Agriculture Trade and Marketing

Nekesah T. Wafullah
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Agriculture Trade and Marketing
AGRICULTURE TRADE AND
MARKETING

Nekesah T. Wafullah

www.delvepublishing.com
Agriculture Trade and Marketing
Nekesah T. Wafullah

Delve Publishing
224 Shoreacres Road
Burlington, ON L7L 2H2
Canada
www.delvepublishing.com
Email: orders@arclereducation.com

e-book Edition 2023

ISBN: 978-1-77469-551-7 (e-book)

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ISBN: 978-1-77469-519-7 (Hardcover)

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Nekesah T. Wafullah is a skilled agriculture expert with extensive knowledge in

agricultural energy value addition products, agricultural business management services,
project management, various forms of fertilizer, their production, sales, marketing
aspects and application regimes; cross border fertilizer trade policies; youth and women
empowerment and volunteerism. She is adept at project planning and management as
well as creating simple solutions to complex problems. She has experience within
agricultural markets in Kenya, Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania, Rwanda, Democratic
Republic of Congo (DRC)- Bukavu and Lubumbashi and Uganda. She mentors high
school and college students and advocates for better performance in Agricultural
science. During her free time, she loves editing books, watching movies, cooking,
baking, networking, reading, and dancing. Nekesah holds an M Sc. in Agricultural and
Applied Economics degree from the University of Nairobi with a major in International
Trade and Policy.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures.................................................................................................xi
List of Tables.................................................................................................xiii
List of Abbreviations......................................................................................xv
Acknowledgment......................................................................................... xix
Preface..................................................................................................... ....xxi

Chapter 1 Agricultural Marketing............................................................................... 1

1.1. Overview............................................................................................. 2
1.2. Concept and Definitions of Market...................................................... 2
1.3. Components of a Market...................................................................... 3
1.4. Dimensions of a Market....................................................................... 3
1.5. Market Structure.................................................................................. 4
1.6. Agricultural Marketing Concept and Definition.................................... 7
1.7. Markets Classification........................................................................ 15

Chapter 2 Marketing Functions................................................................................. 21

2.1. Overview........................................................................................... 22
2.2. Packaging.......................................................................................... 24
2.3. Transportation.................................................................................... 25
2.4. Grading and Standardization............................................................. 36
2.5. Storage and Warehousing.................................................................. 40
2.6. Processing......................................................................................... 49
2.7. Buying and Selling............................................................................. 54
2.8. Market Information............................................................................ 63
2.9. Financing........................................................................................... 66

Chapter 3 Agricultural Value Chain and Actors........................................................ 69

3.1. Overview........................................................................................... 70
3.2. Need for Agricultural Value Chains (AVCS)........................................ 72
 3.3. Conditions for Success of AVCS......................................................... 74
3.4. Factors to Consider When Stating an AVC.......................................... 77
3.5. Farmer Groups and Value Chains....................................................... 78
3.6. Role of Media in Value Chains........................................................... 80
3.7. AVCS Upgrading................................................................................ 81
3.8. Gender and AVCS.............................................................................. 83
3.9. Characterizing of the AVCS................................................................ 83
3.10. Actors of AVC.................................................................................. 91

Chapter 4 Agricultural Product Prices.................................................................... 101

4.1. Overview......................................................................................... 102
4.2. Agricultural Prices Characteristics.................................................... 102
4.3. Role of Prices................................................................................... 104
4.4. Approaches to Agricultural Price Determination.............................. 105
4.5. Pricing Objectives........................................................................... 127
4.6. Ways Markets Arrive at Prices (Price Discovery)............................... 133
4.7. Government Intervention in Agricultural Price................................. 138

Chapter 5 Agricultural Cooperatives...................................................................... 143

