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Robert Wang
Yunkai Deng
Bistatic
SAR System
and Signal
Processing
Technology
Bistatic SAR System and Signal Processing
Technology
Robert Wang Yunkai Deng
•
Bistatic SAR System

and Signal Processing
Technology
123
Robert Wang Yunkai Deng
Department of Space Microwave Remote Department of Space Microwave Remote
Sensing System, Institute of Electronics Sensing System, Institute of Electronics
Chinese Academy of Sciences Chinese Academy of Sciences
Beijing Beijing
China China
ISBN 978-981-10-3077-2 ISBN 978-981-10-3078-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-3078-9
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017950264
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
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Singapore
Preface
The development of bistatic synthetic aperture radar (SAR) can date back to the
earliest days of radar. After the invention and demonstration of the monostatic radar
principle in the late 1930s, bistatic SAR entered into the silent phase despite of
multiple recovery during last decades. Only in recent ten years, bistatic SAR
received increasing interest and a number of spaceborne bistatic and multistatic
radar missions have been suggested, some of which are now under development or
in planning, the most successful representative is the bistatic TerraSAR-X tandem.
The space distribution between the transmitter and receiver improves the
capability, reliability, and flexibility of the SAR system, which in turn makes it a
promising and useful supplement to a classical monostatic SAR system. Many
advantages in bistatic SAR beyond our imagination have been investigated,
including frequent monitoring, resolution enhancement, reduced vulnerability for
military applications, reduced costs using existing illuminators of opportunity with
several receive-only systems, and also the possibility of forward-looking or
backward-looking SAR imaging, global high precise digital elevation model
(DEM) measurement and urban infrastructure monitoring. To exploit these
advantages, many engineers and scientists have devoted themselves to the devel-
opment of bistatic SAR system designing, signal processing, and elaborate post
processing.
This book reviews the development of bistatic SAR and strives to make a
comprehensive framework of it and devoted to presenting the typical processing
algorithms for the bistatic SAR signal. This presentation proceeds from a systematic
and unitary point of view, starting from fundamental principles, and deriving
variant processing algorithms in the bistatic SAR operational modes.
This book is organized into eight chapters. Chapter 1 focuses on the funda-
mentals of the bistatic AR system, including the development history, the bistatic
SAR imaging geometry, and the signal model with the two-dimensional resolution.
At last, bistatic radar equation and bistatic RCS are illustrated. This chapter is
preliminary to the following deeper analysis and provides the readers with an
overview of features, capabilities, and limitations of the SAR system. Chapter 2
presents three kinds of two-dimensional bistatic point target reference spectrum,
v
vi Preface
including Loffeld Bistatic Fomular, the method of series reversion, the extended
Loffeld Bistatic Fomular, and the bistatic spectrum based on the two-dimensional
principle of stationary phase. Chapter 3 focuses on the azimuth-variant bistatic SAR
signal processing, while Chap. 4 presents the frequency domain imaging algorithm
for the azimuth-invariant configuration. Chapter 5 describes a unique hybrid bistatic
SAR configuration, the one-stationary bistatic SAR mode. The fast back-projection
algorithm, the modified azimuth-nonlinear chirp scaling algorithm, and the polar
format algorithm are derived and demonstrated in detail. Synchronization is a
challenging task for the bistatic SAR system to implement. In Chap. 6, the beam
synchronization, time synchronization, and phase synchronization schemes are
presented and analyzed. In Chap. 8, a bistatic interferometry SAR mission example
is given. The system design and interferometric performance analysis of a twin
L-band satellite configuration are represented in detail. At last of Chap. 7, the
multistatic multibaseline interometric experiment (MC-InSAR) is presented,
including the imaging geometry, system configuration, and baseline design, the
interferogram.
This book can be useful to scientists and engineers working in the bistatic SAR
signal processing field, and more generally to all the remote-sensing community.
I hope that the readers could appreciate this book and give their constructive
criticisms to this book.
Beijing, China Robert Wang

