any
mineral nutrient that functions in plant metabolism whether or not its action is specific
e.g Na, Co and Si.
Green Manure: In agriculture, green manure refers to crops that have already been
uprooted (and have often already been stuffed under the soil). The then dying plants
are of a type of cover crop often grown primarily to add nutrients and organic matter
to the soil. Typically, a green manure crop is grown for a specific period of time, and
then plowed under and incorporated into the soil while green or shortly after flowering.
Green manure crops are commonly associated with organic farming and are considered
essential for annual cropping systems that wish to be sustainable.
Integrated Nutrient Management: Integrated Nutrient Management refers to the
maintenance of soil fertility and of plant nutrient supply at an optimum level for
sustaining the desired productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible
sources of organic, inorganic and biological components in an integrated manner.
Integrated Water Resources Management: Integrated water resources management
has been defined by the global water partnership (GWP) as “a process which promotes
the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in
order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner
without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems.
Integrated Water Shed management: Integrated watershed management provides
a system to integrate natural resource management with community livelihoods in a
sustainable way. This action area (AA) addresses the issues of degradation of natural
resources, soil erosion, landslides, floods, frequent droughts and desertification, low
agricultural productivity, poor water quantity and quality and poor access to land and
related resources from an integrated watershed management perspective.
Integrated Weed Management: Integrated weed management (IWM) is the
combination of multiple management tools to reduce a pest population to an acceptable
level while preserving the quality of existing habitat, water, and other natural resources.
Combinations of biological, mechanical, and chemical management practices are
utilized in IPM programs to efficiently suppress a pest population at the most effective/
desirable points during the pest’s lifecycle or growing season.
Manure: Manure is an organic matter used as organic fertilizer in agriculture. Manures
contribute to the fertility of the soil by adding organic matter and nutrients.
Nutrient: A nutrient is a chemical that an organism needs to live and grow or a substance
used in an organism’s metabolism which must be taken in from its environment.
Plant nutrition: Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements and compounds
that are necessary for plant growth, and also of their external supply and internal
metabolism. In 1972, E. Epstein defined two criteria for an element to be essential for
plant growth: its absence the plant is unable to complete a normal life cycle; or that the
element is part of some essential plant constituent or metabolite.
Saline Soil: Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the process of increasing the salt
content is known as salination. Salt is a natural element of soils and water.
Scraping: Removing the salts that have accumulated on the soil surface by mechanical
means has had only limited success although many farmers have resorted to this
procedure. Although this method might temporarily improve crop growth, the ultimate
disposal of salts still poses a major problem.
Sodic Soil: Sodic soils are characterized by a disproportionately high concentration of
sodium (Na) in their cation exchange complex. They are usually defined as consisting
of an exchangeable sodium percentage greater than 15%. These soils tend to occur
within arid to semiarid regions and are innately unstable, exhibiting poor physical and
chemical properties, which impede water infiltration, water availability, and ultimately
plant growth.
Soil Amendments: A chemical substance used to improve the structure of the soil and
increase its porosity; gypsum can be used as a soil conditioner.

xvi
Soil Conservation: Soil conservation is a set of management strategies for the
prevention of soil being eroded from the Earth’s surface or becoming chemically altered
by overuse,
Soil Fertility: The ability of soil to supply plant nutrients that support plant growth.
The capacity of soil to provide plants with enough assailable nutrients and moisture to
produce crops.
Soil Moisture: Water content or moisture content is the quantity of water contained
in a material, such as soil (called soil moisture), rock, ceramics, fruit, or wood. Water
content is used in a wide range of scientific and technical areas and is expressed as a
ratio, which can range from 0 (completely dry) to the value of the materials’ porosity at
saturation. It can be given on a volumetric or mass (gravimetric) basis.
Soil organic matter: Soil organic matter is the organic matter component of soil,
consisting of plant and animal residues at various stages of decomposition, cells and
tissues of soil organisms, and substances synthesized by soil organisms. SOM exerts
numerous positive effects on soil physical and chemical properties, as well as the soil’s
capacity to provide regulatory ecosystem services. Particularly, the presence of SOM is
regarded as being critical for soil function and soil quality.
Soil Quality: Soil quality is the capacity of a specific kind of soil to function, within
natural or managed ecosystem boundaries, to sustain plant and animal productivity,
maintain or enhance water and air quality, and support human health and habitation.
Soil: Soil is considered the “skin of the earth” with interfaces between the lithosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. Soil consists of a solid phase (minerals &
organic matter) as well as a porous phase that holds gases and water. Accordingly, soils
are often treated as a three-state system.
Soil: Soil is the mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids and a myriad of
micro- and macro- organisms that can support plant life. It is a natural body that exists
as part of the pedosphere and it performs four important functions: a medium for plant
growth; water storage, supply and purification; modifier of the atmosphere; a habitat for
organisms that take part in decomposition and habitat for other organisms.
Sustainable Agriculture: Sustainable agriculture is the act of farming using principles
of ecology, the study of relationships between organisms and their environment. It has
been defined as “an integrated system of plant and animal production practices having
a site-specific application that will last over the long term.

