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Corinna Peifer
Stefan Engeser Editors

Advances
in Flow
Research
Second Edition
Advances in Flow Research
Corinna Peifer • Stefan Engeser
Editors

Advances in Flow Research

Second Edition
Editors
Corinna Peifer Stefan Engeser
Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
University of Lübeck University of Trier
Lübeck, Germany Trier, Germany

ISBN 978-3-030-53467-7 ISBN 978-3-030-53468-4 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53468-4

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2012, 2021

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Foreword

Since Flow was originally published in 1990, it has been translated into many
languages. This includes practically all of the European languages, plus Chinese
(traditional as well as modernized), Japanese, Korean, and some Indonesian lan-
guages that I once did not know existed.
At least three Prime Ministers have asked how flow could help their countries
avoid alienation from work, or emigration to countries that offered more interesting
challenges. The Mayor of Seoul has shared his concern that the 40,000 employees of
his Metropolitan Government might become too bureaucratic, as civil servants have
a tendency to be. CEOs of some of the major companies worldwide have
implemented flow in various aspects of their operations and, in at least two cases,
have reported startling jumps not only in revenues but also in profits.
All of this started over 50 years ago, when I decided to teach a senior seminar at
Lake Forest College, in Illinois. The dozen or so undergraduate students in that class
were not particularly academically oriented, and they were not even majoring in
psychology—most of them came from the department of sociology and anthropol-
ogy. I decided to teach the seminar on the topic of play—but what I had in mind was
not children’s play, on which there was huge literature, but on the kind of play adults
engage in. Although I was in my 30s by then, I still “played” chess, climbed rocks,
and did many other things that did not have to be done, just for the sheer enjoyment
of doing it.
As I started to read the psychological literature on play, I felt a sense of mounting
incredulity and dismay. First of all, almost all the articles (or books) were about the
play of children. But it was much worse; even children’s play was described in
strictly functional terms, without reference to the experience of play itself, which, as
far as I was concerned, was the only reason that made play interesting in the first
place. True, playing football could be good training for a healthy lifestyle and for
working on a team (as an adult), and playing chess might be a good way to develop
intellectual skills that a child could use (as an adult). But I was quite sure that
children did not play football or chess to prepare themselves for a later job.

v
vi Foreword

It occurred to me then that most of the literature (even the work of such luminaries
as Jean Piaget or Erick Erickson) had been trying to explain the distal outcomes of
play, not the proximal ones. They wanted to know “what good is it?” not “how does
it feel like?” Having been exposed to the phenomenology of Husserl, Heidegger, and
Merleau-Ponty, I realized that what was missing from the literature was a consider-
ation of the phenomenology of play. The next major realization was that the
phenomenology of play seemed indistinguishable when the person felt it in a play
situation like a game, or in settings that are not usually thought of as play—like
music, painting, and even in work.
When I started publishing the results of our first interview-based studies, I called
the peculiar state people reported when they were “playing” the autotelic experience,
Greek for something you might be doing primarily for the sake of the experience
itself. Later, to use more accessible language, I called it flow, borrowing from the
language of the people we interviewed, which often used the image of flowing
waters as an analogy to the feeling they were describing.
The initial reception to my first book, Beyond Boredom and Anxiety, and to the
research articles that ensued, could be best described as benign neglect. In private,
some colleagues congratulated me for having given a name to something very
obvious that they had known forever. Others congratulated me for having had the
courage to write about something so fascinating, but that unfortunately was not
amenable to scientific investigation. Even though patronizing, such responses were
more comforting than the deep silence that otherwise surrounded my work. The only
formal recognition in the first dozen years or so came from a brief, and not exactly
encouraging review of the book, by Edward Deci in Psych Abstracts.
Interestingly, the first sparks of academic interest came from anthropologists,
followed by sociologists, and finally by psychologists of sports and leisure. Then,
slowly, the field began to grudgingly accept flow as something that might have some
relevance to the central issues of psychology. The first intellectual contribution from
a psychologist came from Fausto Massimini, a physician who became Professor of
Psychology at the University of Milan. He and his lively lab have contributed more
to the development of research on flow than could be summarized in a few pages.
His insight in the role that flow plays in cultural evolution was a brilliant extension of
the theory, and the many cross-cultural studies done under his aegis are now part of
history.
So now, more than a generation later, as I am paging through the various chapters
of this volume, I am reminded of an anecdote I read—a long time ago—about the last
days of Leonardo da Vinci. In 1519, the old master was ailing and despondent on his
sickbed at the Clos Lucé, a noble manor house Francis I of France had placed at his
disposal near his royal chateau at Amboise. The staff let the King know that they
were worried about his guest. Francis hastened to the old man’s bedside, and seeing
how depressed he appeared to be, said something like: “Maestro, you who have
achieved more in your life than all other artists and scientists put together, how can
you be so sad?” to which Leonardo is supposed to have answered: “Thank you Sire,
for your kindness—but no master can die happy until at least one of his disciples
surpass him.”
Foreword vii