5.1. Overview......................................................................................... 144
5.2. Origins and History......................................................................... 145
5.3. Types of Cooperatives...................................................................... 148
5.4. Underlying Principles of Cooperation.............................................. 153
5.5. Common Cooperative Functions...................................................... 155
5.6. Economic Concepts that May Encourage
The Formation of Cooperatives...................................................... 158
5.7. Limitations in Cooperatives.............................................................. 163
5.8. Cooperatives Equity and Debt Considerations.................................. 166
5.9. Legal Organization of Cooperatives................................................. 171
5.10. Cooperative Management Characteristics...................................... 173
5.11. Cooperative Influences on Public Policy........................................ 180
5.12. Relationships and Linkages Between Cooperatives Types............... 181
5.13. Sources for Additional Information on Cooperatives...................... 183
5.14. Agricultural Marketing Cooperatives.............................................. 185

viii
Chapter 6 Agricultural Trade.................................................................................. 191
6.1. Overview......................................................................................... 192
6.2. Type of Trade................................................................................... 193
6.3. Structure and Trends in Agricultural Trade........................................ 205
6.4. Agricultural Policy Objectives and Instruments................................ 206
6.5. Agriculture Commodity Trade Trends............................................... 215

Bibliography........................................................................................... 267

Index...................................................................................................... 271

ix
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Agriculture product characters making agricultural marketing unique.

Figure 2: Modes of transport.
Figure 3: Generic value chain (Source: Porter, 1980
Figure 4: Sample agricultural value chain (Source: Cuddeford, 2014)
Figure 5: The agriculture and food value chain (Source: KPMG International
Cooperative, 2013)
Figure 6: Change in quantity supplied and change in supply. Source: pcsb.instructure.
com.
Figure 7: Types of trade. Source: Google Images
LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Thomsen Market Function Classification

Table 2.2: Kohls and Uhl Classification of Market Functions
Table 2.3: Huegy and Mitchell Classification of Market Functions
Table 2.4: Agencies for Grade Standards
Table 3.1: Types of Agricultural Value Chains
Table 3.2: Upgrading Strategy for AVCs
Table 3.3: Causes, Effects, and Potential Future Developments in the Area of Scrutiny
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ACB Agricultural Credit Bank

ACCO Agricultural Cooperative Council of Oregon
ACP African, Caribbean, and Pacific
AGMARK agricultural produce (grading and marking)
AVC agricultural value chains
BEC business and employment cooperative
BOT balance of trade
CAP common agricultural policy
CCC Commodity Credit Corporation
CCIC Central Cottage Industries Corporation
CIF cost insurance freight
COGS cost of goods sold
COR certificate of review
CSA community-supported agriculture
CWC Central Warehousing Corporation
DMI Directorate of Marketing and Inspection
EAGGF European agricultural guarantee and guidance fund
EOU export-oriented units
EPZ export processing zones
ETC export trading companies
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization
FAQ fair average quality
FBO farmer-based organizations
FCS farm credit system
FDI foreign direct investment
FIFO first-in-first-out
FOB free on board
FPOs farmer producer organizations
FRC organized food retail chains
G&T generating and transmission
GDP gross domestic product
GHGs greenhouse gases
GNP gross national product
GPSs global positioning systems
GVCs global value chains
HHEC Handicrafts and Handloom Export Corporation
ICA International Co-Operative Alliance
ICTs information and communications technology
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ISA International Sugar Agreement
ISO International Organization for Standardization
IT information technology
ITC International Trade Center
LDC least developed countries
LLCs limited liability companies
LOP letter of permission
MACs marketing agencies-in-common
MCAs monetary compensatory amounts
MR marginal revenue
MRLs maximum residue limits
NABARD National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
NCBA National Cooperative Business Association
NCFC National Council of Farmer Cooperatives
NGCs new generation cooperatives
NGOs Non-Governmental Organization
OECD Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development
OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
ORS Oregon revised statutes
PFA pest free areas
R&D research and development
RAS rural advisory services
ROI return on investment
RoO rules of origin
SBUs strategic business units
SCIC Société Coopérative D’intérêt Collectif
SHG self-help group
SMEs small and medium-sized enterprises
SPS sanitary and phytosanitary
SWCs State Warehousing Corporation
TBT technical barriers to trade
TNCs transnational corporations
UK United Kingdom
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNEP United Nations Environment Program
UNFSS United Nations Forum on Sustainability Standards
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization
USA United States of America
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
USITC United States International Trade Commission
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
VA value addition
WTO World Trade Organization

xvii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The book is the product of great effort and time spent. The completion of this book could
not have been possible without the participation and assistance of so many people whose
names may not all be enumerated. Their contributions are sincerely appreciated and
gratefully acknowledged. However, I would like to express our deep appreciation and
indebtedness, particularly to the following: Arcler Education, Inc. and Charles Kuria,
for their endless support, kindness, and understanding spirit during this undertaking. To
all relatives, friends, and others who, in one way or another, shared their support, either
morally, financially, or physically, I would like to thank you personally.
PREFACE