xvii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This thanksgiving has to begin with the thanks to Department of Science& Technology
(Government of Rajasthan). I convey earnest thanks to Madam Smt Dr. Amita Gil
Director Department of Science & Technology (Government of Rajasthan), Bani Park,
and Jaipur for guidance and support in releasing funds timely for the smooth running of
the project. The author expresses sincere thanks and deep sense of gratitude to the Vice-
Chancellor Banasthali Vidyapith for providing facilities and environment and moral
encouragement through his speech on various occasions. His highly enlightened vision
and affection acted as a constant source of inspiration to me for working in projects
and completion of work with great ease. The author expresses sincere thanks to Dr.
Sushil Kumar Sharma Programme Coordinator and Dr. Vinay Shankar Prasad Sinha
(Department of Remote Sensing) for their constant guidance and help rendered in the
statistical analysis without which it would have been an impossible task. It’s a matter of
great pleasure to place on record my deep sense of gratitude to my former Programme
Coordinator Smt. Dr. Sharda and my esteemed senior colleagues Dr. Mahendra Singh,
Dr. Ram Charan Yadav and Mr. Banshidhar Chaudhary and my faculty colleagues Dr.
Ragini Mishra, Dr. Geetam Singh, Mr. Udai Pratap Singh, Mr. Vineet Kumar Dwivedi,
Mr. Mithileshwar Nath Upadhyay, Mr. Ashu Singh Bhati and Mr. Banshee Lal Kumawat
who have always rendered their all kind of support during the course of investigation.
Words of appreciation are also due to my office supporting staff Mr. Shravan Lal
Sharma, Mr. Om Prakash and Gaurav Singh Negi for their additional efforts and all
kind of support during the project period. I also feel great pleasure to place on record
deep sense of gratitude to my husband Mr. Manoj Chaudhary for his relentless
cooperation and lovely son Lavyansh Chaudhary who always and eagerly waited for
me on my late coming to his daycare and I am really the luckiest mother who has a
son like Lavyansh.

Dr. Pankaj Kumar Saraswat

Dr. Khushboo Chaudhary

Dr. Meraj Alam Ansari

PREFACE

The present book entitled “Agriculture Management Approaches” is aimed at

presenting precise information for undergraduate, postgraduate students and research
scholars. This book has updated information on agricultural land management by using
organic waste or recycling organic waste, heavy metal contaminated groundwater, using
gypsum and integrated management of soil for improving crop productivity. It will be
a milestone in the current scenario of environmental research on heavy metal pollution
in groundwater, soil and its management. This book is an updated document on current
research and the latest and cost-effective green technology. Plants are valuable resources
for all living organisms that provide food, medicine, produce oxygen and regulate the
water cycle. Heavy metal stresses have a negative impact on the environment and
destroy our nature. Its direct and indirect effect on human beings and drastic effect
on crop yield and movement in the food chain. This book describes the development
of cost-effective, sustainable and user-friendly technology for the farmers by using
organic waste and gypsum for improving soil fertility.
While the main emphasis is given to increasing the proper and balanced use of mineral
fertilizers, the role of organic manure, biofertilizers, and green manuring and recycling
of organic wastes should be considered supplementary and not substitutable. On one
hand, there is a vast scope for increasing plant nutrient supply through the use of fly
ash and organic fertilizers, but there is, on the other hand, no scope for reducing the
consumption of mineral fertilizers since the present level of crop productivity has to be
increased in the coming years.
All chapters are an overview on the spatial characterization of groundwater quality,
treated sewage water irrigation on profile characteristics, macro and micronutrients
in soils in a farmer’s field, gypsum and green manuring interventions on mustard
productivity and sodic soil quality on-farm testing, long term treated sewage water
irrigated soils, use of fertilizers, manures and amendments for improving soil quality,
use efficiency and crop productivity, plant-microbe interactions, phytoremediation
approaches technique improving agriculture land, role of plant growth-promoting
rhizosphere to improve soil fertility, fluoride effects on the environment and using
different amendments for improving crop productivity. Heavy metals are released into
the environment as a result of human activities such as mining, smelting, electroplating,
energy and fuel production, power transmission, intensive agriculture, sludge dumping,
and melting operations. Studies on detailed characterization and potential application of
wastes from new technologies like co-firing ash, oxy fuel combustion ash, biomass ash,
co-gasification residue, MSW ash, etc. Utilization of microbes like vermicomposting
can be a novel, economically viable and eco-friendly strategy that can reduce toxic
chemicals in the conventional protocol.
Remediation is the only way to clean up the contaminants in soils and groundwater.
Remediation refers to the process of environmental cleanup of contaminated sites and
the techniques to reduce or eliminate contamination from soil or groundwater. In the
preparation of this book, I have been greatly helped by several books which I express my
acknowledgment in the references and if I have forgotten any references in my notice,
please ignore these mistakes. This book is a compilation of maximum information
regarding the management of agricultural land after our best efforts.
Dr. Pankaj Kumar Saraswat
Dr. Khushboo Chaudhary
Dr. Meraj Alam Ansari

xxii
 CHAPTER

1 Spatial Characterization of
Groundwater Quality

Contents
Introduction................................................................................................ 2
Survey of the Area and Groundwater Sampling .......................................... 5
Groundwater Quality Analysis.................................................................... 5
Principal Component Analysis and Geospatial Characterization
of Groundwater................................................................................. 6
Chemical Characteristics of Banasthali Block Groundwater........................ 9
Chemical Characteristics of Newai Block Groundwater............................ 10
Geospatial Characteristics of Groundwater Quality................................... 11
Principal Component Analysis of Individual Layers................................... 12
Spatial Dependence of Groundwater Quality Parameter........................... 14
Spatial Distribution of Groundwater Quality Parameters........................... 16
Conclusion............................................................................................... 18
References................................................................................................ 19
2 Agriculture Management Approaches

