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Computer Systems
Engineering Management
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND ELECTRONICS

A Series of Reference Books and Textbooks

Editors
Marlin O. Thurston William Middendorf
Department of Electrical Department of Electrical
Engineering and Computer Engineering
The Ohio State University University of Cincinnati
Columbus, Ohio Cincinnati, Ohio

1. Rational Fault Analysis, edited by Richard Saeks and S. R. Liberty

2. Nonparametric Methods in Communications, edited by P. Papantoni-
Kazakos and Dimitri Kazakos
3. Interactive Pattern Recognition, Yi-tzuu Chien
4. Solid-State Electronics, Lawrence E. Murr
5. Electronic, Magnetic, and Thermal Properties of Solid Materials,
Klaus Schrdder
6. Magnetic-Bubble Memory Technology, Hsu Chang
7. Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
8. Electromagnetics: Classical and Modern Theory and Applications, Samuel
Seely and Alexander D. Poularikas
9. One-Dimensional Digital Signal Processing, Chi-Tsong Chen
10. Interconnected Dynamical Systems, Raymond A. DeCarlo and Richard
Saeks
11. Modern Digital Control Systems,Raymond G. Jacquot
12. Hybrid Circuit Design and Manufacture, Roydn D. Jones
13. Magnetic Core Selection for Transformers and Inductors: A User's Guide
to Practice and Specification, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
14. Static and Rotating Electromagnetic Devices, Richard H. Engelmann
15. Energy-Efficient Electric Motors: Selection and Application, John C
Andreas
16. Electromagnetic Compossibility,/fez«zAf. Schlicke
17. Electronics: Models, Analysis, and Systems, James G. Gottling
18. Digital Filter Design Handbook, FredJ. Taylor
19. Multivariable Control: An Introduction,/*. K. Sinha
20. Flexible Circuits: Design and Applications, Steve Gurley, with contribu-
tions by Carl A. Edstrom, Jr., Ray D. Greenway, and William P. Kelly
21. Circuit Interruption: Theory and Techniques, ThomasE. Browne, Jr.
22. Switch Mode Power Conversion: Basic Theory and Design,^. Kit Sum
23. Pattern Recognition: Applications to Large Data-Set Problems, Sing-Tze
Bow
24. Custom-Specific Integrated Circuits: Design and Fabrication,
Stanley L Hurst
25. Digital Circuits: Logic and Design, Ronald C Emery
26. Large-Scale Control Systems: Theories and Techniques, Magdi S.
Mahmoud, MohamedF. Hassan, andMohamed G. Darwish
27. Microprocessor Software Project Management, Eli T. Fathi and Cedric
K W. Armstrong (Sponsored by Ontario Centre for Microelectronics)
28. Low Frequency Electromagnetic Design .Michael P. Perry
29. Multidimensional Systems: Techniques and Applications,
edited by Spyros G. Tzafestas
30. AC Motors for High-Performance Applications: Analysis and Control,
Sakae Yamamura
31. Ceramic Materials for Electronics: Processing, Properties, and Applications,
edited by Relva C. Buchanan
32. Microcomputer Bus Structures and Bus Interface Design, Arthur L.
Dexter
33. End User's Guide to Innovative Flexible Circuit Packaging,/^ /. Miniet
34. Reliability Engineering for Electronic Design, Norman B. Fuqua
35. Design Fundamentals for Low-Voltage Distribution and Control, Frank W.
Kussy and Jack L. Warren
36. Encapsulation of Electronic Devices and Components, Edward R.
Salmon
37. Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications,/ Lewis Blackburn
38. Testing Active and Passive Electronic Components, Richard F. Powell
39. Adaptive Control Systems: Techniques and Applications, K V. Chalam
40. Computer-Aided Analysis of Power Electronic Systems, Venkatachari
Rajagopalan
41. Integrated Circuit Quality and Reliability, Eugene R. Hnatek
42. Systolic Signal Processing Systems, edited by Earl Swartzlander
43. Adaptive Digital Filters and Signal Analysis, Maurice G. Bettanger
44. Electronic Ceramics: Properties, Configuration, and Applications, edited
by LionelM. Levinson
45. Computer Systems Engineering Management,Robert S. Alford
 Additional Volumes in Preparation

Systems Modeling and Computer Simulation, edited by Nairn A. Kheir

Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook, Second Edition, Revised and
Expanded, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
Signal Processing Handbook, edited by C H.Chen

Electrical Engineering-Electronics Software

1. Transformer and Inductor Design Software for the IBM PC,

Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
2. Transformer and Inductor Design Software for the Macintosh,
Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
3. Digital Filter Design Software for the IBM PC,
Fred J. Taylor and Thanos Stouraitis
Computer Systems
Engineering Management

Robert S. Alford
BBN Communications Corporation
Cambridge, Massachusetts

Boca Raton London New York

Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York and Basel

CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
First published 1988 by CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

Reissued 2018 by CRC Press

© 1988 by CRC Press, Inc.

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have
been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for
the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the
copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to
publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and
let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

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utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Alford, Robert S.

Computer systems engineering management.