Acknowledgments
We are indebted to many our colleagues and friends, not only for strong reviews of
various chapter of this book, but also principally for contributions for technical
environment and achievements.
We are certainly grateful to Prof. Otmar Loffeld, Prof. Joachim H.G. Ender,
Dr. Holger, Dr. Ingo Walterscheid, Mr. Thomas Espeter, and Dr. Jens Klare.
Robert Wang is certainly indebted to Prof. Yunkai Deng and Prof. Zhimin
Zhang who have supervised him in the area of spaceborne SAR Imaging, and
certainly indebted to Prof. Otmar Loffeld and Prof. Joachim H.G. Ender who bring
him an invaluable chance to work in the corresponding topic in this book. We also
would like to thank Dr. Yew Lam Neo very much for giving us very helpful
suggestions to improve the book.
We give special recognition to Heng Zhang, Yue Liu, and Lixin Wu who
participated in the early organizational stages of this book. A number of graduate
students in the Department of Space Microwave Remote Sensing System at IECAS,
including Yunfeng Shao, Huifang Zheng, and Ning Li, Guodong Jin, Chuang Li,
helped by making available illustrated material.
Finally, special thanks go to our families for their support, patience, and toler-
ance of our intense, irregular working schedules.
vii
Contents
1 Fundamentals of Bistatic SAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction to BiSAR Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 History of Theoretical Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.1.2 Advantages and Application Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.1.3 Challenges in Bistatic SAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2 Bistatic SAR Imaging Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.2.1 Imaging Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.2.2 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.3 Two-Dimensional Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.3.1 Concept of Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.3.2 Range Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.3.3 Azimuth Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.3.4 Geometry Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.3.5 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.4 Bistatic Radar Equation and Bistatic RCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.4.1 Bistatic Radar Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.4.2 Bistatic RCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2 Fundamentals of Bistatic SAR Imaging Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2 Two-Dimensional Bistatic Point Target Reference Spectrum . . . . . 43
2.2.1 Loffeld Bistatic Formula (LBF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.2.2 Extended Loffeld Bistatic Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.2.3 Method of Series Reversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.2.4 Two-Dimensional Principle of Stationary Phase . . . . . . . . . 60
ix
x Contents
Appendix A: The Principle of Stationary Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Appendix B: Series Reversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Appendix C: Two-Dimensional Principle of Stationary Phase. . . . . . . . . 70
Appendix D: Overview of Weighting Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3 Frequency-Domain Processing for an Azimuth-Invariant
Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.2 Algorithm Based on LBF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.2.1 2D Inverse-Scaled FFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.2.2 Bistatic Chirp-Scaling Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3 Bistatic Range-Migration Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.4 Algorithm Based on Numeric Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.5 Algorithm Based on MSR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4 Frequency-Domain Processing for Azimuth-Variant Processing . . . . 113
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.2 Imaging Algorithm for AV Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.2.1 Range-Doppler Algorithm (RDA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.2.2 Chirp Scaling Algorithm (CSA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.2.3 Wavenumber Domain Algorithm (WDA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.3 Experiment Validation (TerraSAR-X/PAMIR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5 Bistatic SAR Motion Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.1.2 Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.2 Error Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.2.1 Attitude Error Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.2.2 Motion Error Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.3 Motion Compensation Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.3.1 Methods Based on a Single Dominant
Scattering Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 144
5.3.2 Method Based on IMU/GPS . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 146
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 154
6 One-Stationary Processing Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.2 Frequency-Domain Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.2.1 One-Stationary Range-Doppler Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
6.2.2 NLCS Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Contents xi
6.3 Time-Domain Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

6.3.1 Fast Time-Domain Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.4 Modified Bistatic Polar Format Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.4.1 ST-Mode SS-BiSAR Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.4.2 Data Synchronization and Tropospheric
Delay Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.4.3 Bistatic Focusing Using a Modified PFA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.4.4 Limitation and Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.4.5 Experimental Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
7 Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.2 Time Synchronization Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7.2.1 Time Synchronization Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7.2.2 Time Synchronization Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.3 Phase Synchronization Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.4 Inter-satellite Phase Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.4.1 Compensation Model of Phase Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.4.2 Phase Synchronization Strategy and Error Analysis . . . . . . 208
7.5 Beam Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7.5.1 Design of the Beam Synchronization Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
7.5.2 The Accurate Geometric Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.5.3 Relation of the Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.5.4 Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
7.6 Spaceborne/Stationary BiSAR Synchronization Case . . . . . . . . . . . 221
7.6.1 Time Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7.6.2 Phase Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
7.6.3 Integrated Process Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7.6.4 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
8 Bistatic InSAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 235
8.1 InSAR Technique Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 235
8.1.1 History of InSAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 236
8.1.2 Spaceborne Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
8.2 Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
8.2.1 Geometry of InSAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
8.2.2 Important Parameters in the InSAR System . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
8.3 Mission Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
8.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
8.3.2 Performance Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
xii Contents
8.4 Multi-static Multi-baseline Interferometric Experiment . . . . . . . . . . 260