If Leonardo was right, then—mutatis mutandis—I ought to die happy (but

hopefully not for some time yet). The chapters in this book show that there are
quite a few directions in which the work I was able to accomplish is being stretched,
continued, and improved upon, and they show that new directions, unexpected and
unimagined before, are being opened up for investigation.
Of course, Leonardo could also have been wrong—as a student of human nature
he did not shine as well as in other fields—and being surpassed might not make one
as happy as he thought. After all, do you really believe that if some connoisseur of art
had written: “Andrea Salieri, who learned to paint in Leonardo da Vinci’s studio, just
painted a young lady’s portrait he calls Monna Vanna, and it leaves his master’s
Monna Lisa in the dust . . .” Leonardo would have been happy? I do not think so,
either.
So it is a bittersweet experience to read these excellent scientific essays, each one
of which adds something new and important to what has been written about flow so
far. And, of course, I realize that whether I am happy or not is besides the point; what
counts is that the ideas are carried forward into the future—it is their survival that
matters, and the consequences they will have for the lives of the next generation. In
this respect, the present volume guarantees that the contribution of flow to an
understanding of human behavior will grow and prosper in the years to come. At
the end of the day, I am grateful to all those who have contributed to it.

Claremont, CA Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi

2019
Foreword

Seven years ago, the first edition of Advances in Flow Research was published, a
work which was both important and challenging at the same time. Important because
back then, a great deal had already been published on the theme of flow, but certainly
not always in the manner called for by researchers who are committed to the
methodological standards of empirical research. Of course, this should by no
means diminish the value of publications that offer up an exploratory, everyday
perspective. Indeed, it is always possible to approach meaningful and interesting
phenomena along paths other than the methodologically strictly regulated one of
empirical research. Rather, it simply means that with a growing stock of certainties,
plausibilities, and presumptions, at some point one wishes to know what can be seen
as safely replicable knowledge, and under which conditions. And then there is no
way around resorting to the sometimes stony field of empirical research, in which
insights cannot be so easily gained as when gathering and classifying cleverly
observed everyday phenomena.
And it is precisely this gap into which Advances in Flow Research stepped. The
book had set itself the goal of addressing the research on the flow experience which
satisfied the methodological standards of empirical research, especially those stan-
dards applicable to psychology. For only through such research will it be possible to
ground the flow experience within the body of established concepts of psychology
and its neighboring disciplines in perpetuity.
With such aspirations, a publication can quickly slip into the small niche of books
which are only received and appreciated by a handful of specialists. The challenge
was therefore to present the contents, despite the scientific orientation, in a way that
was comprehensible, interesting, and stimulating for a broader readership. The fact
that a resolutely research-oriented book is now experiencing its second edition
demonstrates that this challenge was mastered.
From a personal perspective, this fact is all the more gratifying given that in my
own time of active research, I became interested relatively early on in phenomena
that we nowadays address under the fitting term of “flow.”