(Electrical engineering and electronics ; 45)
Includes index.
1. Computer engineering—Management. 2. Systems
engineering—Management. I. Title. II. Series.
TK7885.A64 1988 004 87-24312
ISBN 0-8247-7643-9

A Library of Congress record exists under LC control number: 87024312

Publisher’s Note
The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some imperfections
in the original copies may be apparent.

Disclaimer
The publisher has made every effort to trace copyright holders and welcomes correspondence from those they
have been unable to contact.

ISBN 13: 978-1-315-89172-9 (hbk)

ISBN 13: 978-1-351-07082-9 (ebk)

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the
CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com
For Poppy
Preface

This is a book about success in computer systems engineering. It

is organized as a reference book, to be read once and then used as
a reference again and again. It describes the techniques and pro-
cedures used in numerous successful projects and warns of pitfalls
commonly encountered by the unwary. It describes organizations
and how to build a team that can get the job done. It addresses
the steps involved in developing successful products and gives the
reader a set of tools with which to plan a project, organize a team,
develop specifications, design hardware and software, and take the
result to production. It addresses systems engineering, hardware
development, software development, documentation, testing, and
configuration control.
This book does not present a set of standards or a new tech-
nique for project management. It describes techniques used in many
shops and recommends variations on proven methods to suit the in-

V
vi Preface

dividual organization's requirements. It is a set of guidelines and

commonsense procedures that have proved their worth in the past.
It is expected that this book will find a place on the desks
of both engineers and managers. Some will adopt the procedures
and techniques described more rigidly than others. Some will use
it as a source from which to develop their own custom set of pro-
cedures. Others will simply use it as a reference and a general set
of guidelines.
The tools, techniques, and procedures described in this book
have all been proved to be of significant value in developing real
products for numerous applications. If what is here helps your or-
ganization run a little smoother or helps bring your next major
project in on time, it will have been worth the effort.
I would like to thank all the engineers who worked for me
over the last 15 years, and all my colleagues during that period, who
taught me so much of what is in this book. I would especially like
to thank Chuck Hevenor, who was for many years my mentor and
later my partner in my first great adventure as an entrepreneur, and
Larry Reeder, who believed in my dreams and has stood by me in
good times and bad. A special thanks to Rich Rutkowski, Howard
Plude, and David Cane, for all they taught me, for reviewing this
manuscript, and for always being willing to tell me I am wrong
when I am. I am honored to have had them as colleagues and
proud to call them my friends.

Roberts. Alford
Introduction

The rapid growth of the computer industry and the widespread ap-
plication of microprocessor technology have led to an explosion in
the number of engineering organizations that are involved in some
form of computer systems engineering. From the small shop de-
veloping a simple microprocessor-based controller to the large teams
of engineers working on space programs, literally hundreds of thou-
sands of engineers are engaged today in expanding the application
of this technology and changing the world in which we live.
The computer systems engineering world is not all roses,
however. For every great success there are many more failures,
and—perhaps worse—there are many, many more projects that
finish way behind schedule and/or over budget, and with less than
expected results. While there is risk involved in any high technology
venture that pushes the state of the art, there are much more funda-
mental reasons for the overwhelming successes and the much more
common failures.
vii
viii Introduction

Everyone wants to be associated with the successful en-

deavor. No one likes slipping a schedule, or working long hours to
finish what should have been done last week. It is in everyone's
interest, from management on down, to be successful. It is not
magical or mystical that some achieve great success while others
fail. What the winners have that is usually lacking elsewhere is
direction, discipline, organization, and a team effort. The results
are high productivity and high quality products delivered on time
and in budget.
Engineering is not an art, it is a discipline. Computer sys-
tems engineering is no different in that respect than bridge build-
ing. One would never take a group of construction engineers to a
river bank, set the goal of reaching the other side, and say "go to
it." Yet some computer system projects seem to come close to that
approach. This book is a guide to the overall effort of computer sys-
tems "bridge building." It describes what to do before you reach
the river, how to build and organize the team, how to manage the
construction, and what to do when you finally reach the other side.
Its real objective is to help reduce the number of half-built bridges
in the world of computer systems.
There are common characteristics among the successful en-
gineering organizations. These groups have focus and direction.
The engineers involved understand their responsibilities and what
is expected of them. They are part of a well-directed team. They
tend to be very satisfied in their profession, fiercely proud of their
achievements, and very loyal to their team. Turnover rate is low in
such organizations, and productivity high. These organizations
can be found in large companies and small, and in all segments of
the industry.
Unfortunately these types of organizations are not the norm.
For every well-run, highly productive group, there are many more
Introduction ix

where chaos prevails and slipped schedules are a way of life. It is

not that the people in these groups don't work hard; they often
put in many long hours. Rather it is a case of not achieving the
goals as planned. This is often caused by a lack of focus, direction,
and control. In these organizations the first 90% of the project
seems to run on schedule, but the last 10% takes forever. Job
satisfaction tends to be low and turnover rates high.