The need for agriculture to fulfill food need is ever increasing due to population. With
more population being in the urban areas, the need to move quality and sufficient food
to the urban areas is of great importance. To ensure quality of agriculture products
Value Addition (VA) is fundamental for the handling and transportation of processed
and semi-processed products. To ensure sufficient quantity, farmers need to add inputs
in order to meet the quantity demand for the rural and urban markets. Therefore,
agricultural markets review involves the products, market functions and players. All
these components help in transforming agricultural products in terms of time form
and or location. One of the best ways to understand agricultural market is through a
value chain (VC). A VC enables one to understand agricultural market in terms of how
manufacturing, purchasing, and selling works. The VC also helps in understanding the
key players and their functions in the chain such as producers, consumers of goods
and services, processors, retailers, financial providers, and so on. A common VC has
producers at on end and consumers at the other end, with variation of other players
depending on a VC.
Another factor in and agricultural value chain is the determination of prices of products.
Given the fact that the agricultural sector in most countries is declining, agricultural
product price determination is very crucial to the economy of most countries and
therefore it remains to be highly political issue. This is because of its great influence
on consumer welfare and foreign earning in most countries. The price of different
agricultural products in different countries can be influenced by several factors, such
as cost, demand, competition, value, or a combination of these. Given the behavior of
different players and politics of the day, price determination is somewhat an art. To
avoid some bad habits among players that disadvantage other groups some players may
decide to get together to form a cooperation.
Cooperatives have been known to quite productive and resilient compared to other
business models among farmers. One of the biggest advantages of cooperatives is the
ability to increase farmers bargaining power in the face of other big players such as
agribusinesses and food factories. Cooperatives also help to reduce the length of a VC
which has been shown to increase farmers margin and at the same time help in delivery
of quality products. Cooperative also provide additional function to members such as
credit facilitation, transportation, marketing and timely input acquisition. One of the
major downsides of cooperatives is limited investment/capital compared to regular
business models that give investors some operational control.
This book, therefore, looks at the different aspects of agricultural markets under
different factors to help the audience understand this kind of market. The book also
looks at the behavior of players under different conditions that determine different
approaches adopted by market at a particular moment. The books also look at the upside
and downside of different approaches in agricultural markets.

xxii
 CHAPTER 1
AGRICULTURAL MARKETING

CONTENTS
1.1. Overview............................................................................................. 2
1.2. Concept and Definitions of Market...................................................... 2
1.3. Components of a Market...................................................................... 3
1.4. Dimensions of a Market....................................................................... 3
1.5. Market Structure.................................................................................. 4
1.6. Agricultural Marketing Concept and Definition.................................... 7
1.7. Markets Classification........................................................................ 15
2 Agriculture Trade and Marketing

1.1. OVERVIEW
Agriculture provides for humanity’s basic needs by creating food. Farmers
used to produce food commodities largely for self-consumption or for
exchange (cash or kind) with others in the same village or adjacent regions
about a century ago. They were mostly self-sufficient. However, the production
environment has shifted from self-sufficiency to commercialization. High
yielding varieties, fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides, and agricultural
mechanization have all contributed to a significant increase in farm
production and, as a result, a greater marketable and marketed surplus.
Improved production is accompanied by rising urbanization, money,
changing consumer lifestyles and food habits, and stronger ties to the
international market. Consumers are no longer restricted to rural areas where
food is grown. Furthermore, rising demand for processed or semi-processed
foods necessitates value addition (VA) in agricultural raw materials. These
advancements necessitate the migration of value-added food commodities
from producers to consumers. Agricultural marketing connects farmers and
consumers through a number of actions, making it an important part of the
economy. Agricultural marketing encompasses more than just the ultimate
agricultural product. It also concentrates agricultural inputs (factors) supply
to farmers.