ix
x Foreword

“There’s a guy in Chicago with an unpronounceable name who recently

described exactly what you’re reporting.” This is what my teacher, Heinz
Heckhausen, told me back in 1978, when, in a research colloquium of our motiva-
tional psychology workgroup, I reported on a “new” activity incentive that I was
unable to categorize.
In the course of the cognitive revolution, our research group in Bochum had
become accustomed to analyzing motivational phenomena according to the perspec-
tive that individuals constantly act with a view to the attainable outcomes and the
value of their likely consequences. Of course, this purpose-centered analytical
perspective was not erroneous, but it was constricted. We quickly notice this if we
look at leisure activities, in which it is irrefutably apparent that besides the incentives
linked to the consequences of the outcome, there are also incentives that lie directly
in the performance of the activity itself (activity-related incentives). And here, one
can find a colorful diversity of the most varied of perceptions, states, and feelings,
which people like to have and for which reason they carry out certain activities time
and time again and for as long as possible—even if these activities have no valuable
outcome consequences and at times even bring with them foreseeable costs.
Back then, I wanted to find out about these things as comprehensively as possible
and to describe and classify them precisely. A lot of things could be quickly
understood or were already known: the experience of “thrill and adventure,” joy in
the interaction with nice people, feeling how one’s own movements are functioning
perfectly, experiencing how a piece of music is succeeding to an ever greater degree,
the sense of well-being in nature, and much more. For one thing, however, no
theoretically introduced category of experiences could yet be found at first glance:
that good feeling of becoming so completely absorbed in a smoothly running activity
that one loses track of time forgets the original purpose of the activity and indeed
even forgets oneself. Even if one is working to one’s full capacity, it is not
experienced as a burden, but rather as a pleasant state in which one is happy to
become immersed.
Undoubtedly, this too was an incentive, which lies in the execution of the activity
and not in the consequences of its outcome. But with which motivational systems
might it be associated? Or had something entirely new been discovered here? No, it
was nothing new. As is well known, the man with the difficult to pronounce name,
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, had already termed this as the flow experience three years
previously in his highly fruitful book Beyond Boredom and Anxiety (1975) and had
described it in detail. His strongly phenomenological research, and the way in which
he described it in his book was in no way consistent with the mainstream of
empirical-experimental psychology of the time. However, there was a clear sense
that somebody had hit upon a phenomenon that had not yet been described in this
structure. Certainly, there had been forerunners, but the configuration of flow
components which he presented was new as a concept.
This flow concept had a very strong ally in academia, namely that of self-
experience, for academics in particular, who are practically obsessive in their search
for opportunities to delve undisturbed and entirely into their thought systems and
Foreword xi

research findings, and who then describe all of this in articles and books, are very
well aware of this flow state. Even if, as an empirical psychologist, one might
criticize details in research methodology or in theory formulation, one can hardly
deny the existence of a state which is undoubtedly present in one’s own experience. I
believe that this indisputability of self-experienced flow was and is a first, and
perhaps the most important, guarantor for flow to remain alive as an object of
research.
The second guarantor is the fact that even after a good four decades of flow
research and many exciting findings, there still remains so much to be clarified. And
this is what this book deals with in an impressively clear and, where necessary,
critical manner. On a theoretical level, attempts to elaborate more sharply on the
functional particularities of the flow state are worthwhile. What exactly is happening
differently in us when we are operating in flow rather than generating a result in a
conscious and willful way? How, from this, can we explain the better performances
which are sometimes reported for the flow state? From a motivational perspective, it
needs to be clarified more precisely what leads us to repeatedly do things that bring
about the flow state. Does the flow state itself act as an effective incentive or is it
merely an attendant phenomenon of the accomplishment of well-mastered activities
which we love anyway? Moreover, it remains to be clarified whether and what flow
has to do with that which people describe as “happiness.” Even though public
attention for the flow concept might be on the increase, it would not be particularly
helpful to rashly link together flow and happiness (or even equate them with one
another). Independently of this, it remains to be clarified whether the flow state
perhaps has an affinity with certain motivational systems. For instance, the balance
between demand and skills is a condition that is conducive both to the flow
experience and to competence-oriented achievement motivation. In accordance
with this, flow elements can clearly be found in the description of the
achievement-motivational activity incentive. Should one therefore postulate a par-
ticular closeness between flow and achievement motivation? In that case, with a
sufficient degree of freedom of lifestyle, highly (success-confident) achievement-
motivated people should find themselves in a state of flow particularly frequently. Is
this really the case? After all, flow can also arise in action contexts that have nothing
to do with the theme of achievement. These are but a few of the many questions that
need to be empirically clarified and which are dealt with in this book.
When it comes to the empirical clarification of these types of questions or similar,
then, with flow, we are faced with the particular problem that the measurement itself
can change that which is being measured. Do classical survey methods thus become
basically unsuitable because we interrupt the flow state through the survey? Or do
surveys provide us with data that we can nevertheless use, albeit with certain
limitations, as indicators of the state that has just been interrupted? And what,
precisely, do we have to ask in order to be able to conclude with sufficient certainty
from the survey data that flow has occurred? Is the ratio of skill to challenge, which is
frequently used as an indicator of flow, really sufficient? Ideal, of course, would be
possibilities to capture flow quasi “online” and without an interrupting survey, for
instance through observable features of the activity performance or perhaps through
xii Foreword