USING THIS BOOK

If you are a newly appointed manager or an experienced manager

assuming responsibility for a new organization, you will find this
book a very useful reference. Likewise if you are an engineer put-
ting together your first major development plan or want a better
way to manage a project that you are responsible for, there are spe-
cific chapters which will be of particular interest to you. Finally,
if you are an engineer or an engineering manager simply looking
for ideas on better ways to do things, you will find a lot of straight-
forward techniques in the pages that follow, techniques that have
been used over and over by numerous people to successfully de-
velop computer system products.
Chapter 1 introduces concepts that are important to the
creation and continuance of a successful engineering organization.
Chapter 2 discusses the general subject of the modern en-
gineering environment. It describes organizations, methodologies,
tools, and quality assurance. It serves both as an introduction to
the material that follows and as a general set of guidelines for the
new manager establishing a new organization, or the manager of
an existing organization looking for ways to improve quality and
productivity.
x Introduction

Chapter 3 describes in detail how to plan a development ef-

fort. It should be especially useful to project managers and others
responsible for planning. It describes both the process and the de-
velopment plan itself. The methodology described in this chapter
can be used to develop plans for large or small projects effectively
and efficiently.
Chapters 4 through 8 describe the functional areas of sys-
tems engineering, hardware development, software development,
technical publications, and integration and test. These chapters
describe the responsibilities and operation of each of these areas
and the interaction between them.
Chapters 9 and 10 deal with the more global subjects of
technical reviews and configuration control. These subjects should
be of interest to everyone involved in the development effort, re-
gardless of their functional area.
This book may be used in many ways. It may be read
casually for general information, serve as a source book for people
developing procedures, used as a reference, or adopted as a set of
guidelines. It is intended to be useful in a broad range of applica-
tions. This is very much a how-to book, and should prove useful
as a reference even to those who have a well-defined methodology
within their organization.
Contents

Preface v
Introduction vii

1. Engineering and Development Overview 1

1.1 The Scope of Engineering and Development 5
1.2 Productivity, Quality, and Cost Control 7
1.3 Computer Systems 8
1.4 Engineering Organizational Overview 10
1.5 Engineering Methodologies 11
1.6 A Word About Standards 12
Further Reading 14

2. The Modern Engineering Environment 17

2.1 Management vs. Technical Skills 20
2.2 Responsibilities and Objectives 22

xi
xii Contents

2.3 Organizing to Suit Requirements 25

2.4 Establishing a Methodology 30
2.5 Tools: A Key to Success 40
2.6 Quality Assurance and Control 44
2.7 Summary 45
Further Reading 46

3. The Project Plan 47

3.1 The Importance of Good Planning 50
3.2 The Purpose of the Plan 52
3.3 The Planning Process 54
3.4 Scoping the Project 56
3.5 Work Breakdown Analysis 59
3.6 The Activity Analysis 63
3.7 Critical Path Analysis 66
3.8 Schedules 73
3.9 Identifying Resource Requirements 77
3.10 A Plan Outline 79
3.11 Summary 81
Further Reading 82

4. Systems Engineering 85
4.1 The Systems Engineer 88
4.2 Product Planning 89
4.3 Developing the System Architecture 95
4.4 Project Management 100
4.5 Build vs. Buy Decisions 100
4.6 Major Component Selection 102
4.7 Prototype Systems 105
4.8 System Integration and Test 107
4.9 Summary 109
Further Reading 109
Contents xiii

5. Hardware Development 111

5.1 Hardware Development Steps 114
5.2 Hardware Development Inputs 116
5.3 Starting a Task 118
5.4 External Design 119
5.5 Implementation Planning 128
5.6 Hardware Design 130
5.7 Unit Test 148
5.8 System Integration 150
5.9 System Test 151
5.10 Release Procedures 152
5.11 Hardware vs. Software vs. Systems 153
Further Reading 153

6. Software Development 155

6.1 Software Development Inputs 160
6.2 Starting a Task 162
6.3 External Design 163
6.4 Implementation Planning 174
6.5 Structural Design 176
6.6 Software Engineering for Small Projects 194
6.7 Module Development 198
6.8 System Integration 224
6.9 System Test 224
Further Reading 225

7. Technical Publications 227

7.1 Documentation Development Steps 230
7.2 Technical Publications Inputs 232
7.3 Documentation Planning 233
7.4 Documentation Development 240
7.5 Types of Documentation 245
xiv Contents

7.6 Document Review and Control 249

Further Reading 250

8. Integration and Test 251

8.1 Organizing for Quality 254
8.2 Configuration Control 262
8.3 The Integration and Test Methodology 263
8.4 Integration 263
8.5 System Testing 275
8.6 Alpha Testing 287
8.7 Beta Testing 288
8.8 Summary 290
Further Reading 291

9. Technical Reviews 293

9.1 Basic Principles 296
9.2 Planning Reviews 298
9.3 Team Technical Reviews 303
9.4 Peer Reviews 311
9.5 Project Status Reviews 316
9.6 Technical Presentations 322
9.7 Review Requirements 325
9.8 Summary 326
Further Reading 327

10. Configuration Control Procedures 329

10.1 Plans and Specifications 335
10.2 Prototypes 342
10.3 Drawings and Manufacturing Specifications 347
10.4 Software 359
Contents xv

10.5 Technical Publications 364

10.6 Summary 364
Further Reading 365

Index 367
1
Engineering and Development Overview

1.1 The Scope of Engineering and Development 5

1.2 Productivity, Quality, and Cost Control 7
1.3 Computer Systems 8
1.4 Engineering Organizational Overview 10
1.5 Engineering Methodologies 11
1.6 A Word About Standards 12
Further Reading 14