8.4.1 Imaging Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
8.4.2 System Configuration and Baseline Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
8.4.3 Imaging Focusing and Interferogram Generation . . . . . . . . . 264
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Symbols
This section contains a list of the major symbols used in Chaps. 1–8.
c Speed of light, meters per second
f0 Carrier frequency, hertz
BS Bandwidth of the system, hertz
k Wavelength corresponding to the carrier frequency, meters
t Range time, seconds
s Azimuth (slow) time, seconds
s0R Zeros Doppler instant time corresponding to receiver, seconds
s0T Zeros Doppler instant time corresponding to transmitter, seconds
RR ðsÞ Slant range corresponding to receiver in time domain, meters
RT ðsÞ Slant range corresponding to transmitter in time domain, meters
Rb ðsÞ Slant range for bistatic configuration in time domain, meters
R0R Slant range of closest approach to receiver, meters
R0T Slant range of closest approach to transmitter, meters
vR Platform velocity of receiver along flight path, meters per seconds
vT Platform velocity of transmitter along flight path, meters per seconds
qr Ground range resolution, meters
qa Azimuth resolution, meters
f Range frequency, hertz
fs Azimuth frequency, hertz
fss Azimuth frequency shift, hertz
scb Composite beam center crossing time, seconds
Ta Synthetic aperture time, seconds
hSR Squint angle of receiver at the composite beam center crossing time,
radians
hST Squint angle of transmitter at the composite beam center crossing
time, radians
Dfdop Doppler bandwidth, hertz
r RCS of target
wðsÞ Antenna beam pattern in azimuth direction
xiii
xiv Symbols
W a ðf s Þ Envelope of Doppler spectrum of antenna beam pattern

kR , kT Weighting factors of each platform
fsR Instantaneous Doppler frequency contributed by receiver, hertz
fsT Instantaneous Doppler frequency contributed by transmitter, hertz
FR , FT Migration factor of each platform in two-dimensional frequency
domain
/R ðs; f Þ Slant range history to receiver in range frequency domain
/T ðs; f Þ Slant range history to transmitter in range frequency domain
~sR , ~sT Stationary points of /R ðs; f Þ and /T ðs; f Þ
fDcR , fDcT Doppler centroid of receiver and transmitter at the composite beam
center crossing time, hertz
KaR , KaT Doppler modulation rate of each platform, hertz per second
Kr FM of transmitted pulse chirp, positive for an up chirp and negative
for an down chirp, hertz per second
Ksrc FM rate of secondary compression filter, hertz per second
Le Synthetic aperture length
j Sliding factor
fDc Doppler centroid frequency
RRR Reference closest slant range of the scene
Bw Receiver bandwidth
hy Deviation in the yaw angle from the ideal gesture condition
hp Deviation in the pitch angle from the ideal gesture condition
hr Deviation in the roll angle from the ideal gesture condition
~
n Ideal pointing direction
~
ne Real pointing direction due to the gesture error
Dda Antenna pointing error in the azimuth direction
Ddr Antenna pointing error in the range direction
My , Mp , Mr Rotation matrixes associated with the yaw, pitch, and roll angles
Chapter 1
Fundamentals of Bistatic SAR
Abstract Bistatic SAR (BiSAR) has been developing for 40 years, and it is still a
topic of much discussion in the field of radar. BiSAR is a SAR system whose
transmitter and receiver are spatially separated. This separation improves the sys-
tem’s capability, reliability and flexibility, making it a promising and useful sup-
plement to a classical monostatic SAR system. BiSAR draws researchers’ attention
due to its unique advantages over the traditional monostatic SAR, including frequent
monitoring, resolution enhancement, reduced vulnerability for military applications,
reduced costs using existing illuminators of opportunity with several receive-only
systems, and also the possibility of forward- or backward-looking SAR imaging.
Bistatic SAR is receiving more and more attention due to these advantages. This
chapter focuses on the fundamentals of the BiSAR system. We first review the
history of BiSAR, including the important BiSAR mission ever taken with their
interesting results. We then present bistatic SAR imaging geometry and the signal
model. We derive and explain the two-dimensional resolution. Finally, we illustrate
the bistatic radar equation and bistatic radar cross section (RCS).
1.1 Introduction to BiSAR Development
A bistatic SAR system is characterized by the different locations of the transmitter

and receiver [1]. The first research on bistatic SAR occurred in the 1970s. Research
by Xonics in 1977 showed that moving target detection could effectively be
combined with synthetic aperture radar imaging in the bistatic SAR mode. In 1979,
Goodyear and Xonics signed a contract with the United States Air Force to test the
effects of a bistatic SAR in a war. Subsequent experiments in May 1983 resulted in
some bistatic SAR images with good quality, as well as the detection of slowly
moving tanks hidden in woods.
In the 1980s, American scientists registered some patents on bistatic SAR image
processing, such as for data correction processing, bistatic SAR systems and
auto-synchronization techniques. However, most researchers at the time focused on
monostatic SAR, and little attention was paid to bistatic SAR. As a result, almost no
relevant papers were published before the 1990s.
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 1