psychophysiological indicators. And how should we picture the relation between the
measurement values and the state of flow? Do we think of flow as an alternative
characteristic, in which this state only exists above a certain threshold and not below
it—just like flicking a switch? Or should we conceive of flow as a kind of contin-
uum, on which this state, in its components, varies in strength and completeness?
This, of course, has considerable impacts on how we may measure or diagnose flow.
Once we are on methodologically secure ground, broad fields of questions open
up, which will make the flow experience a fascinating object of investigation for
basic and applied research for a long time to come. Under which situational
conditions and with which activities do flow states occur especially frequently?
Particularly for applied research, the question becomes important of where, with a
view to its consequences, the flow state is desired and where it should be avoided if
possible. According to the action context, both possibilities appear to be given. But
how do we go about fostering or avoiding flow?
With the focus of the first edition lying in the methodological and conceptual
area, thus dealing with a kind of “general psychology of flow,” this second edition
happily adds many application chapters. Although, obviously, not everything has yet
been clarified in the basic research area (and probably never will be), it is now time to
examine how flow can be specifically grasped and utilized in contexts such as work,
sports, music, and human–computer interaction, but also more generally defined
fields such as “social interaction” or “development.”
This second edition also deals with the arising basic and applied research
questions, addressed by colleagues who possess a high level of expertise in the
area of empirical flow research. We find here a remarkable work which is not content
to merely reproduce the current state of research. Of course, it does also do this, but it
reaches further and sets itself the goal of making the flow experience a conceptually
clear-cut study variable that is as methodologically “tough” as possible. The current
volume provides a solid foundation for this purpose for all those who are interested
in a fascinating phenomenon, namely a state in which we are entirely, and without
self-reflection, absorbed in a smoothly running activity which, despite a high level of
demand, we still have well under control. I am certain that, also with the second
edition of Advances in Flow Research, the editor and authors have once again
created a standard work on flow research.

Gladbeck, Germany Falko Rheinberg

2019
Preface

This second edition of Advances in Flow Research aims to provide a broad and
balanced overview on the current state of flow research—from the basics to specific
contexts of application. While the chapters of the first edition have been updated
and/or substantially revised (Chaps. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 16), seven new chapters
targeting different contexts of application have been added (Chaps. 6, 10, 11, 12, 13,
14, and 15). The authors of this book present what has been learned since the
beginning of flow research, what is still open to further investigation, and how the
mission to understand and foster flow should continue.
Accordingly, we address researchers, teachers, and students from diverse pro-
fessions, such as psychology, sociology, education, sports, the arts, IT, and eco-
nomics. Particularly with the new applied chapters, we also address practitioners
who seek for sound research on flow in their field of expertise to foster flow in
contexts such as groups (Chap. 10), work (Chap. 11), development (Chap. 12),
sports (Chap. 13), arts and music (Chap. 14), and human–computer interaction
(Chap. 15).
The book can be used as a textbook for advanced courses on motivation,
attention, flow experience, intrinsic motivation, optimal motivation and excellence,
daily experience, well-being, and similar topics. Study questions at the end of each
chapter can help students to test their knowledge. A preceding abstract of each
chapter offers an overview of the topic. Text boxes provide more details, and figures
are used to illustrate the topic. We aimed at integrating different theoretical perspec-
tives rather than advertising a single point of view.
What will you read in this book? In the introduction (Engeser, Schiepe-Tiska, and
Peifer, Chap. 1), we will talk about the definition of flow, draw the historical lines,
and present a short review of current flow research, which is becoming more
complex and is following various lines of inquiry. Flow research could be regarded
as a mission to understand enjoyment in human life, and many researchers have
joined in studying flow experience to understand its conditions and consequences in
more detail. However, there is not yet a consensus about the measurement of flow,
and the potential of existing measures is often not used to its full potential. Therefore,