1
Throughout the history of engineering a principle seems to emerge:
Great engineering is simple engineering. Ideas which become too
cumbersome, inflexible, and problematic, tend to be replaced with
newer, conceptually cleaner ideas which, compared with the old,
are aesthetic in their simplicity.
James Martin

Thirty years ago or so, a new age was born, the age of the compu-
ter. It did not take long for this new creation of man to become an
important part of our daily lives, and with the advent of the micro-
processor in the mid 1970s, the computer rapidly spread to many
new applications. By the early 1980s, the computer had become
so commonplace that children began learning programming along
with their fundamental reading and writing skills, and the home
computer had started to become a reality.
3
4 Engineering and Development Overview

Along with this great new age came a whole new engineer-
ing field. By the late 1960s, electrical engineers with skills in the
computer and digital design area became very much in demand,
and the industry's appetite for software people became almost in-
satiable. Universities began to offer degree programs in computer
science, and a whole new set of professions came into being. The
race was on to create new products and services, all based on the
technology of the computer system. Microprocessors now control
everything from children's toys to locomotives, personal computers
are so commonplace that they seem natural in the office or the
home, and supercomputers of tomorrow are under development to
tackle problems whose solutions have eluded us for ages.
The age of the computer, and the extremely rapid growth
of the industry it fostered, have brought their own problems with
them. The pressure to get products to market (or win a contract,
or get to space first), coupled with a new and somewhat undisci-
plined engineering field, has resulted in as many failures as suc-
cesses. Engineering organizations presented with the task of de-
signing and maintaining computer-based systems continue to strug-
gle with the problems associated with applying advanced technol-
ogy to commercial ventures effectively and efficiently.
Computer systems engineering and development can be
managed, as numerous successful efforts attest. There are, however,
many organizations that do not manage the process well at all, re-
sulting in the infamous cost overruns and inferior products that we
all have heard about. What, then, is the difference between the
successful and the not-to-successful engineering organization in
the computer systems field? A major difference is in the manage-
ment and leadership within the organization. The tools and tech-
niques for success are the topic of this book.
Scope of Engineering and Development 5

1.1 THE SCOPE OF ENGINEERING AND DEVELOPMENT

There is little question as to the importance of the activities of the

Engineering and Development Department within any high-tech-
nology company. Where the development of computers and com-
puter-based products are concerned, the creative skills of the en-
gineers, and the ability of the engineering organization to deliver
a high quality product is essential to the success of the company.
The overall scope of responsibility may vary depending on
the organization and the product, but in general is very broad, ex-
tending from early product planning and research to the delivery
of a completely integrated and tested product. Carefully defining
this scope of responsibility is important to the success of the organ-
ization and its interactions with other departments.
Typically, the Engineering and Development Department
is the technology drive behind the company. Working closely with
Marketing and other departments, they assist in strategic planning
and requirements development. When the requirements for a new
product have been defined, it is the responsibility of Engineering
and Development to determine the best technical solution to meet
the overall needs of the company. All of this occurs prior to what
is normally considered the development effort.
Given a defined set of requirements and objectives, and a
technical approach, Engineering must plan a development effort
consistent with the requirements and capabilities of the company.
The product then enters the development phase, when it must be
designed and implemented. This includes electronic, electrical,
mechanical, packaging, software, firmware, diagnostics, and docu-
mentation considerations.
Once the development is completed, the product must be
integrated and tested. Often this is the most difficult and challeng-
6 Engineering and Development Overview

ing part of the effort. Finally the whole product must be readied
for release, and then turned over to Manufacturing so that it can
be reliably and cost-effectively produced in quantity. This step is
often referred as "taking it from the lab to the cookie cutter."
Effectively accomplishing this vital step of the project often makes
the difference between a successful product and an "also ran."
Many otherwise good designs have not succeeded because Engineer-
ing did not know how to accomplish this step.
Finally there is product support. It is my belief that sup-
port does not belong within the Engineering and Development or-
ganization, but rather in a dedicated support group. This point is

Figure 1.1 The scope of engineering and development.

Productivity, Quality, and Cost Control 7

elaborated in Chapter 2 in the discussions on organization. It is,

however, important to establish whether normal support is within
the scope of the Engineering and Development organization, and
if so, to budget, plan, and staff for it.
The scope of Engineering and Development is, therefore,
very broad, and goes well beyond what many think of as develop-
ment. This is illustrated in Figure 1.1. In the following chapters
we will address all of these areas. References to additional sources
where more detailed information can be obtained are provided at
the end of each chapter.