INTRODUCTION
Geo-statistical analysis of groundwater quality in Newai Tehsil has been done
in order to identify the possible spatial structure of water quality parameters
and to assess the spatial dependence of water properties with the help of
principal component analysis (PCA). Two types of maps (Spatial map and
Principal component map) of groundwater quality have been developed.
Studies revealed that HCO3 and RSC were found to be positively and highly
correlated with principal component 1. Manganese, electrical conductivity
and Chlorine are correlated in second-order whereas iron (Fe) and carbonate
(CO3) showed poor correlation with principal component 1. Ca+2+Mg+2,
Cu, Zn and pH had a negative correlation with principal component 1. The
spatial map developed for PC2 showed a highly positive correlation only
with chloride, whereas, Ca+2+Mg+2 and EC were in the second-order of
correlation with PC2. Mn, Fe, Zn and CO3 showed a very poor correlation
with PC2. Cu, HCO3,pH and RSC were negatively correlated with PC2.
PC3 had a highly positive correlation with EC of groundwater, whereas Fe,
Mn, Cl and CO3 showed a negative correlation with PC3. Ca+2+Mg+2, Cu,
Zn, HCO3, pH and RSC were normally correlated with PC3. PC4 was found
to be positively and highly correlated with Ca+2+Mg+2 and copper and highly
and negatively correlated with Mn, Fe, Zn, CO3, EC, and RSC. Cl, HCO3
and pH showed a normal correlation with PC4.
The PC 5 showed a highly positive correlation with Mn, Fe, and copper,
the highest possible score of any principal component of the groundwater
quality parameter under study. Cl, HCO3 and EC had a negative correlation
with PC5 and Zn, CO3, pH and RSC showed a very poor correlation with
PC5. PC6 maintained a very poor correlation with Ca+2+Mg+2, Mn, Fe, Zn
and HCO3 and all the remaining parameters were negatively correlated. PC7
showed a high and positive correlation with Fe whereas that of PC8 is highly
negative with CO3. Among PC9 and PC10, CO3 and pH were found to be
highly and positively correlated respectively and the rest all parameters
under PC9 and PC10 either showed a poor or negative correlation with
groundwater quality parameters. PC11 showed a highly positive correlation
with Zn and a negative correlation with Mn, Cu, CO3, HCO3 EC whereas the
remaining parameters were poorly correlated with PC11.
Groundwater is one of the most critical inputs required for the survival
of humans, plants and animals on this planet. Soils are the primary source of
elements found in groundwater. The extent of elements found in groundwater
directly affects the quality. Groundwater quality decides the extent to which
 Spatial Characterization of Groundwater Quality 3

it can be used for the purpose. Irrigation is one of the prime sectors in India
where one-third of land surface falls under arid and semi-arid climates
and rainfall is seasonal and erratic. The semi-arid climate prevailing in
Tonk district necessitates the characterization of groundwater quality for
optimizing its use in irrigation as well as in domestic consumption. The
majority of the underground water contains a high concentration of salts
and their continuous use affects soil, animal and plant health, thereby crop
production (Shahid et al. 2008). Groundwater resources in the country are
dwindling very fast due to poor water harvesting leading to excess runoff
and poor recharging of the groundwater.
This is accompanied by excessive withdrawal/exploitation to meet
the household and irrigation requirements in agriculture (Sarkar, 2011).
Technically sound, economically viable, environmentally non-degradable
and socially acceptable use of a country’s natural resources like land, water
and genetic endowment to promote sustainable development of agriculture
has been accepted as the ultimate goal. Geo-informatics technologies
will help in achieving some of the defined goals (Marwah, 2003). Geo-
informatics is a fast-emerging science encompassing the modern tools
of Remote Sensing (RS) Geographic information system (GIS), Global
Positioning System (GPS) and simulation models. A combination of these
technologies provides cost-effective means of acquiring high-resolution
real-time data through remote sense, data management and analysis through
GIS and geo-referencing the ground truth data with GPS, putting all the data
in an information system and utilization of the information for a specific
purpose. The key element that differentiates Geo-informatics from other
areas of information technology (IT) is that all input data is being geo-coded
i.e. has an address in 3-D space and is linked to some locality on the earth
surface. In India, GIS has been introduced in various fields like optimizing
land use plans, characterization of groundwater quality, and development
of degraded and wasteland and management of salt-affected soils. Spatial
variation in groundwater quality occurs due to variation in underlying rock
strata.
Groundwater quality is an essential parameter to be studied for the
sustainable development of agriculture and human life. The advent of
information technology has developed tools like GPS and GIS which help
in the spatial characterization of groundwater quality. The maps generated
through GPS and GIS delineate homogenous units to decide on the size and
collecting a systematic set geo-referenced samples and generating spatial
data about groundwater quality (Sood et al. 2004 and Sharma, 2004). A
4 Agriculture Management Approaches