xiii
xiv Preface

the book dedicates one chapter to the methodological aspects in flow research
(Moneta, Chap. 2).
Following this, Barthelmäs and Keller (Chap. 3) take a close look at the anteced-
ents, boundary conditions, and consequences of flow. While flow is often described
in the achievement context, flow can be experienced in nearly any kind of activity.
Thus, an entire chapter will be devoted to flow in non-achievement situations,
including their special aspects and conceptual difficulties (Schiepe-Tiska and
Engeser, Chap. 4). The authors propose that personal preferences structure the
situation and, consequently, support the experience of flow: when a person’s motives
correspond to the motive-specific incentives in a situation, flow is more likely to
occur.
At the heart of flow research is the motivational aspect of this experience. Flow
motivates people to carry out the activity again and to seek challenges and thereby
improve their skills and abilities. Abuhamdeh (Chap. 5) discusses similarities and
differences of another prominent theory of intrinsic motivation—the self-determi-
nation theory—in comparison with flow theory. He argues that the two theories hold
explanatory power in contrasting, largely non-overlapping contexts. This contrasts
with the prevailing understanding that each theory represents different levels of
analysis of the same contexts. A repeatedly debated question in flow research is
whether enjoyment is an integral part of flow experience. Abuhamdeh (Chap. 6)
disentangles prominent arguments regarding that question and finally answers this
question in the affirmative. The fact that flow experiences might also have negative
consequences has been almost entirely neglected so far, but some researchers have
begun to discuss and study this issue (cf. Zimanyi and Schüler, Chap. 7). In this
respect, research examines the assumption that flow is so rewarding that activities are
still executed regardless of potential negative consequences, as in the case of
addiction, high-risk activities, or antisocial activities.
In Chap. 8, Peifer and Tan enter into the psychophysiology of flow. The psycho-
physiological processes during flow provide new insights for a deeper understanding
of the phenomenon, while a lot of research is still needed in this field. The next
chapter reflects on the search for a “flow personality” or “autotelic personality”
(Baumann, Chap. 9). The chapter discusses how different personality aspects relate
to flow, suggests a measure of the “autotelic personality”, and offers a dynamic
perspective on personality and flow.
In Chap. 10, Walker addresses the phenomenon of social flow, distinguishes flow
in social situations from interactive flow, and argues that it differs from solitary flow.
Chapter 11 (Peifer and Wolters) is dedicated to flow in the context of work. Peifer
and Wolters outline the importance of flow for well-being and performance and
further provide a model that systematically captures the conditions of flow in the
work context. Flow is of relevance in all fields of human development, from infancy
to old age. Chapter 12 (Freire, Gissubel, Tavares, and Teixeira) provides an over-
view of flow research over the life span, addressing effects of flow in healthy
development as well as in psychopathology. From the beginnings of flow research,
flow was investigated in the sports context. Stoll and Ufer report in Chap. 13 the
Preface xv

current state of affairs of this vein of research. They look at flow in exercise, in
competitive sports, as well as in recreational sports. Similarly, research on flow in the
arts has a long tradition. Harmat, de Manzano, and Ullèn wrap up research on flow in
music, dance, and the visual arts. Despite the long tradition, relatively little research
has been conducted in this application context, and the authors outline gaps for
future investigation. Finally, Triberti, Di Natale, and Gaggioli (Chap. 15) look at a
future-oriented topic of flow application: its use in human–computer interaction.
This new area of research is highly relevant in the age of digitalization. The chapter
makes suggestions on how to use technologies to improve well-being.
Our book ends with a theoretical integration of the different paths being taken
within the increasingly more complex field of flow research (Peifer and Engeser,
Chap. 16). It also examines what has been learned since the beginning of flow
research, what is still open to further investigation, and how the mission to under-
stand and foster flow experience should continue.
While we have now completed this book after a long period of intensive work and
a lot of helpful feedback, we already have new ideas for an extended third edition.
These ideas include chapters on the role of flow in education and on flow in cultural
development. Also, as interest in flow research is growing, we look forward to the
advancements that will be made in the coming years.
For now, we wish our readers a good and fruitful engagement with this book and
hope that it will have a positive impact on the various fields of research and
application.

Lübeck, Germany Corinna Peifer

Trier, Germany Stefan Engeser
Contents

1 Historical Lines and an Overview of Current Research on Flow . . . 1

Stefan Engeser, Anja Schiepe-Tiska, and Corinna Peifer
2 On the Conceptualization and Measurement of Flow . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Giovanni B. Moneta
3 Antecedents, Boundary Conditions and Consequences of Flow . . . . 71
Michael Barthelmäs and Johannes Keller
4 Flow in Nonachievement Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Anja Schiepe-Tiska and Stefan Engeser
5 Flow Theory and Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Two Sides of the
Same Coin? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Sami Abuhamdeh
6 On the Relationship Between Flow and Enjoyment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Sami Abuhamdeh
7 The Dark Side of the Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Zsuzsanna Zimanyi and Julia Schüler
8 The Psychophysiology of Flow Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Corinna Peifer and Jasmine Tan
9 Autotelic Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Nicola Baumann
10 Social Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Charles J. Walker
11 Flow in the Context of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Corinna Peifer and Gina Wolters