1.2 PRODUCTIVITY, QUALITY, AND COST CONTROL

The major objective of every engineering organization is (or should

be) to deliver quality product on time and within budget. The
areas on which to focus to achieve this objective are productivity,
quality, and cost control. These are much more than buzzwords,
they are the primary focus of many successful efforts.
Productivity is an often abused term. Productivity is much
more than the number of lines of code per day or the number of
designs completed per year. It implies value. That which is pro-
duced must be of value, and value must be factored into the pro-
ductivity. It is also very difficult to measure productivity with any
precision. However, it is often easy to tell by comparison which
organization is most productive, and most engineers and managers
can readily recognize when they themselves are in a productive en-
vironment.
Quality is somewhat easier to define and quantify. Quality
implies error-free software that performs the intended function
easily and efficiently, and hardware that seldom fails, and if it does
is easy to repair or replace. Quality is designed into products, and
8 Engineering and Development Overview

good quality assurance is as important within the engineering de-

partment as it is in manufacturing.
Cost control is always a critical element, and takes on added
importance in the computer systems field where a large part of the
value of the product is related to engineering costs. Engineering
cost overruns in mass-produced products, where the engineering is
amortized over a large number of units, have less of an impact on
overall profit margins than manufacturing costs. With computer
systems, however, this is often not the case, especially when the
system has a large software content. In these cases, a large portion
of the cost of each unit is the cost of engineering that went into
the initial development and must be recovered over the life of the
product. A large cost overrun in engineering, or a high ongoing
support cost, can severely impact or eliminate profits.
Productivity, quality, and cost control are three issues that
are important to managers, engineers, and the success of any en-
gineering and development organization. Why then are there so
many organizations where the productivity is low, the product has
problems, and where cost overruns and schedule slippages are com-
mon? And much more importantly, what steps can be taken to in-
sure success? That is what we will explore in this book. Tools and
techniques that can be used to increase productivity, improve qual-
ity, and contain costs will be presented, as will real-world tested
methods and procedures used in successful computer systems de-
velopment efforts that can be adapted to the needs of your organi-
zation and projects.

1.3 COMPUTER SYSTEMS

What is a computer system? For that matter what is a system?

System is another one of those much abused words in the age of
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Jazpampa, 266
Jejui R., 339
Jequitonha R., 386
Jesus Marie, 183
Jipijapa, 131, 146
João, Prince, 374
Joazeiro, 412
Juan Fernandez Isls., 249, 261, 278
Jujuy, 283, 292, 306, 312, 321, 322, 326
Juliaca, 180
Jundiahy, 408, 411
Junín, 150, 152, 170, 193, 197
Junín Lake, 170, 179, 193
Juquiá, 411
Juruá, 405;
R., 384, 406

Kaieteur Falls, 101, 104

Kaolin, 108, 352
Kapok, 423

La Asunción, 55, 70
La Ceiba, 35, 81, 85, 98
La Columna Mt., 59
La Chacarilla, 235
La Dorada, 33, 34, 37, 38
La Goajira, 10, 18
La Guaira, 63, 67, 77, 80, 83
La Guayra Falls, 289, 306, 333, 343, 385, 393
Laguna, 406
Laguneta, 62
La Hacha, 81
La Limeña, 165
Lambayeque, 152, 164, 187, 189
La Merced, 178
La Pampa, 283, 288, 299, 303, 310, 319
La Paz, 181, 184, 206, 207, 209, 210, 213, 214, 217, 221, 222,
223, 224, 225, 226, 230, 231, 233, 234, 236, 237, 242, 243,
248, 311, 457
La Plata, 283, 285, 302, 309, 312, 318, 329
La Plata R., 210, 211, 212, 281, 289, 301, 302, 306, 354, 360,
364, 379, 385;
Isl., 144
La Quiaca, 184, 223, 235, 292, 309, 312
Lara, 55, 63, 66, 88, 93
La Rioja, 283, 295, 321, 322, 325
La Serena, 247, 248, 256, 265
Latacunga, 117, 125, 137, 139
Lavalleja General, 355
La Vela, 65, 79, 81
La Victoria, 67, 80
Lead, 144, 194, 195, 235, 274, 432
Lebrija R., 34, 35
León, 116, 117, 133
Leopoldina, 407, 411
Leticia, 154
Libertad, 152, 164, 188, 189
Lima, 8, 115, 149, 150, 152, 153, 154, 160, 162, 167, 176, 179,
183, 187, 190, 203, 206, 455, 457
Linares, 247, 258
Linseed, 320
Lipez, 234;
Serranía de, 211
Live stock, 44, 91, 108, 143, 193, 239, 240, 277, 315, 350, 368,
424
Loa R., 256, 268
Lobitos, 144, 201
Lobos Isls., 164, 201
Lobos, Punta de, 275
Loja, 116, 117, 123, 124, 132, 139, 144, 145, 184
Lomas, 168
Lopez, Carlos Antonio, 334;
Francisco, 334, 335
Loreto, 152, 173, 179
Lorica, 22
Los Andes, (Chile), 254, 268, 269;
(Arg.), 283, 291, 293
Los Angeles, 247
Los Patos Pass, 257
Los Rios, 116, 117, 132
Lota, 263, 264, 274, 275
Luque, 342;
Hernando de, 147
Lurín, 183
Llallagua, 233
Llamas, 143, 193, 225, 239
Llanos, 16, 27, 59, 60, 62, 70, 71, 91, 123, 211
Llanquihue, 247, 259, 277;
Lake, 252