1.2. CONCEPT AND DEFINITIONS OF MARKET

The word “market” comes from the Latin word “marcatus,” which means
“merchant,” “trade,” or “a location where business is done.” The term
“market” has a wide range of meanings.
• A location or structure where goods are bought and sold, such as
a supermarket;
• Wheat and cotton markets are examples of prospective buyers
and sellers of a product.
• Some of the definitions of market are given as follows:
• The domain in which price-determining forces work is known as
a market;
• A market is an area where the forces of supply and demand
converge to form a single price;
• The term “market” refers not to a specific location where
commodities are purchased and sold, but to any region where
buyers and sellers interact in such a free and open manner that
 Agricultural Marketing 3

the prices of similar goods tend to equalize readily and fast;

• A market is a social entity that conducts activities and offers
facilities for buyers and sellers to exchange goods;
• In economic terms, the term market refers to a commodity or
commodities, as well as buyers and sellers who are free to trade
with one another.

1.3. COMPONENTS OF A MARKET

Certain requirements must be met for a market to exist. These requirements
should be both sufficient and essential. They might also be referred to as
market components:
• The presence of a good or commodity as a medium of exchange
(physical existence is, however, not necessary);
• The existence of buyers and sellers;
• Business relationship or intercourse between buyers and sellers;
and
• Demarcation of area such as place, region, country, or the whole
world. The existence of perfect competition or a uniform price is
not necessary.

1.4. DIMENSIONS OF A MARKET

There are various dimensions of any specified market. These dimensions
are:
• Location;
• Area or coverage;
• Time span;
• Volume of transactions;
• Nature of transactions;
• Number of commodities;
• Degree of competition;
• Nature of commodities;
• Stage of marketing;
• Extent of public intervention;
4 Agriculture Trade and Marketing

• Type of population served;

• Accrual of marketing margins.

1.5. MARKET STRUCTURE

The term structure refers to something that has been evolved for the purpose
of fulfilling a function and has organization and dimension – shape, size,
and design. The nature of the current structure limits the performance of
functions, and a function affects the structure. The size and design of the
market are referred to as market structure.
• The organizational qualities of a market that determine the nature
of competition and price, as well as the conduct of business
enterprises, are referred to as market structure.
• The elements of the market that influence trader behavior and
performance are referred to as market structure.
• The formal organization of a marketing institution’s functional
activity is known as market structure.
The ability to recognize flaws in a market’s performance requires an
insight and knowledge of the market structure.

1.5.1. Components of Market Structure

The following are the components of the market structure, which together
influence the market’s conduct and performance:
• Concentration of Market Power: Market power concentration
is a key factor in influencing the nature of competition and, as a
result, market behavior and performance. The number and size of
enterprises in the market are used to determine this. The degree
of concentration indicates how much control a single corporation
or a group of firms has over the buying and selling of produce.
A high degree of market concentration prevents products from
moving between buyers and sellers at fair and competitive
pricing, resulting in an oligopoly or oligopsony.
• Degree of Product Differentiation: The market structure is
influenced by whether or not the products are homogeneous.
If products are homogeneous, market price differences will be
limited. Firms have a tendency to charge varied prices for their
 Agricultural Marketing 5

items when their products are heterogeneous. Everyone strives to

show that his product is better than the competition’s.
• Conditions for Entry of Firms in the Market: Another aspect
of the market structure is any restrictions on new enterprises
entering the market. Because of their market dominance, a few
large corporations can refuse to allow new enterprises to enter
the market or make their entry difficult. Government limits on
business entry are also possible.
• Flow of Market Information: A well-organized market
intelligence information system allows all buyers and sellers
to freely engage in order to reach pricing agreements and close
deals.
• Degree of Integration: The behavior of an integrated market
will differ from that of a market with no integration between
enterprises or between their activities.
Firms plan their strategy in terms of how they will determine prices,
increase sales, collaborate with competitors, and use predatory tactics
against competitors or potential entrants. The conduct of enterprises in
developing strategies for their selling and buying activities is governed by
market structural factors.