comprehensive understanding of spatial variability in groundwater quality

has become essential in precision agriculture. Groundwater quality varies
spatially from the field to a large regional scale and is influenced by geology,
topography, climate as well as soil use (Quine and Zhang, 2002). Variability
can also occur as a result of land use and management strategies (Wang et al.
2009). In recent years, geo-statistics has proved to be effective in assessing
the variability in soil and groundwater quality (Webster and Oliver, 2001).
Geo-statistics is a technology for the appraisal of soil and groundwater
quality in non-sampled areas or areas with sparse sampling (Yao et al. 2004).
Geostatistics provides a set of statistical tools for a description of spatial
patterns, quantitative modeling of spatial continuity, spatial predictions
and uncertainty assessment (Goovaerts, 1999). Geostatistical techniques
incorporating spatial information into predictions can improve estimation
and enhance map quality (Muellar and Pierce, 2003).
Quantitative evaluation of groundwater parameters to obtain quality
indices classification using principal component analysis (PCA) has
immense utility (Norris, 1971). PCA also is known as factor analysis is a
statistical device to reduce the number of variables to a smaller number
of indices. The transformation of raw data using PCA can result in new
values that are often more interpretable than the original data (Norris, 1972).
Principal factors are, in fact, the Eigenvectors or characteristics/proper
vectors of the covariance (or correlation) matrix and the variance of the
principal factors are corresponding Eigenvalues. Principal factor analysis
compares the information content of the number of quality parameters
into a few transformed factors. Such a reduction in dimensionality is an
important economic consideration, especially if the potential information
is recoverable from transformed data, is just as good as the original data
(Anderson and Furley, 1975). Prasad (2000), Rao and Jose (2003), Geissen
et al. (2009) also reported that principal component analysis is a meaning
full tool for relating quantitative factors into quality parameters in case of a
crop field and natural resource management.
Means and ways have been devised for use of poor-quality water in
irrigation (Minhas and Gupta, 1993 Tiwari et al, 2003, Chauhan et al, 2007,),
but the spatial characterization of groundwater quality for irrigation and
drinking purpose is virtually lacking in arid and semi-arid regions. Keeping
these things in mind and in view of such advantages of Geo-informatics, GPS
and GIS technologies, a study was undertaken to assess the groundwater
quality potential and classify them by using principal component analysis in
Newai Tehsil of Tonk district during 2011-14.
 Spatial Characterization of Groundwater Quality 5

SURVEY OF THE AREA AND GROUNDWATER

SAMPLING
For the study purpose, 28 villages under Banasthali and Newai blocks in
Newai Tehsil were selected for spatial characterization of groundwater
quality using the GPS (Trimble R3) technique of survey and sampling. 16
villages namely Palai, Jugulpura, Bidauli, Aliyabad, Radhakishanpura,
Govindpura, Jagmohanpura, Subhashpura, Sunara, Bhanakpura, Lodeda,
Jagatpura, Surajkheda, Chhauriya, Banasthali and Haripura come under
Banasthali block. Whereas 12 villages namely Bhanwati, Bhanwata,
Saindariya, Kishorpura, Dahlod, Lalwadi, Sirohi, Jhilay, Sangrampura,
Bhanwarsagar and Bhagwanpura are under the Newai block. Taking all
protocols into account, a total number of 140 groundwater samples of tube
well, bore well and hand pump origin from 28 villages (5 from each) were
collected in properly labeled in neutral plastic bottles and brought to the
Soil and Water testing laboratory for further chemical analysis. GPS points
were taken keeping in view that five water sample locations are representing
a single village. GPS survey helped to plot the latitudinal and longitudinal
information in the real-world coordinate system. The GPS-enabled data
containing the positional location of the source of sample collection was
further utilized to analyze the groundwater quality parameters in geospatial
distribution patterns using geostatistical tools.

GROUNDWATER QUALITY ANALYSIS

Collected water samples were employed for the characterization of drinking
and irrigation quality analysis. Groundwater samples were analyzed for
pH, EC, cations (Ca+2+Mg+2), anions (Cl-, CO3 and HCO3), residual sodium
carbonate (RSC) and trace elements (Fe, Cu, Mn, & Zn) using standard
methods and procedures as outlined by Richards (1954), Tandon (2009) and
Trivedy and Goel (1993). The pH and soluble salts in water samples were
estimated by using pH and EC Meter. Cations and anions were analyzed
by titration method and residual sodium carbonate (RSC) was calculated
using the formula as RSC (meq L-1) = (CO3+HCO3) - (Ca+2 + Mg+2). The
presence of trace elements in groundwater was estimated by employing
processed water samples on the atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS
Model No. 4129). The outcome of the analysis of quality parameters of the
samples was found (range and mean form).
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 RETREAT OF THE UNION ARMY.
The Federal troops remained in Springfield until Monday
morning, and then started on their retreat towards Rolla,
unmolested by the rebels. The enemy entered the town immediately
after its evacuation by the Federal forces, having suffered the loss of
a large portion of their tents, baggage and camp stores by the attack
of Sigel.
Hundreds of the inhabitants of this section were now compelled to
leave their homes, and the exiles were seen every day on the roads
leading to St. Louis, fleeing for refuge beyond the lines of the
insurgents, plundered of everything and destitute, having been
forced to abandon their homes and property to save their lives.
The loyal people who remained were favored with proclamations
by McCulloch and Price, which abounded in abuse and
misrepresentation of the Federal army, and were filled with
professions and promises which strikingly contrasted with their
administration and conduct.
This calamity was not merely disastrous by its positive loss, but it
gave a prestige of success to the rebel leaders, and afforded an
opportunity for them to increase the spirit of rebellion among the
people, as well as to nerve themselves to other enterprises. On the
17th, fifteen hundred recruits had assembled in Saline county, and
were preparing to join General Price, or to engage in local operations
in the surrounding counties. On the 18th, about one thousand men
from Chariton county crossed the Missouri at Brunswick, with a
large number of horses and wagons, on their march to join Price’s
division.
The rebels were so much elated with the death of General Lyon
and the abandonment of Springfield by the Federal troops, that they
became more reckless than ever in their depredations and
persecutions of the loyal citizens. In St. Louis on the 14th, after the
retreat became known, they became so bold and defiant that General
Fremont proclaimed martial law, and appointed Major J. McKinstry
as Provost-Marshal.
 On the 20th, a train on the Hannibal and St. Joseph’s railroad was
fired into, and one soldier killed and six wounded. The train was
immediately stopped, and two of the guerrillas were killed and five
captured.
Five days afterwards, on the 25th, Governor Gamble issued a
proclamation calling for forty-two thousand volunteers to defend the
State, restore peace and subdue the insurrection; the term of service
to be six months, unless sooner discharged.
 KENTUCKY.