Macami, 110
Macas, 139, 145
Maceió, 375, 399, 417
Macora, 146
Machacamarca, 224
Machachi V., 137
Machala, 117, 132, 139
Machalilla, 136
Madeira R., 160, 243, 383, 384, 403, 406, 412, 413
Madeira-Mamoré Ry., 183, 225, 227, 228, 243, 383, 412
Madera R., 212
Madidi R., 212, 227, 237, 241
Madre de Dios, 152, 173, 199;
R., 159, 172, 183, 192, 212, 219, 227, 238, 241, 383
Magallanes, 246, 247, 260, 275, 278
Magangué, 34
Magdalena, 9, 10, 21;
R., 16, 17, 18, 22, 32-35, 37, 38
Magellan Strait, 251
Mahogany, 90
Maipo R., 246
Maipures Rapids, 17, 75
Maize, see Corn
Majes R., 168, 180
Mal Abrigo, 366
Malabrigo, 165
Maldonado, (Peru), 152;
(Urug.), 356, 363, 367, 370
Malleco, 247, 259;
R., 264
Mamoré R., 160, 211, 212, 219, 227, 383, 412, 413
Manabí, 116, 117, 131, 142, 144, 146
Manaos, 26, 43, 179, 375, 378, 403, 406, 413
Mandioca, 142, 349, 400, 419
Manganese, 145, 325, 352, 370, 428
Manglar Alto, 136, 146
Mangrove, 90
Manizales, 10, 23, 35
Manta, 131, 136, 144;
Bay, 131
Mantaro R., 159, 170, 171
Mantiqueiro, Serra de, 385, 428
Manufactures, 51, 52, 98, 202, 203, 278, 327-329, 352, 371, 426,
427
Manzanares R., 79
Mapocho R., 254
Mar, Serra do, 1, 380, 381, 385, 388
Maracaibo, 41, 55, 57, 64, 78, 82, 83, 84, 91, 94, 98
Maracaibo Channel, 78, 96;
Lake, 16, 31, 36, 46, 48, 53, 59, 61, 62, 64, 78, 82, 84, 87, 94,
95, 96
Maracajú, Serra de, 385
Maracay, 55, 57, 67, 79, 80, 83, 87, 92, 98
Marajós Isl., 382, 406
Maranhão, 375, 377, 401, 406, 415, 418, 430
Marañón R., 119, 124, 125, 138, 159, 170, 182, 192
Mar del Plata, 302, 309, 326, 330
Margarita Isl., 69, 70, 79, 98
Mariquita, 35
Maroni R., 109, 113
Marowijne R., 111, 112, 113
Martinez, 317
Martinique Isl., 112
Matahuasi, 183
Matarani, 168
Matto Grosso, 289, 339, 348, 375, 383, 386, 403, 413, 415, 422,
424, 425, 426, 428, 429
Matucana, 178
Maturín, 55, 70
Mauá, 407, 411
Maués, 406
Maule, 247, 258;
R., 252
Medellín, 10, 12, 13, 19, 23, 35, 37, 38, 51
Medicinal Plants, 44
Meiggs, Henry, 165, 177, 179, 196
Mejillones, 256, 266, 267
Melo, 356, 363, 366
Mendoza, 269, 281, 283, 288, 296, 297, 303, 309, 310, 320, 322,
323, 325, 326, 329;
Pedro de, 281, 333
Mene Grande, 95, 96
Mercedario Mt., 251
Mercedes, 356, 361, 365, 366
Mérida, 55, 57, 72, 81, 84, 93, 98
Mesopotamia, 288, 290, 317
Mestizos, 209
Meta, 10, 26;
R., 17, 27, 61, 62, 65, 84
Minas, 356, 364, 370
Minas Geraes, 375, 381, 388, 404, 414, 418, 424, 425, 426, 428,
429, 430, 432
Mining-Minerals, 45-50, 52, 92-97, 107, 108, 111, 112, 144, 145;
194-202, 229-238, 270-275, 324-326, 352, 370, 427-433
Miranda, 54, 55, 66, 68, 79, 80
Mirím Lake, 354, 359, 363, 386, 387, 407
Misiones, 283, 287, 293, 311, 313, 321, 322, 324, 328, 331, 422;
Sierra de, 211
Mocoa, 10, 26, 38
Mojos Plains, 384
Molybdenum, 201
Mollendo, 161, 168, 175, 179, 192, 221, 222, 243, 261
Monagas, 54, 55, 70, 82
Monazite, 398
Monday R., 339
Montaña, 153, 154, 156, 159, 161, 172, 174, 178, 181, 188, 210
Montecristi, 131, 146
Monteria, 22, 38
Montevideo, 354, 355, 356, 357, 360, 364, 365, 366, 367, 370,
371, 392, 404, 410
Moquegua, 152, 169, 255
Moriche Palm, 91
Morococha, 177, 195, 196, 200, 224
Morona R., 124, 125
Moropán, 163
Morrisquillo Bay, 44
Motatán, 72, 81, 84, 85
Moyabamba, 152

