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Methods in
Molecular Biology 1525
Bioinformatics
Volume I:
Data, Sequence Analysis,
and Evolution
Second Edition
METHODS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Series Editor
John M. Walker
School of Life and Medical Sciences
University of Hertfordshire
Hatfield, Hertfordshire, AL10 9AB, UK
Edited by
Jonathan M. Keith
Monash University
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Editor
Jonathan M. Keith
Monash University
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Bioinformatics sits at the intersection of four major scientific disciplines: biology, mathe-
matics, statistics, and computer science. That’s a very busy intersection, and many volumes
would be required to provide a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art methodologies
used in bioinformatics today. That is not what this concise two-volume work of contributed
chapters attempts to do; rather, it provides a broad sampling of some of the most useful and
interesting current methods in this rapidly developing and expanding field.
As with other volumes in Methods in Molecular Biology, the focus is on providing
practical guidance for implementing methods, using the kinds of tricks and tips that are
rarely documented in textbooks or journal articles, but are nevertheless widely known and
used by practitioners, and important for getting the most out of a method. The sharing of
such expertise within the community of bioinformatics users and developers is an important
part of the growth and maturation of the subject. These volumes are therefore aimed
principally at graduate students, early career researchers, and others who are in the process
of integrating new bioinformatics methods into their research.
Much has happened in bioinformatics since the first edition of this work appeared in
2008, yet much of the methodology and practical advice contained in that edition remains
useful and current. This second edition therefore aims to complement, rather than super-
sede, the first. Some of the chapters are revised and expanded versions of chapters from the
first edition, but most are entirely new, and all are intended to focus on more recent
developments.
Volume 1 is comprised of three parts: Data and Databases; Sequence Analysis; and
Phylogenetics and Evolution. The first part looks at bioinformatics methodologies of crucial
importance in the generation of sequence and structural data, and its organization into
conceptual categories and databases to facilitate further analyses. The Sequence Analysis part
describes some of the fundamental methodologies for processing the sequences of biological
molecules: techniques that are used in almost every pipeline of bioinformatics analysis,
particularly in the preliminary stages of such pipelines. Phylogenetics and Evolution deals
with methodologies that compare biological sequences for the purpose of understanding
how they evolved. This is a fundamental and interesting endeavor in its own right but is also
a crucial step towards understanding the functions of biological molecules and the nature of
their interactions, since those functions and interactions are essentially products of their
history.
Volume 2 is also comprised of three parts: Structure, Function, Pathways and Networks;
Applications; and Computational Methods. The first of these parts looks at methodologies
for understanding biological molecules as systems of interacting elements. This is a core task
of bioinformatics and is the aspect of the field that attempts to bridge the vast gap between
genotype and phenotype. The Applications part can only hope to cover a small number of
the numerous applications of bioinformatics. It includes chapters on the analysis of genome-
wide association data, computational diagnostics, and drug discovery. The final part
v
vi Preface
describes four broadly applicable computational methods, the scope of which far exceeds
that of bioinformatics, but which have nevertheless been crucial to this field. These are
modeling and inference, clustering, parameterized algorithmics, and visualization.
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
vii
viii Contents
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Contributors
ix
x Contributors
Genome Sequencing
Mansi Verma, Samarth Kulshrestha, and Ayush Puri
Abstract
Genome sequencing is an important step toward correlating genotypes with phenotypic characters.
Sequencing technologies are important in many fields in the life sciences, including functional genomics,
transcriptomics, oncology, evolutionary biology, forensic sciences, and many more. The era of sequencing
has been divided into three generations. First generation sequencing involved sequencing by synthesis
(Sanger sequencing) and sequencing by cleavage (Maxam-Gilbert sequencing). Sanger sequencing led to
the completion of various genome sequences (including human) and provided the foundation for develop-
ment of other sequencing technologies. Since then, various techniques have been developed which can
overcome some of the limitations of Sanger sequencing. These techniques are collectively known as “Next-
generation sequencing” (NGS), and are further classified into second and third generation technologies.
Although NGS methods have many advantages in terms of speed, cost, and parallelism, the accuracy and
read length of Sanger sequencing is still superior and has confined the use of NGS mainly to resequencing
genomes. Consequently, there is a continuing need to develop improved real time sequencing techniques.