1.5.2. Dynamics of Market Structure: Conduct

and Performance
Market structure influences market behavior and performance. The phrase
“market conduct” refers to a company’s patterns of behavior, particularly
in terms of price and how it adapts and adjusts to the market in which it
operates. Market behavior entails the following:
• Market sharing and price setting policies;
• Policies aimed at coercing rivals; and
• Policies towards setting the quality of products.
The phrase “market performance” refers to the economic outcomes
of the industry when each company pursues its own course of action. The
conditions for acceptable market performance must be determined by society.
The following are some of the criteria for evaluating market performance
and market structure efficiency:
• Resource efficiency, including the real cost of executing certain
operations.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
a list of names, and in no way illustrate the present subject. It will be
nothing relevant to our purpose, to know how many Ericas were enumerated
by Petiver, Plukenet, Hermann, Oldenland, Ray, &c. &c.; as, before
Linnæus had, by his mode of classification, determined the precise limits of
the Genus, the confusion that then pervaded all the elder Botanists is such,
that any comment from them, would rather perplex, than elucidate.
Wherefore, beginning with the Systema Naturæ of Linnæus, Vol. II. of
1767, including the European species, he there enumerates but 42; and
Dahlgren, in 1770, edited a dissertation, under his eye, on the genus,
containing a catalogue of 58 names from Bergius, the Mantissa, &c.
Thunberg returning from Africa in 1772, added 13 to the number; all of
which were inserted in the Supplementum Plantarum of 1781. From this last
work, and some other sources, Murray has, in his Syst. Veg. of 1784, made
up a Catalogue of 74 names. The last to be noticed, till the appearance of the
Hort. Kew. is, the Dissertatio de Erica; published under the inspection of
Thunberg, in 1785, with a list and descriptions of 91 species. In the year
1789, a Catalogue of the plants cultivated in the Royal Gardens at Kew, was
published by Mr. Aiton; where, 41 Heaths are to be found in the 2d Vol.;
and four in the addenda at the end of the 3d, making in all 45. Martyn in his
Edition of Miller’s Dictionary, fasciculus of 1795, article Erica, enumerates
but 84. Willdenow, collating from all the foregoing, and assisted by his
friend Wendland, of the Royal Gardens at Herenhausen, Hanover; has
mounted the list to 137, in his Species Plantarum, now publishing in
continuation at Berlin. This, however, as will appear by the catalogue, falls
far short of the number, we have now, in actual cultivation in Britain. From
the great number of beautiful specimens lately received by G. Hibbert, Esq.
many of which were accompanied by seeds, now living plants, contributing
to the present richness of the extensive and superb Collection of that
Gentleman at Clapham, and brought from the Cape of Good Hope by Mr.
Niven, who was employed for the only purpose, of amassing the vegetable
treasures of that country, to enrich the Clapham gardens, and herbarium; as
well as, from the numberless importations, by different hands, of seeds,
since we have been in possession of that territory; a fair conjecture may be
made, that the Genus is not bounded, by double the number of species with
which we are at present acquainted. Few, if any, of the species but have been
increased by cuttings; which has occasioned the total disuse of propagation
by layers; wherefore, the only methods we shall treat of, is this, and from
the seed. The process for the making, and planting of the cuttings, is as
follows. Let a middle sized pot be prepared by filling it, within three inches
of the margin, with small broken potsherds, or some such matter; to the end
that, a constant and ready drain may be gained for the water, which it will be
necessary to give the cuttings, at any time the earth, &c. shall appear dry on
the surface. Then consulting the list given with Volume 1st, take a sufficient
quantity of sandy loam, sandy peat, or common sand, or a mixture of any of
them finely sifted, to fill the pot up to the margin, and press it lightly with
the hand; thus prepared it is fit to receive the cuttings. These must be taken
about an inch long, or shorter, according to the nature and season of the
plants making their fresh branches, from the smallest and tenderest shoots;
cutting off the leaves from two-thirds of their length close to the shoot; for
which a pair of small scissars is the most convenient. When a few are thus
made ready, for not many should be cut at a time, lest they wither before
they can be planted, with a small piece of wood, tapered to a point, dibble
them into the pot; fixing the lower end of the cutting as firm as possible.
When the pot has been thus filled with them, at about half an inch distance
each way, leaving a clear half inch from the inner edge; cover them with a
small bell-glass, procured as near as possible to fit within its inner rim, then
place it under a large hand-glass, or frame, where it must be kept from the
stronger rays of the sun, until the cuttings are rooted. Some time after this
has taken place, which will be known by their growth, the small bell-glass
must be first removed; about a week after, the pot may be taken from under
the large hand-glass, and the plants exposed to the open air, in the shade of a
north wall, or in winter put in the shady part of the green-house, to protect
them from the sun and wind, till they are removed into separate pots. The
seeds of some species, which ripen in this country, as well as those which
may be procured from the Cape, may be sown about the middle of March, in
pots, prepared in the same way as directed for cuttings; with this exception,
that the earth be invariably sandy peat finely sifted; the seeds should be
covered so slightly, that they may be but just concealed; when covered, they
must be watered with a watering-pot whose rose, or head should admit of a
passage for the water, only as a light dew; lest the seeds be all thrown
together, or washed over the side of the pot. Both plants from cuttings, and
seedlings, may be removed with greater safety whilst quite young, than after
they have acquired a considerable size. The smallest pots that can be
procured, are the best for the first transplanting; in which they should
remain, till the pots are quite filled with roots. The earth in which all Heaths
thrive most is a soft, loose, sandy peat. That nothing may be wanting, which
we can contribute, to the illustration of the Genus; a list is subjoined,
communicated by Messrs. Lee and Kennedy, of all those species cultivated
by them at their nursery, Hammersmith; unquestionably, the most extensive
collection, of living plants, of every denomination, now in Europe.
 ERICA coccinea.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris muticis, sub-inclusis, stylus exsertus; flores in sumitate