Nacion La, (Newspaper), 285

Nacunday, 347
Nahuel Huapi Lake, 288, 299, 313, 324
Naiguatá Falls, 98;
Mt., 60
Nanay R., 124, 126
Napo, 126;
R., 26, 115, 118, 124, 126, 138, 139
Naranjal, 139
Naricual, 82, 93
Nariño, 9, 10, 25, 50, 51
Natal, 375, 400, 412
Nazareth, 412
Nechi R., 34, 50
Negra Muerta, 312
Negritos, 202
Negro R., (Amazon), 17, 26, 43, 76, 384, 403, 406;
(Arg.), 288, 290, 309;
(Urug.), 358, 359, 361, 365;
(South Brazil), 393
Neiva, 10, 28, 35, 39
Nemocón, 37
Nepeña R., 167
Neuquen, 283, 299, 309, 322, 324, 325, 326
Neveri R., 68, 82
New Amsterdam, 103, 104
New Granada, 8, 115
Nico Peréz, 366
Nictheroy, 375, 396, 411
Nichare R., 74
Nirgua, 66, 93
Nitrates, 270
North Coast, 7-113
Nuble, 247, 258
Nueva Esparta, 55, 69
Nueva Germania, 347
Nuevo Gulf, 304
Nuts, 417

Obidos, 403, 406

Ocaña, 35
Ocumare de la Costa, 67, 79, 83
Ocumare del Tuy, 55, 68, 80, 89
O’Higgins, 247, 258, 272, 276
Ojeda, Alonzo de, 8, 53
Olinda, 426
Olmas, 367
Ollague, 223, 268, 275
Orán, 223, 306
Oranges, 349, 419
Orellana, 154;
Francisco de, 115, 126
Oriente, 116, 117, 123, 134, 140, 145
Orinoco R., 3, 16, 17, 18, 26, 48, 59, 60, 61, 73, 74, 75, 76, 84, 90,
92, 94, 99, 101
Oro, Rio de, 28, 48, 96
Orocué, 31
Oroya, 177, 178, 179, 183, 200
Ortíz, 83
Orton R., 227
Oruro, 207, 209, 210, 215, 223, 224, 232, 233, 234, 243
Osasco, 424
Osorno, 313
Otuzco, 188, 198
Ouro Preto, 405
Ovalle, 273
Oyack R., 112
Oyapock R., 112, 406
Oyón, 198