Kentucky occupies a central position among the States, and is

about four hundred miles in length, by one hundred and seventy in
width at the widest point, where the State stretches from the
boundary of Tennessee across to Covington, opposite Cincinnati, on
the Ohio river. This river, from the Virginia line, follows a circuitous
course along the Kentucky border, a distance of six hundred and
thirty-seven miles, until it flows into the Mississippi at Cairo. The
Cumberland and Tennessee rivers pass through the western part of
the State, as they approach their confluence with the Ohio. Big Sandy
river, two hundred and fifty miles in length, forms for a considerable
distance the boundary between Kentucky and Virginia. The Kentucky
river rises in the Cumberland Mountains and falls into the Ohio river
fifty miles above Louisville. These geographical facts are necessary to
a perfect understanding of the struggles in that State, and are worthy
of remembrance.
When the President of the United States, on the 15th of April, 1861,
issued his proclamation, in which the Governors of the States that
had not already committed themselves to the cause of secession,
were called upon to furnish their quota of seventy-five thousand men
for the national defence, Beriah Magoffin, Governor of Kentucky,
replied by saying, that, “Kentucky will furnish no troops for the
wicked purpose of subduing her sister States.”
This act was looked upon with both sorrow and surprise by the
loyal people of that State, and was hailed with delight by the
Confederate Government at Montgomery. The rebel Secretary of War
congratulated Governor Magoffin on his “patriotic” response,
informed him that Virginia needed aid, and requested him to send
forward a regiment of infantry without delay to Harper’s Ferry.
Though sympathizing with the enemies of the Union, Governor
Magoffin was not prepared to set at defiance the wishes of the people
of Kentucky, and commit himself unqualifiedly to the work of
overthrowing the Federal Government.
Many of the prominent men of Kentucky, including a large number
of the wealthy citizens, were zealous in the promotion of the
secession interests. The most indefatigable efforts were made by
them to force the State into the ranks of the revolted States, and
thousands of her young men were induced to enlist, and encamp on
the adjoining borders of Tennessee, waiting for the hour when they
could sweep Kentucky with the rush of armed battalions, and
overwhelm her peace and prosperity with the clash of arms, and the
thunders of artillery. The loyal sentiment was, however, in the
ascendant, although it was subdued and overawed to a considerable
extent. Between the two forces, therefore, it was deemed expedient
by her rulers that Kentucky should hold a neutral position, and not
ally herself with either the Federal or the Confederate interest.
To render this neutrality more certain, on the 8th of June, General
S. B. Buckner, then the acknowledged commander of the State
militia, entered into negotiations with General McClellan, at
Cincinnati, the terms of which stipulated that Kentucky should
protect the United States property, and enforce all the United States
laws within her limits—that her neutrality should be respected by the
Federal army, even though the Southern forces should occupy her
soil; “but in the latter case General McClellan should call upon the
authorities of the State to remove the said Southern forces from her
territory;” if the State were unable to accomplish this, then the
Federal forces might be called in.
This negative position was found, however, to be one of positive
advantage and aid to the traitors. They desired to secure a “masterly
inactivity” on the part of loyal men, of which they might avail
themselves by secret organizations. Taking advantage of this
confessed neutrality, large numbers of the young men of Kentucky
were enticed into Buckner’s camp; while bodies of men from
Tennessee were thrown into several localities in the southern and
western portions of the State, and boldly avowed their determination
to march on Frankfort, the capital, and revolutionize the State. Home
Guards were organized by the loyal men, and it became apparent,
that if the tide were not resisted by active measures, there was no
security for Kentucky.
The election for members of the Legislature, however, early in
August, the result of which showed an overwhelming majority in
favor of the Union, signed the death-warrant of neutrality, and
thenceforth Kentucky was regarded as loyal to the Union. The
Legislature assembled at Frankfort on the 5th of September, ordered
the United States flag to be hoisted on the court-house, and
proceeded to adopt various measures calculated to promote the
Union cause in the State.

SECTION OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER.

SHOWING THE DISTANCES FROM

NEW ORLEANS.
 SECTION OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER.

SHOWING THE DISTANCES FROM

NEW ORLEANS.

The great Union majority now revealed gave such decided

evidence that Kentucky was not likely to be seduced from her loyalty,
that the secessionists became convinced of the necessity of
accomplishing their purpose by other means. The rebel forces were,
therefore, ordered to take possession of several important points,
which they did on the 4th of September, and commenced fortifying
Hickman and Columbus—the former being in the western part of the
State, near the line, and the latter some twenty-five miles further
north, on the Mississippi river. Generals Pillow and Polk now took
command of the rebel troops, and were soon reinforced, their
combined forces amounting to thirteen regiments of artillery, six
field batteries, a siege battery, three battalions of cavalry, three
steamers, and a gunboat. In the mean time, Jefferson Thompson,
with two regiments, took possession of Belmont, on the Missouri
side, opposite Columbus. The assumed neutrality having thus been
broken by this invasion, the Federal commander, General U. S.
Grant, then at Cairo, Illinois, lost no time in making a movement to
intercept the further progress of the rebels northward. He
accordingly sent a sufficient force up the Ohio, to the mouth of the
Tennessee river, and effected
 THE OCCUPATION OF PADUCAH.