This chapter reviews some of the options currently available and provides a generic workflow for sequencing
a genome.
1 Introduction
Jonathan M. Keith (ed.), Bioinformatics: Volume I: Data, Sequence Analysis, and Evolution, Methods in Molecular Biology,
vol. 1525, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-6622-6_1, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2017
3
4 Mansi Verma et al.
1.1 General The first step of any genome sequencing project is generation of an
Procedure for Genome enormous amount of sequencing data (Fig. 1). The raw data gen-
Sequencing erated by sequencing is processed to convert the chromatograms
into the quality values (see Note 1). This procedure is known as
“base calling” or fragment readout. The next step is optional as
only those methods that involve library construction will utilize
trimming of vector sequences. It is an important step as some parts
of the vector are also sequenced by universal primers, along with
the insert region. Further screening of good quality and bad quality
regions is performed to ensure a more accurate sequence assembly.
The processed data is then assembled by searching for fragment
overlaps to form “contigs.” However, because of repeat regions,
the fragments may be wrongly aligned, leading to misassembly.
Hence, assembly validation is done manually as well as by softwares
to locate the correct position of reads. The contigs are then ori-
ented one after the other with the help of mate-paired information
to form ordered chains known as “scaffolds” [12]. This step is
followed by the final and most crucial step of genome sequencing:
FINISHING. It includes gap filling (also known as “minimum
tiling path”) and reassessing the assembly [13].
Genome Sequencing 5
Sequence generation
Base calling
Fragment assembly
Assembly Validation
Finishing
Fig. 1 Flow diagram to show the series of steps followed for sequencing any
genome
1.2 Choosing a Given the rapid growth of sequencing technologies, each with
Sequencing Strategy unique advantages and shortcomings with regard to performance
and cost, it is now becoming difficult to choose the best technology
for a particular application. Some parameters that should be
considered when selecting a sequencing method are the following
[14, 15]:
1. Read lengths and cost per read: Read length is the number of
contiguous bases sequenced in a given run. It remains one of the
most important parameters for the selection of sequencing plat-
forms. Increasing the read length facilitates assembly and
reduces assembly error, because it provides unique context for
repetitive sequences. Moreover, as the cost per read decreases,
sequencing longer reads will become more economical (see
Table 1).
2. Raw accuracy: This is an important quality control measure in
massive DNA sequencing projects. Lower error rates result in
better assembly, and better quality finished-sequence for the
same coverage.
3. Mate-paired reads: Mate-paired reads are those reads that are
separated by a known distance in the genome of origin [16].
Such reads are crucial for scaffolding de-novo genome assembly,
for resolving repeat regions, and for many other downstream
6
Table 1
Details of first, second, and third generation sequencing technologies with respect to their cost per megabase, instrument cost, read length, and
accuracy
2 Materials
(continued)
Table 2
(continued)
Clone fragments in
suitable vector
Fig. 2 Strategies for sequencing whole genome. Ordered clone approach is used for large insert size library for
constructing physical map, whereas whole genome shotgun strategy is used for sequencing small insert size
library for generating enormous amount of data
3 Methods
3.1 First Generation Even after the introduction of novel techniques, a major amount of
Technologies DNA sequence data is still credited to have been produced by first
generation technologies. Though slower and costlier (even after
parallelization and automation), these older technologies are still
used in studies where accuracy cannot be compromised even to a
slight degree, including synthetic oligonucleotides and gene targets
[18, 19]. The initial, first generation sequencing technologies were
the sequencing-by-cleavage method established by Maxam-Gilbert
[20] and sequencing-by-synthesis developed by Sanger [2].