Pacaraima Mts., 101

Pacasmayo, 164, 169, 175, 188, 189
Pacific Ry., 37
Pachacamac R., 183
Pachacayo, 197, 198
Pacheco, 238
Pachitea R., 169, 170
Paita, 131, 156, 163, 175, 182, 201, 202
Paja Toquilla, 146
Palcazú, 170
Palma Sola, 81
Palmira, 25, 36, 37, 38
Paloma, 367
Pampa Aullagas Lake, 212
Pampa Central, See La Pampa
Pampatar, 70, 79
Pamplona, 38
Panamá, 7, 8, 15, 18, 107, 133
Panamá Hats, 25, 26, 51, 131, 146, 163, 201
Pan American Ry., 38, 137, 175, 179, 184, 223
Pando, 361
Pangoa R., 183
Pantana, 42
Paper, 91, 98, 107, 146, 328
Pará, 174, 179, 182, 375, 383, 401, 402, 406, 408, 412, 417, 420,
425, 432;
R., 382, 402
Paracas Penin., 198
Paraguarí, 335, 337, 342, 352
Paraguay, 205, 220, 332-353, 368, 369, 422
Paraguay R., 205, 212, 220, 226, 304, 313, 333, 338, 339, 343,
383, 386, 409, 410
Parahyba, 375, 400, 412, 417, 429, 432
Parahyba do Norte R., 400
Parahyba do Sul R., 386, 396, 411
Paramaribo, 109, 110, 111
Paramos, 19, 28, 72, 122, 129
Paraná, (Arg.), 283, 289, 298, 305;
(Brazil), 375, 385, 388, 393, 394, 419, 422, 424, 425, 429, 430,
431
Paraná R., 288, 289, 304, 305, 306, 311, 333, 339, 340, 343, 347,
374, 381, 385, 388, 393, 407, 410
Paranaguá, 394, 410, 422, 425
Paranahyba R., 385
Paranapanema R., 385, 393
Paria Gulf, 60, 69, 70, 76, 78, 97;
Penin., 69, 97
Parime Mts., 60
Parnahyba R., 386, 401
Pastaza R., 124, 125
Pasto, 10, 12, 25, 38, 51, 133
Patagonas, 275
Patagonia, 287, 288, 299, 309, 310, 313, 317, 324
Patapó, 164
Patía R., 16, 17, 25, 36
Patiño Simón, J., 224, 233
Pato R., 50
Patos, Lagôa dos, 386, 387, 392, 407
Paucartambo, 199; R., 159;
V., 188
Paulo Affonso Falls, 386
Pauta R., 124
Paysandú, 356, 357, 362, 365, 367, 370
Pearls, 94, 144
Pedernales, 76;
Isl., 97
Pedro, Dom II., 374
Pelotas, 392, 425, 431
Perené R., 159, 170, 178, 183;
V., 178
Pericos, 84
Perija, 84, 96;
Sierra de, 18, 59, 61
Peripe R., 127
Pernambuco, 367, 374, 375, 387, 399, 406, 412, 414, 416, 418,
422, 426, 428, 431, 432
Peru, 4, 5, 118, 121, 122, 123, 125, 148-204, 275, 278, 281, 382,
383, 384, 406, 457
Petare, 80
Petroleum, 46, 95, 144, 201, 237, 275, 325, 371, 432
Petropolis, 396, 407, 411
Philip II., 374
Piar District, 73
Piauhy, 375, 388, 401, 428
Pichilemu, 264
Pichincha, 115, 116, 117, 133, 139, 144, 145;
 Volc., 123
Pichis R., 170
Pilar, 335, 336, 342
Pilcomayo R., 212, 217, 226, 288, 289, 339
Pimentel, 164
Pintados, 266
Pirámides, 304
Pirapora, 406
Piria, Señor, 364
Piriápolis, 363, 367
Piracicaba, 425, 432
Pisagua, 255, 266, 270, 271
Pisco, 154, 168, 175, 199, 200
Piura, 152, 163, 182, 187, 201
Pizarro, 163
Pizarro, Francisco, 115, 149, 164, 169, 172, 245, 281
Pizarro, Gonzales, 115, 126
Plaisance, 104
Plantains, 41, 106, 142
Platinum, 7, 48, 144, 145, 432
Pomasqui, 145
Pongo de Manseriche, 124, 138, 182
Ponta Grossa, 394, 410
Poopo, Lake, 212, 226
Popayán, 10, 12, 25, 36, 38, 39
Porce R., 50
Port of Spain, 69, 78
Porto Alegre, 375, 392, 410
Porto Esperança, 409
Porto Velho, 413
Portoviejo, 117, 131;
R., 131
Portuguesa, 55, 60, 71, 77, 88
Posadas, 283, 294, 306, 311, 337, 342, 343
Potaro R., 104
Potash, 271
Potosi, 207, 209, 216, 224, 225, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 237
Prat, 267
Prensa, La, (newspaper), 285
Providencia, 10
Pucalpa, 182
Pucasuro R., 125
Puente del Este, 367
Puerto Aiguirre, 306
Puerto Asís, 38
Puerto Belgrano, 312
Puerto Beltrán, 33, 34, 37
Puerto Bermudez, 179
Puerto Berrío, 35
Puerto Bolívar, 138
Puerto Brais, 224
Puerto Cabello, 66, 67, 77, 80, 81, 83, 92, 98
Puerto Colombia, 12, 30, 32
Puerto del Sauce, 367
Puerto Deseado, 313, 330
Puerto Galileo, 345
Puerto Gallegos, 283, 304, 313, 314
Puerto Galván, 303
Puerto Jessup, 179
Puerto Limón, 182
Puerto Madryn, 304, 311
Puerto Max, 343
Puerto Mendez, 343
Puerto Militar, 326
Puerto Molendez, 182
Puerto Montt, 247, 252, 259, 264, 266, 269, 278
Puerto Pando, 227
Puerto Pinasco, 345, 350
Puerto Suarez, 207, 210, 218, 220, 225, 238, 243
Puerto Tablas, 73
Puerto Villamizar, 36
Puerto Wertheman, 183
Puerto Wilches, 34, 37
Pulacayo, 232
Puna, 212
Puná Isl., 122, 127, 131, 135, 139
Puno, 152, 172, 180, 181, 188, 193, 199, 221
Punta Arenas, 193, 247, 249, 253, 261, 263, 278, 304, 313
Punta de Lobos, 275
Purús, 405; R., 172, 227, 384
Putumayo, 10, 26;
R., 17, 26, 38, 126
Pyreneos Mt., 381, 385

Quarahim, 367, 411

Quebracho, 323, 345
Quelez, 428
Queruvilca, 164, 198
Quesada, Gonzalo Jimenez de, 8
Quespesisa Cerro, 199
Quevado R., 127
Quibdó, 10, 24, 35, 43, 48
Quichuas, 172, 179, 181, 208
Quicksilver, 133, 144, 200
Quilca, 168
Quiloaza R., 305
Quimsa Cruz Range, 234
Quinine, 142, 242
Quinua, 191, 241
Quiquió, 352
Quishuarcancha, 179, 196
Quispicanchis, 199
Quito, 115, 116, 117, 119, 120, 122, 127, 130, 136, 137, 139

Rancagua, 247, 272

Rauco Lake, 252
Rawson, 283, 304
Recife, 375, 377, 399, 406, 417
Reconquista, 314
Recuay, 166, 183, 184
Reloncavi Gulf, 266
Remate dos Males, 406
Resistencia, 283, 293, 312, 321
Reventazón, 163
Riachuelo, 330;
R., 301
Riberalta, 207, 210, 219, 225, 227, 413
Rice, 42, 105, 110, 189, 241, 322, 350, 419
Rimac R., 149, 162;
V., 177
Riobamba, 117, 125, 136, 137, 145
Rio Branco, 405
Rio Chico, 68, 80
Rio de Janeiro, 254, 367, 374, 375, 377, 381, 388, 390, 395, 396,
406, 407, 408, 411, 414, 416, 418, 427, 432, 454, 456
Rio Grande, 392;
R., 385
Rio Grande do Norte, 375, 381, 400, 412, 416, 423, 429, 432
Rio Grande do Sul, 375, 380, 385, 386, 387, 388, 391, 410, 411,
416, 418, 422, 425, 426, 427, 429, 430, 431, 432
Riohacha, 21, 30, 31, 46
Rio Limón, 82
Rio Mulato, 224