On Thursday evening, the 5th of September, the gunboats Tyler

and Conestoga were ordered to convey the troops to Paducah. The
Ninth Illinois, under the gallant Major Philips, and the Twelfth
Illinois, Colonel John McArthur, with four pieces of Smith’s Chicago
Artillery, under Lieutenant Charles Willard, embarked on the
steamers G. W. Graham and W. H. B., and left Cairo at 11 o’clock, P.
M., the gunboat Tyler, Captain Rogers, leading, and the Conestoga,
Captain Phelps, in the rear. The fleet pushed out into the stream
amid the cheers of thousands of spectators, and steamed grandly up
the Ohio.
They reached Paducah about eight o’clock, A. M., on Friday, the 6th.
The troops were speedily disembarked. Colonel McArthur’s regiment
landed at the Marine Hospital, in the lower part of the city, and the
Ninth at the foot of Main street. The Twelfth found quarters at the
hospital, and the Ninth repaired to the depot of the Ohio and New
Orleans railroad. The citizens were sullen and unfriendly, and closed
their places of business.
On arriving at the depot the troops found that the rolling stock of
the road had all been removed, but a large quantity of stores for the
confederate army was discovered, and promptly seized. They were
marked for Memphis, New Orleans, and other points south, and
were worth about $20,000.
Captain Rogers immediately took possession of the telegraph
office. The post-office was next visited, and a large amount of rebel
correspondence secured. Five companies of infantry, and a battery of
Smith’s Light Artillery, Lieutenant Willard, were sent under Major
Philips down the railroad about seven miles without meeting any of
the rebel troops. Pillow was reported to be advancing, and a large
bridge and trestle work were burnt to prevent him from reaching
Paducah and falling upon the place by surprise.
A rumor became current that a large force of rebels from
Tennessee were on their way down the Tennessee river in
steamboats. To ascertain the facts, and to intercept their progress,
the gunboat Conestoga was dispatched up the river some thirteen
miles to watch the rebel movements, and to capture suspicious
vessels. Although no hostile forces were seen, a steamer was
discovered on Friday, which, on seeing the Conestoga, turned about,
was run ashore, and the officers and crew abandoned her. It was the
Jefferson, a small stern-wheel boat, loaded with a cargo of tobacco.
On Saturday the Conestoga captured a fine propeller, called the John
Gault, and a boat called the Pocahontas, belonging to John Bell, of
Tennessee. The prizes were all safely taken to Cairo.
The inhabitants of Paducah were now seized with panic, and large
numbers left the town, apprehending an attack from Pillow, in which
case they expected the gunboats would freely use shell. On Saturday
part of Colonel Oglesby’s Eighth regiment, the Forty-first Illinois,
and the American Zouave regiment, from Cape Girandeau, entered
the town, increasing the forces to about 5,000 men.
 THE REBEL TROOPS ORDERED TO
WITHDRAW FROM KENTUCKY.
On the 9th of September a dispatch from General Polk to Governor
Magoffin was laid before the Legislature, the substance of which was
that he had occupied Columbus and Hickman, on account of reliable
information that the Federal forces were about to possess those
points; that he considered the safety of Western Tennessee and of the
rebel army in the vicinity of Hickman and Columbus demanded their
occupation, and that, as a corroboration of that information, the
Federal troops had been drawn up in line on the river opposite to
Columbus prior to its occupation by them, causing many of the
citizens of Columbus to flee from their homes for fear of the entrance
of the Federal troops. General Polk proposed substantially that the
Federal and rebel forces should be simultaneously withdrawn from
Kentucky, and to enter into recognizances and stipulations to respect
the neutrality of the State.
But it was well known that the cry of neutrality was only an
invention of the enemy to work his plans in Kentucky, so that when
the appointed time should come Kentucky would swarm with rebels
from Tennessee and Virginia; and two days afterwards both branches
of the Legislature, by a vote of 71 to 26, adopted a resolution
directing the Governor to issue a proclamation ordering the rebel
troops then encamped in the State to evacuate Kentucky. A counter-
resolution, ordering both Federal and rebel troops to leave the soil,
was negatived under the rules of order. Governor Magoffin
accordingly issued a proclamation to the effect that “the government
of the Confederate States, the State of Tennessee, and all others
concerned, are hereby informed that Kentucky expects the
Confederate or Tennessee troops to be withdrawn from her soil
unconditionally.”
 ATTEMPT TO FORM A REVOLUTIONARY
GOVERNMENT IN THE STATE.
After this decisive action of the Legislature, which effectually
destroyed the hopes entertained by the conspirators of obtaining a
semblance of legal authority for their designs, their next expedient
was to hold an informal meeting at Russelville, a small town in the
southern portion of the State, on the 29th of October. Here they drew
up a declaration of grievances, in which they charged the majority of
the Legislature with having betrayed their solemn trust, by inviting
into the State the “armies of Lincoln,” with having abdicated the
government in favor of a military despotism, and thrown upon the
people and the State the horrors and ravages of war. They
recommended the immediate arming of a “Guard” in each county, of
not less than one hundred men, to be paid as Confederate troops,
subject to the orders of the “Commanding General.” Finally, they
called for a Convention to be held at Russelville, on the 18th of
November, to be “elected, or appointed in any manner possible,” by
the people of the several counties, for the purpose of “severing
forever our connection with the Federal Government.”
John C. Breckinridge, late Vice President of the United States, was
appointed one of the commissioners to carry out the orders of the
convention. This Convention met at the time designated, composed
of about two hundred persons, professing to represent sixty-five
counties, though self-appointed, and without any form of election.
On the 20th of November they adopted a “Declaration of
Independence, and an Ordinance of Secession,” and appointed a
“Provisional Government, consisting of a Governor, and a Legislative
Council of Ten,” and dispatched H. C. Burnett, W. E. Simms, and
William Preston, as commissioners to the Confederate States. On the
9th of December, the “Congress’” of the Confederate States, in
session at Richmond, passed an “Act for the admission of the State of
Kentucky into the Confederate States of America,” as a member “on
equal footing with the other States of the Confederacy.”
 George W. Johnson, of Scott county, who was chosen as