R. Wang and Y. Deng, Bistatic SAR System and Signal Processing Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-3078-9_1
2 1 Fundamentals of Bistatic SAR
Monostatic SAR was well developed by the 1990s. Attention then returned to
bistatic SAR due to its unique advantages over monostatic SAR.
Consequently, research on bistatic SAR boomed at the dawn of the 21st century,
with the rapid development of timing precision, communication technique and
navigation technique. In 2002, articles on bistatic SAR started to appear at the
International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), and the
symposium has included a topic area on it every year since. The same has occurred
at the European Conference on Synthetic Aperture Radar (EUSAR) since 2004.
Moreover, a variety of articles on bistatic SAR were published in many types of
journals, and a number of experiments on bistatic SAR were performed. Research
on bistatic SAR is in its spring.
Several famous bistatic SAR systems have since been designed. These are
described below.
(1) ESR/ADAS
G. Yates et al. first performed an airborne bistatic SAR experiment in the UK in
September 2002. The experimental system was funded by the Ministry of Defence
(MOD) Corporate Research Programme and designed by QinetiQ Malvern. In the
experiment, they used an enhanced surveillance radar (ESR) mounted on a
BAC1-11 airplane as the transmitter/receiver, and an airborne data acquisition
system (ADAS) mounted on a helicopter as the receiver [2]. These two radars were
about 2 km apart; both worked in the X band with the same center frequency and
bandwidth. The system worked in the spotlight mode. Figure 1.1 shows the
schematic of the ESR/ADAS system.
Fig. 1.1 Schematic of ESR/ADAS system (cf. [2])

1.1 Introduction to BiSAR Development 3
The main purpose of this experiment was to study the effects introduced by the
changing bistatic angle, incidence angle and velocity of the platform on the bistatic
SAR image. The data from the different imaging geometries were recorded.
Figure 1.2 displays part of a focused image obtained by the ESR/ADAS system.
Based on these data, bistatic SAR images at different bistatic angles were obtained
to demonstrate the feasibility of the high-resolution bistatic SAR system and
analyze the characteristics of the bistatic SAR image.
(2) E-SAR/RAMSES
In March 2003, the Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR) in
Germany and the National Office for Aerospace Studies and Research (ONERA) in
France cooperated to perform an airborne bistatic SAR experiment in Nimes, a city
in the south of France [3–5]. In this experiment, the researchers intended to test the
performance of the spaceborne bistatic SAR system, namely the famous
TerraSAR-X, and find solutions for serious design problems in bistatic SAR sys-
tems, such as the synchronization problem.
The radars used in this experiment were the E-SAR system produced by DLR
and the RAMSES system designed by ONERA. The E-SAR was mounted on a
Dornier DO228 airplane and the RAMSES was mounted on a Transall C160. These
two radar systems both worked in the X band with center frequency 140 MHz
apart. Each platform was equipped with a GPS and an INS to record parameters
during the flight and implement synchronization and motion compensation.
Fig. 1.2 Image obtained by ESR/ADAS system (cf. [2])

The schematic of the E-SAR/RAMSES system is shown in Fig. 1.3c. The details of
the two imaging geometries in this experiment are as follows.
ONERA imaging geometry: The two planes flew in parallel in the cross-track
direction for about 2 km and the geometry is shown in Fig. 1.3a. The main purpose
was to test the effect of the bistatic angle on the bistatic SAR image.
DLR imaging geometry: The two planes flew in a line. The RAMSES followed
the E-SAR by 30 m and the geometry is shown in Fig. 1.3b. The main purpose of
this mode was to test the performance of the spaceborne bistatic SAR system.
In both situations, bistatic SAR images of good quality were obtained, and the
three-dimensional topographic map was obtained using the vertical baseline.
The imaging result obtained by the E-SAR/RAMSES system is shown in Fig. 1.4.
This experiment demonstrated that the bistatic SAR could image in both the
along-track and vertical baselines, and that this system offered a possibility for
interferometry.
(3) AER-II/PAMIR
In November 2003, the Forschungsgesellschaft für Angewandte
Naturwissenschaften (FGAN) conducted similar experiments with two bistatic SAR
systems [6–8]. In this experiment, the Airborne Experimental Radar II (AER-II)
was mounted on a Dornier 228 as a transmitter and the Phased Array
z
(a) (b) z
y
y
x x
(c)
z
Fig. 1.3 Schematic of E-SAR/RAMSES system