ramorem, verticillati, clavati, curvati, coccinei; foliola calycis acuta; foliis
senis, incurvis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis erectus, cinereo-fuscus, pedalis; rami verticillati, erecto-patentes,

raro ramulosi.
Folia sena, incurvata, acuta, glabra, sub-glauca; petiolis adpressis.
Flores in summite ramorum verticillati, conserti, brevissime
pedunculati, bracteæ calyciformes.
Calyx. Perianthium tetraphyllum, foliolis subulatis, marginibus
membranaceis, acutis, carinatis.
Corolla curvata, elevata, pubescens, sanguinea; oris laciniis erectis.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria, longitudine tubi. Antheræ muticæ,
sub-inclusæ.
Pistillum. Germen turbinatum, sulcatum. Stylus filiformis, exsertus.
Stigma tetragonum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a mensi Augusti, in Decembrem.

REFERENTIA.

1. Calyx, et Corolla.
2. Calyx lente auctus.
3. Stamina, et Pistillum.
4. Stamina a Pistillo diducta, anthera una lente aucta.
 5. Stylus, et Stigma, lente aucta.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with beardless tips, just within the blossom, shaft without; the
flowers grow at the end of branches in whorls, club-shaped, curved, and of a
scarlet colour; the leaves of the cup are sharp-pointed; the leaves grow by
sixes, and are turned inwards.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem upright, of a brownish ash-colour, growing a foot high; branches

grow in whorls, upright, and spreading, seldom branching.
Leaves grow by sixes, turned inwards, sharp-pointed, smooth, and of a
bluish green; the leaf-stems pressed to the branches.
Flowers grow in close whorls at the top of the branches; the foot-stalks
very short, the floral leaves appearing like a second cup.
Empalement. Cup four-leaved, which are awl-shaped, skinny at the
edges, sharp-pointed, and keel-shaped.
Blossom curved, club-shaped, downy, and of a blood colour; the
segments of the mouth are upright.
Chives. Eight hair-like threads, the length of the tube. Tips beardless, and
just within the blossom.
Pointal. Seed-bud turban-shaped, and furrowed. Shaft thread-shaped,
and without the blossom. Summit four-cornered.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from August, till December.

REFERENCE.

1. The Empalement, and Blossom.

2. The Empalement magnified.
3. The Chives, and Pointal.
4. The Chives detached from the Pointal, one tip magnified.
5. The Shaft, and its Summit, magnified.
 ERICA conspicua.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris basi bicornibus, exsertis; corollis clavatis,

sesquipollicaribus, luteis; foliis quaternis, glabris, obtusis, crassis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis fruticosus, erectus, tripedalis, ramosus; ramulis verticillatis,

brevibus.
Folia quaterna, obtusa, linearia, crassa; petiolis brevissimis, adpressis.
Flores in apicibus ramulorum terminales, nutantes, pedunculis brevibus,
bracteis tribus spathulatis.
Calyx. Perianthium tetraphyllum; foliolis obtusis, glabris, sub-ovatis.
Corolla clavata, sesquipollicaris, lutea, basi attenuata; oris laciniis
magnis, revolutis.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria, receptaculo inserta; antheris bifidis,
basi bicornibus, exsertis.
Pistillum. Germen cylindricum, sulcatum. Stylus filiformis. Stigma
tetragonum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a mense Junii in Augustum.