Provisional Governor, by the Convention, in his “Message,” declared
his willingness to resign “whenever the regularly elected Governor
[Magoffin] should escape from his virtual imprisonment at
Frankfort.”
Governor Magoffin, in a letter, dated December 13, 1861, says of
this Convention, “I condemn its action in unqualified terms. Situated
as it was, and without authority from the people, it cannot be
justified by similar revolutionary acts in other States, by minorities
to overthrow the State Governments. My position is, and has been,
and will continue to be, to abide by the will of the majority of the
people of the State, to stand by the Constitution and laws of the State
of Kentucky, as expounded by the Supreme Court of the State, and by
the Constitution and laws of the United States, as expounded by the
Supreme Court of the United States. To this position I shall cling in
this trying hour as the last hope of society and of constitutional
liberty.”
MILITARY MOVEMENTS OF THE REBELS IN
KENTUCKY.
While Pillow and Polk were invading the south-western part of the
State, General Zollicoffer was operating in the east. With some six
thousand rebels he came to Cumberland Ford—which is situated
near the point where the corner of Virginia runs into Kentucky—
capturing a company of Home Guards. On the 17th of September the
Legislature received a message from Governor Magoffin
communicating a telegraphic dispatch from General Zollicoffer,
announcing that the safety of Tennessee demanded the occupation of
Cumberland and the three long mountains in Kentucky, and that he
had occupied them, and should retain his position until the Federal
forces were withdrawn and the Federal camp broken up.
That portion of Kentucky lying west of the Cumberland river was
then declared under insurrectionary control, and Secretary Chase
instructed the Surveyor at Cairo to prevent all commercial
intercourse with that section, and to search all baggage and all
persons going thither. Just about the same time the gunboat
Conestoga captured the rebel steamers Stephenson and Gazelle, on
the Cumberland, and one of them was found to contain one hundred
tons of iron.
 DECISIVE MEASURES OF THE LOYAL
STATE GOVERNMENT.
When the seditious plans of General Buckner became too plain for
concealment, the Legislature found it necessary to depose him from
the command of the State troops, and General Thomas L. Crittenden,
a loyal citizen, was appointed to fill that position. Governor
Magoffin, in obedience to the resolutions and the enactments of the
Legislature, promptly issued a proclamation, authorizing that officer
to execute the purposes contemplated by the resolutions of the
Legislature in reference to the expulsion of the invaders, and General
Crittenden ordered the military to muster forthwith into service.
Hamilton Pope, Brigadier-General of the Home Guard (Union),
called on the people of each ward in Louisville to meet and organize
into companies for the protection of the city.
Great excitement existed at this time in Louisville. The Union
Home Guards began to assemble, while other Union forces were
arriving and being sent to different portions of the State. At nine
o’clock on the morning of the 18th, when the Government troops
reached Rolling Fork, five miles north of Muldragh’s Hill, they found
that the bridge over the fork had been burned by rebels under
General Buckner, who were then upon the hill.
The Legislature passed, over the veto of the Governor, a resolution
to the effect that, as the rebels had invaded Kentucky and insolently
dictated the terms upon which they would retire, General Robert
Anderson, the hero of Fort Sumter, one of Kentucky’s sons, should be
invited to take instant charge of that department, and that the
Governor must call out a sufficient force to expel the invaders from
her soil. General Anderson, who had been previously appointed by
the Government to command in Kentucky, responded to the call, and
on the 21st of September issued a proclamation calling upon the
people of Kentucky to rally to the support of the Union.
General S. B. Buckner, who had previously acted under neutrality
pretences, now gradually assumed an attitude of hostility, and in
September was openly arrayed against the Government. On the 12th
he issued an inflammatory proclamation to the people of Kentucky,
in which he declared that he sought to make no war upon the Union,
but only against the tyranny and despotism of the Federal
Government, which was about to make the people of Kentucky
slaves. By such means as these he aimed to arouse the freemen of
that State to arms and to rebellion. The proclamation was dated at
Russelville, while he was entrenching a position at Bowling Green,
about thirty miles from the Tennessee line, on the Louisville and
Nashville railroad.
Very soon the Government formed a new department, consisting
of Ohio, Indiana, and that part of Kentucky within a commanding
distance of Cincinnati, placing it under the charge of General
Mitchell, in order to relieve General Rosecranz in Western Virginia
and General Anderson of a part of their responsibility, and enable
them to give greater attention to their own specific departments. The
department under General Anderson seemed to require similar
military discipline to that of Annapolis and Maryland, and, as a
commencement, Martin W. Barr, the telegraphic news reporter of
the Southern Associated Press, the medium for the transmission of
correspondence from traitors at the North to rebels in the South, was
arrested, together with ex-Governor Morehead and Reuben T.
Murrett, one of the proprietors of the Courier, a rebel sheet.
 The State had now become a portion of the ground which was to be
so fiercely contested. Rebel journals and leaders made no
concealment of their purpose to wrest Kentucky from the Union at
every hazard. The Ohio river was to be the boundary of the Southern
empire, and notwithstanding the emphatic voice of her people, all
the energy of the combined forces of the rebel armies were to be
brought to bear upon the work. The fact could be no longer disguised
from the people, and the loyal men, finding that their patience and
confidence in the disloyal portion, with their previous consent to a
negative position of neutrality, were in vain, boldly declared that the
time had come to arouse and resist the impending ruin. The attempt
of the conspirators of the Cotton States to make Kentucky the battle-
field, along with Virginia, was to be defeated at every cost, and the
people, rising to a comprehension of their responsibility, hastened to
the work of organization and defence.
 Among the loyal men of the State to whom the highest honor is
due for their bold and stirring advocacy of the Union, and for the
most summary measures which patriotism and honor could dictate,
were Hon. Joseph Holt, and Hon. Lovell S. Rousseau, of the State
Senate, and the gifted divine, R. J. Breckinridge, D.D.
 NAVAL OPERATIONS.