3.1.1 Maxam-Gilbert This technique first appeared in 1977 and is also known as the
Method “chemical-degradation” method [20]. The chemical reagents act
on specific bases of existing DNA molecules and subsequent cleav-
age occurs (Fig. 3). In this technique, dsDNA is labeled with
radiolabeled phosphorus at the 50 end or 30 end. The next step is
to obtain ssDNA. This can be done by restriction digestion leading
to sticky ends or denaturation at 90 C in the presence of DMSO,
GCTACGGCAGCTA
GCTACGGCAGCTA GCTACGGCAGCTA
Hydrazine + Hydrazine +
Alkali Mild Acid
Piperidine Piperidine + 2M NaCl
G
GC GC
GCT GCT
GCTA GCTA
GCTAC
GCTACG
GCTACGG GCTACGG
GCTACGGC GCTACGGC
GCTACGGCA GCTACGGCAG
GCTACGGCAGC GCTACGGCAGC
GCTACGGCAGCT GCTACGGCAGCT
Fig. 3 Sequencing an oligonucleotide by Maxam-Gilbert method: This method largely depends upon treatment
of oligonucleotides by different chemicals that cleave at specific sites. 50 end of the oligonucleotide is
radiolabeled. When cleaved with specific chemicals, only the radiolabeled part generates signals on an
autoradiograph. Hence, by series of partial cleavages, nucleotide sequence can be determined
Genome Sequencing 13
Table 3
Reagents used in Maxam-Gilbert method for sequencing
3.1.2 Sanger Sequencing This technique is also known as chain termination sequencing or
“dideoxy sequencing.” Sanger sequencing has played a crucial role
in understanding the genetic landscape of the human genome.
It was developed by Frederick Sanger in 1975, but was commercia-
lized in 1977 [21].
The technique is based on the principal usage of dideoxy ribo-
nucleoside triphosphates that lack 30 hydroxyl group (Fig. 4a). The
technique comprises seven different components to perform the
sequencing. These include ssDNA template to be sequenced, pri-
mers, Taq polymerase to amplify the template strand, buffer, deox-
ynucleotides (dNTPs), fluorescently labeled dideoxynucleotides
(ddNTPs) and DMSO (to resolve the secondary structures if
formed in the template strand) (see Notes 3 and 4). Because the
incorporated ddNTP lacks a 30 OH group, the phosphodiester
bond between the C30 OH of the latter sugar moiety and C50 of
the next dNTPs will not form, resulting in the termination of the
chain at that point [2, 22].
When run on a polyacrylamide gel with the products of each
reaction in four parallel lanes, the fragments of different lengths get
separated (Fig. 4b and c). After its introduction, Sanger sequencing
underwent further modifications for the automated sequencing
protocol. One such advance was dye-terminator sequencing [23].
The main advantage of using this method lies in its greater accuracy
and speed. In 1987, Applied Biosystems, Inc. (ABI) launched the
first automated DNA sequencing machine, ABI model 370,
14 Mansi Verma et al.
a b
dNTPS ddATP, ddTTP,
Base ddGTP, ddCTP
Taq DNA
Polymerase
P O O
CH2
H 3’ A G A T T A T G G C T A G T 5’
H
H H A 5’
C A 5’
Base T C A 5’
O H
A T C A 5’
O O O
P CH2 G A T C A 5’
- C G A T C A 5’
O
H H C C G A T C A 5’
H H A C C G A T C A 5’
Base T A C C G A T C A 5’
O H A T A C C G A T C A 5’
O O O A A T A C C G A T C A 5’
P CH2
T A A T A C C G A T C A 5’
O- C T A A T A C C G A T C A 5’
H H
H H T C T A A T A C C G A T C A 5’
H H
× P O
Base
O CH2
H H
H H
O H
Fig. 4 Dideoxy chain termination method. (a) DNA synthesis by addition of dNTP (that has free 30 -OH) in the
synthesizing strand. But once a ddNTP is incorporated, the strand synthesis stops as no 30 -OH is available to
form a phosphodiester bond with the next dNTP. (b) formation of a series of chains by incorporation of ddNTPs
which can by separated by capillary electrophoresis. (c) Electropherogram of a DNA sequence
3.2 The Birth of Next- The advent of next-generation sequencing techniques has made the
Generation once herculean task of sequencing much simpler and faster [25].
Sequencing (NGS) Gradually, the rapid and cost-effective next-generation sequencing
Techniques technologies have emerged as the popular choice over their slow
and cumbersome first generation counterparts. They have enabled
Genome Sequencing 15
3.3.1 454 The 454 (Roche) was the first of the NGS platforms introduced in
Pyrosequencing 2005 [34]. The process of pyrosequencing, in short, involves gen-
eration of light from phosphates by employing an enzymatic cas-
cade. This light is released while a polymerase replicates the
template DNA and its detection is vital in accurately sequencing
the DNA [35].