xvii
xviii Contents

12 Flow Experience in Human Development: Understanding Optimal

Functioning Along the Lifespan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Teresa Freire, Keith Gissubel, Dionísia Tavares, and Ana Teixeira
13 Flow in Sports and Exercise: A Historical Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Oliver Stoll and Michele Ufer
14 Flow in Music and Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
László Harmat, Örjan de Manzano, and Fredrik Ullén
15 Flowing Technologies: The Role of Flow and Related Constructs
in Human-Computer Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Stefano Triberti, Anna Flavia Di Natale, and Andrea Gaggioli
16 Theoretical Integration and Future Lines of Flow Research . . . . . . 417
Corinna Peifer and Stefan Engeser

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Contributors

Sami Abuhamdeh Department of Psychology, Marmara University, Istanbul,

Turkey
Michael Barthelmäs Institute of Psychology and Education, Ulm University, Ulm,
Germany
Nicola Baumann Department of Psychology, University of Trier, Trier, Germany
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi Quality of Life Research Center, Claremont Graduate
University, Claremont, CA, USA
Stefan Engeser Institute of Psychology, University of Trier, Trier, Germany
Teresa Freire School of Psychology, University of Minho, Minho, Portugal
Andrea Gaggioli Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore,
Milano, MI, Italy
Applied Technology for Neuro-Psychology Lab, I.R.C.C.S. Istituto Auxologico
Italiano, Milano, MI, Italy
Keith Gissubel School of Psychology, University of Minho, Minho, Portugal
László Harmat Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences,
Linnaeus University, Växjö, Sweden
Johannes Keller Institute of Psychology and Education, Ulm University, Ulm,
Germany
Örjan de Manzano Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stock-
holm, Sweden
Giovanni B. Moneta School of Psychology, London Metropolitan University,
London, UK
Anna Flavia Di Natale Department of Psychology, University of Milan-Bicocca,
Milano, MI, Italy

xix
1 Historical Lines and an Overview of Current Research on Flow 11

Piaget Caillois Groos, Bühler

Play Play Funktionslust

Hebb, White DeCharms Maslow

Berlyn Compe- Personal Peak
Optimal tence causation Experience

Csikszentmihalyi
Autotelic Experience / Flow Experience

Fig. 1.1 Theoretical precursors of Csikszentmihalyi’s flow theory

Theoretical Precursors of the Flow Theory

Hebb (1955) and Berlyne (1960) proposed that the right amount of stimulation is
essential for explaining behavior that is not extrinsically rewarded (i.e., intrinsically
motivated behavior). Animals including men strive for an optimal level of stimula-
tion. Novel stimuli provide an enjoyable sensation; however, too much novelty leads
to anxiety and too little novelty leads to the exploration for stimulation. There are
clear parallels of the work of both authors to the flow model here, and their ideas
influenced the development of the flow model, as explicitly stated by
Csikszentmihalyi (1975). Both are included as precursers of flow theory in Fig. 1.1.
Similarly, White (1959) outlined that novelty and variety are enjoyable for their
own sake and proposed the term “effectance” motivation. This term refers to the
assumption that individuals like to have an effect on the environment, which is
perceived as enjoyable and they consequently learn to deal with the environment and
develop new competences. This leads to a subjective feeling of efficacy or compe-
tence, which is enjoyable and rewarding in itself (compare the “feeling of control” as
one component of flow in Box 1.1).
Csikszentmihalyi also referred to DeCharms (1968), who proposed that the
feeling of being the origin of an action is an important aspect of enjoyment. Both
White and DeCharms also influenced Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci &
Ryan, 1985), which, like the flow theory, originated in the 1970s to explain
intrinsically motivated behavior (cf. Abuhamdeh, Chap. 5 for a comparison of
flow theory and Cognitive Evaluation Theory—a subtheory within SDT). White
and DeCharms were also influential in terms of research on achievement motivation,
which is the theoretical background for Heckhausen’s (Heckhausen & Rheinberg,
1980) and subsequently Rheinberg’s work (see below; cf. Engeser & Rheinberg,
2008).
Other precursors of flow theory were Piaget (1951) and Caillois (1958), who both
tried to understand the motivational aspects of play. Caillois believed that individ-
uals find pleasure in play by competing against others, controlling things, testing
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