At the commencement of hostilities the Government was

unprepared to meet the naval requirements incident to the contest
which had so suddenly been forced upon it. The necessity of a
stringent blockade of the entire southern coast had become
apparent; while the protection and supply of the naval stations in the
rebel States still in possession of our forces, and the recapture of
those which had been seized, required a navy vastly greater than that
at the command of the Government; and no time was lost in
preparing as far as practicable to meet this emergency.
Long before the attack on Fort Sumter, the enemy had given
evidence of a determination forcibly to destroy their relations with
the Government by seizing the revenue cutters belonging to the
United States stationed in the harbors of Charleston, Pensacola and
New Orleans, contemporaneously with their appropriation of the
forts, arsenals, marine depots and other property belonging to the
Government within the limits of the disloyal States.
Immediately upon the opening of hostilities, and to give the
pretence of law and authority to the proceedings now determined on,
Jefferson Davis, on the 17th of April, 1861, by proclamation, invited
men of every class, without regard to nationality, to become
privateers under letters of marque, to be issued by the Confederate
Government.
A “reward” of twenty dollars was offered by the Confederate
Congress for every life taken by these privateers in conflict with a
Federal vessel, and twenty-five dollars for each prisoner. In view of
the extensive commerce of the United States, the large number of
vessels sailing to all parts of the world, and the supposed inefficiency
of our navy, confident expectations were entertained by the rebels of
a rich harvest of wealth from this source, as well as of the destruction
of our commerce. The hope was also indulged that many vessels
would be secretly fitted out in northern ports to engage in this
enterprise. This hope soon proved to be futile; while the want of
proper vessels for the service in their own ports, and the scarcity of
able seamen, and, more potent than either, the rigorous blockade
that was soon established, presented insurmountable obstacles to
their plans. The English Government, by the Queen’s proclamation
of June 1, decided that privateers should not take prizes to any of her
ports; and France and Spain also declared that such vessels should
remain but twenty-four hours within their harbors, and prohibited
either confiscation or sale during such stay.
The first offensive act of the war on the part of our navy was the
attack on Sewall’s Point battery, in Virginia, on May 18, 1861. This
battery, then not completed, was situated at the mouth of Elizabeth
river, commanding also the entrance to James river. On the 18th the
United States steamer Star, two guns, and transport Freeborn, of
four guns, opened their fire and dislodged the enemy from their
entrenchments. During the night, however, the works were repaired
and occupied by a larger force. On the following day the steamer Star
again opened fire on them, and after exhausting her ammunition
retired.
On the 31st of May, the United States steamers Thomas Freeborn,
Anacosta and Resolute attacked the rebel batteries at the railroad
terminus at Acquia Creek. As the tide was out, the vessels could not
approach near enough to accomplish their reduction. On the
following day the fire was renewed by the vessels, under command of
Captain Ward, and returned by the enemy with spirit from three
batteries on the shore, and one on the heights above. They were soon
driven from the shore batteries, but that on the hill was at an
elevation which could not be reached by shot from the gunboats. The
vessels were struck several times, with but little damage, and two
men were wounded. The loss of the enemy was not ascertained.
On the 6th of June, while reconnoitering on the James river, the
steamer Harriet Lane discovered a heavy battery at Pigs Point, at the
mouth of the Nansemond river, opposite Newport News. She opened
fire on it to discover its character, and finding from the response that
it was too formidable for her guns, she withdrew, having five men
wounded in the encounter.
 On the 27th of June, Commander J. H. Ward of the steamer
Freeborn, accompanied by a party of men from the Pawnee, under
Lieutenant Chaplin, who were engaged in erecting a breastwork at
Matthias Point, on the Potomac, were attacked by a large force of the
enemy. The men on shore were exposed to a galling fire, but made
good their retreat in their boats, three only being wounded, taking all
their arms and implements with them. Commander Ward
immediately opened fire from his vessel on the attacking party, and
drove them to cover. While sighting one of the guns of the Freeborn,
Commander Ward was struck by a rifle ball, mortally wounded, and
died within an hour.
Captain James H. Ward was born in the year 1806, in the city of
Hartford, Connecticut. His early days were spent in the usual studies
of youth, and on the 4th of March, 1823, he entered the United States
service, sailing as midshipman, under Commodore McDonough, in
the frigate Constitution. After serving faithfully for four years with
McDonough, he was promoted to the position of lieutenant, and was
for some time attached to the Mediterranean service. Many years of
his life were spent on the coast of Africa, and he was also in the gulf,
as commander of the United States steamer Vixen. Nearly all his
naval life was spent on the ocean. For some time he had a very
responsible professorship in the naval school at Annapolis, and later
was in command of the receiving ship North Carolina. His talents
were not entirely devoted to naval affairs, for he is well known as an
author by his works, entitled “Steam for the Million,” “Ordnance and
Gunnery,” and “Naval Tactics.” The news of his death brought
sorrow to many, and his memory is safely embalmed in the heart of
an appreciating nation.