In this technique, the duplex DNA is first sheared into smaller
fragments that are followed by ligation of adapters on both sides of
the fragment that are complementary to the primer sequences.
These adapters act as the site for primer binding and initiate the
sequencing process. Each DNA fragment is bound to the emulsion
microbeads such that the ratio of DNA:microbead is 1:1 (Fig. 5).
This is followed by amplification of each strand using emulsion
PCR and after a few cycles, many copies of these DNA molecules
are obtained per bead [35].
Immobilized enzymes including DNA polymerase, ATP sul-
phurylase, luciferase, and apyrase are added to the wells in a fiber
optic plate containing one amplified bead each. Fluidic assembly
supplies the four dNTPs one by one to the wells of the fiber optic
slide. These dNTPs are then incorporated, complementary to the
template, with the help of DNA polymerase. This process releases
PPi, on which ATP sulphurylase acts, converting it into ATP. In the
presence of the generated ATP, luciferase converts luciferin to
oxyluciferin and a light signal proportional to the amount of ATP
is produced. Intensity of the signal produced is captured by the
CCD camera. Once the signal is produced and captured, enzyme
apyrase degrades the existing nucleotides and ATP and the next
nucleotide is then added through fluidic assembly. The technique
has recently been supplemented with “paired-end” sequencing
where adapters are bound to both the ends of the fragmented
DNA therefore, leading to sequencing from both ends [34, 35].
A major advantage of this technique is its long read length.
Unlike other NGS technologies, 454 yields read length of 400
bases and can generate more than 1,000,000 individual reads per
run. This feature is particularly suited for de novo assembly and
metagenomics [36].
Genome Sequencing 17
Fig. 5 Pyrosequencing. In this method, the double stranded DNA is fragmented into small pieces and then
denatured to get single strands, which are ligated with adaptors at both the ends. Each DNA fragment gets
bound to microbead and is amplified by emulsion PCR, generating many copies of a single molecule
3.3.2 The Illumina The Solexa platform for sequencing DNA was first developed by
(Solexa) Genome Analyzer British chemists Shankar Balasubramanian and David Klenerman
and was later commercialized in 2006. It works using the principle
of “sequencing-by-synthesis.” Also known as cycle reversible ter-
mination (CRT) [37], this technique has been found to generate
50–60 million reads with an average read length of 40–50 bases in a
single run. The genomic DNA is fragmented into small pieces and
adapters are ligated at both the ends. The ligated DNA fragments
are then loaded on the glass slide (flow cell) where one end of the
ligated DNA fragment hybridizes to the complementary oligo
(oligo 1) that is covalently attached to the surface. The opposite
end of each of the bound ssDNAs is still free and hybridizes with a
nearby complementary oligo (oligo 2) present on the slide to form
a bridge. With the addition of DNA polymerase and dNTPs, the
ssDNA are bridge-amplified as strand synthesis starts in the 50 –30
direction from oligo 2. For the next PCR cycle, the template strand
and the newly synthesized complementary strand are denatured to
again start the amplification. As a result of repeated cycles of bridge
amplification, millions of dense clusters of duplex DNA are gener-
ated in each channel of the flow cell (Fig. 6). Once such an ultra-
high density sequencing flow cell is created, the slide is ready for
sequencing [33, 37–39].
18 Mansi Verma et al.
ssDNA
bridge bridge dense clusters of
formation amplification
duplex DNA
Oligo 2
Oligo 1
Fig. 6 Solexa Platform. The fragmented genomic DNA is ligated to adapters at both the ends. Each ligated DNA
fragment hybridizes to the complementary oligo (oligo 1) that is covalently attached to the glass slide surface.