REFERENTIA.

1. Calyx et Corolla.
2. Calyx lente auctus.
3. Stamina et Pistillum.
4. Stamina a Pistillo diducta, antherâ unâ lente auctâ.
5. Stylus et Stigma lente aucta.
 SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with tips two-horned at their base, and without the blossom: the
blossoms are club-shaped, an inch and a half long, yellow: the leaves grow
by fours, are smooth, blunt, and thick.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem shrubby, upright, grows three feet high, and branching: the smaller
branches are short, and grow in whorls.
Leaves grow by fours, are blunt, linear, thick, and have short foot-stalks
pressed to the branches.
Flowers are terminal at the summit of the smaller branches, waving,
having short foot-stalks, with three spathula-shaped floral leaves.
Empalement. Cup four-leaved: leaves blunt, smooth, and nearly egg-
shaped.
Blossom club-shaped, an inch and a half long, yellow, and tapering to
the base: the segments of the mouth are large, and rolled back.
Chives. Eight hair-like threads, fixed to the receptacle: the tips are cleft,
two-horned at their base, and without the blossom.
Pointal. Seed-vessel cylinder-shaped, and furrowed. Shaft thread-
shaped. Summit four-cornered.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from June till August.

REFERENCE.

1. The Empalement and Blossom.

2. The Empalement magnified.
3. The Chives and Pointal.
4. The Chives detached from the Pointal, one tip magnified.
5. The Shaft and its Summit magnified.
 ERICA coronata.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris aristatis, inclusis; corollis cylindrico-clavatis,

speciosissimis; foliis octonis seu spiraliter sparsis, truncatis, arcuatis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis fruticosus, erectus, bipedalis, basi simplicissimus, rami pauci,

simplices, longi.
Folia octona, linearia, obtusa, supra scabra, subtus sulcata, attenuata in
petiolos longos capillares.
Flores plures, subterminales, simpliciter verticillati, conserti, viscosi;
pedunculi longi recurvati, bracteis tribus instructi.
Calyx. Perianthium tetraphyllum, foliolis lanceolatis, viscosis, adpressis.
Corolla cylindrico-clavata, pollicaria, apice recurvata, ima parte
profunde carnea, apice viridie, ore arctata, laciniis rectis.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria; receptaculo inserta. Antheræ
aristatæ, inclusæ.
Pistillum. Germen clavatum, sulcatum. Stylus filiformis, subexsertus.
Stigma peltatum, concavum, viride.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a Februarii, in Aprilem.

REFERENTIA.

1. Folium unum, cum petiolo.

2. Calyx, et Corolla.
3. Calyx, lente auctus.
4. Stamina, et Pistillum.
 5. Stamina a Pistillo diducta, anthera una lente aucta.
6. Stylus, et Stigma lente aucta.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with bearded tips, within the blossoms, which are cylindrically club-
shaped and very shewy; the leaves grow by eights or spirally scattered,
appear cut off at the ends and arched.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem shrubby, erect, grows two feet high, simple at the base, with but
few branches, which are simple, and long.
Leaves grow by eights, are linear, blunt, rough on their upper, and
furrowed on their under surface, tapering into long hair-like foot-stalks.
The Flowers are numerous, nearly terminating the branches, in simple
whorls, crowded together, and clammy; the foot-stalks are long, bent
backward, with three floral leaves.
Empalement. Cup four-leaved, leaflets lance-shaped, clammy, and
pressed to the blossom.
Blossom cylindrically club-shaped, an inch long, bent back at the point,
the lower part of a strong flesh colour, the end green, compressed at the
mouth, whose segments are straight.
Chives. Eight hair-like threads fixed into the receptacle. Tips bearded,
and within the blossom.
Pointal. Seed-vessel club-shaped, and furrowed. Shaft thread-shaped,
almost without the blossom. Summit shield-shaped, concave, and green.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from February, till April.

REFERENCE.