The opposite end of each of the bound ssDNAs hybridizes with a nearby complementary oligo (oligo 2) to form
a bridge. The ssDNA are bridge-amplified as strand synthesis starts in the 50 –30 direction from oligo 2. As a
result of repeated cycles of bridge amplification, millions of dense clusters of duplex DNA are generated in
each channel of the flow cell
3.3.3 Applied Biosystems ABI SOLiD platform was described by J. Shendure and colleagues
SOLiD Sequencer in 2005. This technology involves a series of hybridization-ligation
steps. The di-base probes are actually octamers, containing two
bases of known positions, three degenerate bases, and three more
degenerate bases that are attached to the flourophore (and which
are excised along with flourophore cleavage). Sixteen combinations
of di-base probes are used, with each base represented by one of
four fluorescent dyes (Fig. 7a) [40, 41].
The sheared genomic DNA is ligated with adaptors on both
sides. The adaptor-ligated fragments get bound to microbeads and
each molecule is clonally amplified onto beads in emulsion PCR
(similar to pyrosequencing). After amplification, beads get cova-
lently attached to the glass slide and are provided with universal
primers, ligase, and di-base probes [42].
In the first round, universal primers (of length n) are added that
hybridize with adaptors. Following this, one of the di-base probes
(complementary to the sequence) binds to the template and is
Genome Sequencing 19
3.3.4 Polonator This ligation based sequencer was developed by Dover in collabo-
ration with Church Laboratory of Harvard Medical School.
In addition to high performance, it has become popular as a
cheap, affordable instrument for DNA sequencing. The system
uses open source software and protocols that can be downloaded
for free. Based on ligation detection sequencing (similar to
SOLiD), the Polonator G.007 identifies the nitrogenous base by
a single base probe, unlike SOLiD that uses a dual base probe.
Nucleotides having single base probes known as nonanucleotides
or nonamers are tagged with a fluorophore. The genomic DNA is
sheared into many fragments that are used for the construction of a
genomic paired tag shotgun library. Using emulsion PCR, clonal
amplification of templates results in tens of thousands of such
copies attached to the beads called polonies. This is followed by
enrichment of beads having such amplified templates bound to
them. After insertion of such beads in the flow cell, the Polonator
is used to generate millions of short reads in parallel by using the
cyclic sequencing array technology [3, 31].
20 Mansi Verma et al.
a
A C G T
A A A N N NN N N A C N N NN N N A G N N NN N N A T N N NN N N
C C C N N NN N N C C N N NN N N C GN N NN N N C T N N NN N N
G G A N N NN N N G CN N NN N N G GN N NN N N G T N N NN N N
T T A N N NN N N T C N N NN N N G T N N NN N N T T N N NN N N
b
Universal primer (n) AC G G T C T Universal primer (n-1) AC G G T C
TA CG T G C G T A CG T T G A T G TA CG T G C G T A CG T T G A T G
AC G G T CT AC G G T C
TG C C A G A TA CG T G C G T A CG T T G A T G TG C C A G A TA CG T G C G T A CG T T G A T G
A T N N NN N N T A N N NN N N
A C G G T C T A T N N NN N N A C G G T C T A N N NN N N
TG C C A G A TA C G T G C G T A C G TT G A T G TG C C A G A TA C G T G C G T A C G T T G A T G
C A N N NN N N A T N N NN N N
AC G G T CT AT N N N AC G G T C T AN N N
TG C C A G A TA CG T G TG T A C G T T G A T G TG C C A G A TA C G T G TG T A C G T T G A T G
A C G G T C T A T N N N C A N N NN N N A C G G T C T A N N N A T N N NN N N
TG C C A G A TA CG T G TG T A C G T T G A T G TG C C A G A TA C G T G TG T A C G T T G A T G
Fig. 7 (a) Diagrammatic representation of the 16 di-base probes used in ABI-SOLiD: The di-base probes
consist of two known nitrogeneous bases, six degenerate bases, three of which are tagged with a fluorophore.
Depending on the combination of known bases used, four different colors are emitted when these probes bind
to the template DNA, signaling the correct sequence of the DNA strand. (b) First cycle is continued with a
universal primer (n) which leads to the detection of nucleotide 1–2, 6–7, 11–12, 16–17, 21–22 etc. In the
second cycle, the same universal primer with one base less (n1) helps in detecting nucleotide position 0–1,
0–11, 15–16 etc.
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