1. A Leaf, with its foot-stalk.

2. The Empalement, and Blossom.
3. The Empalement, magnified.
4. The Chives, and Pointal.
5. The Chives detached from the Pointal; one tip magnified.
6. The Shaft, and its Summit magnified.
 ERICA costata.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris muticis, inclusis; stylo exserto; corollis sub-cylindraceis,

incarnatis, costatis; foliis pubescentibus, ternis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis fruticosus, bipedalis, erectus ramosus; ramuli frequentissimi.

Folia caulina, terna, recta, linearia, obtusa, pubescentia; folia ramea,
erectiora, ovata, sub-serrata, acuminata; petiolis adpressis.
Flores plures, tres, quatuorve ramuli terminates; pedunculi brevissimi.
Calyx. Perianthium duplex; interius, tetraphyllum, foliolis sub-ovatis,
acuminatis, serratis, coloratis, apice sulcatis, adpressis; exterius triphyllum,
priori brevioribus, virescentibus.
Corolla sub-cylindracea, apice paulula curvata, incarnata, costata; oris
laciniis erectis, albidis, obtusis.
Stamina. Filamenta octo, ima parte spathulata, receptaculo inserta.
Antheræ inclusæ, muticæ.
Pistillum. Germen sub-cylindricum, sulcatum. Stylus attenuatus,
exsertus, apice curvatus. Stigma tetragonum virescens.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a Februarii, in Junium.

REFERENTIA.

1. Folium unum, lente auctum.

2. Calyx, et Corolla.
3. Calyx, lente auctus.
4. Stamina, et Pistillum.
 5. Stamen unum, lente auctum.
6. Stylus, et Stigma, lente aucta.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with beardless tips, within the blossom; pointal without; blossoms
nearly cylindrical, flesh-coloured, and ribbed; leaves downy, growing by
threes.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem shrubby, grows two feet high, upright, and branching; the smaller
branches are numerous.
The Leaves of the stem grow by threes, straight out, linear, blunt, and
downy; those on the smaller branches, more upright, egg-shaped, a little
sawed at the edges, and sharp pointed; the foot-stalks pressed to the
branches.
The Flowers are numerous, growing by threes, or fours, at the end of
the smaller branches; foot-stalks very short.
Empalement. Cup double; the inner four-leaved; leaves almost egg-
shaped, pointed, sawed, coloured, furrowed at the point, and pressed to the
blossom; the outer three-leaved, shorter than the former, and greenish.
Blossom nearly cylindrical, curved a little at the end, of a flesh colour,
and ribbed; the segments of the mouth are upright, white and blunt.
Chives. Eight threads, spathula-shaped at the base, and fixed into the
receptacle. Tips within the blossom, and beardless.
Pointal. Seed-vessel almost cylinder-shaped, and furrowed. Shaft
tapered, without the blossom, and curved at the end. Summit four-cornered,
and green.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from February, till June.

REFERENCE.
1. A Leaf, magnified.
2. The Empalement, and Blossom.
3. The Empalement, magnified.
4. The Chives, and Pointal.
5. One Chive, magnified.
6. The Shaft, and its Summit, magnified.
 ERICA cruenta.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris aristatis, sub-inclusis, foliis quaternis, corollis sub-ternis,

glabris, clavato-cylindricis, pollicaribus; saturate sanguineis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis fruticosus, bipedalis, erectus; rami erecti, ramulosi; ramulis

brevissimis, frequentissimis.
Folia quaterna, linearia, glabra, nitida, saturate viridia, petiolis
brevissimis, adpressis.
Flores in ramulis terminales, prope caulis summitatem, racemum quali
formantes longum; pedunculi longi, bracteis tribus ad basin instructi.
Calyx. Perianthium tetraphyllum, foliolis lanceolatis, serratis, adpressis.
Corolla clavato-cylindrica, glabra, cruenta, pollicaris; oris laciniis
rectis, obtusis.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria, receptaculo inserta; antheræ aristatæ,
sub-inclusæ.
Pistillum. Germen sub-ovatum, sulcatum, pubescens; stylus exsertus;
stigma tetragonum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a mensi Augusti, in Decembrem.

REFERENTIA.

1. Calyx, et Corolla.
2. Calyx, lente auctus.
3. Stamina, et Pistillum.
4. Stamina a Pistillo diducta; anthera una lente aucta.