Fig. 1.4 Image obtained by E-SAR/RAMSES system (cf. [5])
Multifunctional Imaging Radar (PAMIR) was mounted on a Transall C-160 as a

receiver. These two radars both worked in the X band, and the center frequency of
the AER-II was set equal to the center frequency of the PAMIR’s sub-band, which
was used to receive the echo from the AER-II. Figure 1.5 shows the schematic of
the AER-II/PAMIR system.
In order to explore the effect of different bistatic angles on the bistatic SAR
image, the distance between the two planes and their heights were changeable.
A precise GPS was used to record the data of the flight trajectory to guarantee the
overlap of the illuminated area by the two antenna beams. The timing synchro-
nization problem was solved by using a long time receiving window instead of
designing the part of timing synchronization. In addition, the experiments used a
skilled pilot and a specific flight plan. The final experimental image by the
AER-II/PAMIR system is compared to the optical image in Fig. 1.6.
(4) TerraSAR-X/PAMIR
A joint program executed by FGAN, ZESS and FOMAAS was initiated in 2006
[9]. Figure 1.7 shows the detailed schematic of the TerraSAR-X/PAMIR system.
This program explored almost all key techniques in bistatic SAR, and it could be
divided into several main parts, e.g., TerraPAMIR, BiFOCUS, BiSARSynch,
AtPos, SARVis and ModSAR-Sim. Its aim was to design bistatic SAR experiments
Fig. 1.5 Schematic of AER-II/PAMIR system (cf. [7])
Fig. 1.6 Image obtained by AER-II/PAMIR system (left) and optical image (right) (cf. [7])
Fig. 1.7 Schematic of TerraSAR-X/PAMIR system (cf. [9])
and develop high-quality bistatic SAR imaging algorithms. The technique of

synchronization, estimation of positions and altitudes, system simulation and
visualization were also emphasized.
Two configurations were implemented in this experiment [10, 11]. In the first,
the flight tracks of the satellite and aircraft were nearly parallel, and the aircraft was
in the main beam of the transmitter during data acquisition. To increase the antenna
footprint overlapping time, TerraSAR-X operated in a sliding spotlight mode.
PAMIR operated in the inverse sliding spotlight mode in the second configuration,
forming a double sliding mode to obtain a large azimuth scene extent at the expense
of decreased azimuth resolution. Figure 1.8a shows the processed data from the first
configuration. The scene extent is 4 km in range and 1.4 km in azimuth.
For comparison, the corresponding orthophotograph is shown in Fig. 1.8b.
Figure 1.9 shows the image result of the second configuration. The scene extent
in the flight direction is about 200 m greater than that of the first configuration. The
large azimuth scene extent of 1.6 km could be reached using antenna steering
during data acquisition with a sliding factor of 4. The scene extent in the range
direction is about 5.4 km. Figure 1.10a shows the marked section (green rectangle)
of Fig. 1.9 in comparison with the monostatic PAMIR and TerraSAR-X images.
Due to the modified data acquisition parameters for this experiment, Fig. 1.10c is
no standard product of TerraSAR-X. This leads to reduced image quality.
Nevertheless, differences in the reflectivity properties are clearly visible.
Fig. 1.8 a Bistatic SAR image processed by a bistatic backprojection algorithm. b Digital
orthophotograph captured in 2005. Copyright by Landesamt für Vermessung und Geoinformation
Bayern (cf. [11])
Fig. 1.9 Bistatic SAR image of double sliding mode
(5) Moving/Stationary Bistatic Experiments

A. German
In 2007, the Fraunhofer Institute for High Frequency Physics and Radar
Techniques FHR (Fraunhofer FHR) and the Center for Sensor Systems (ZESS)
performed a number of experiments with a stationary transmitter and moving air-
borne receiver in the Bistatic Exploration Project. In this BiSAR experiment, a
stationary X-band transmitter was operated on a hill. A PAMIR mounted on a
Transall C-160 operated as the receiver in spotlight mode. The transmitter and
receiver worked in the X-band with a common bandwidth of 380 MHz and a center
Fig. 1.10 Comparison of an image detail of a the bistatic imagewith TerraSAR-X and PAMIR
b Monostatic image with PAMIR, c Monostatic image with TerraSAR-X.(cf. [11])
frequency of 9.65 GHz. The effective composite exposure time in azimuth was 6 s.
The transmitter was above the Rhine valley near the city of Bonn [12]. The optical
and processed bistatic SAR image are shown in Fig. 1.11.
Fig. 1.11 Images of Rhein, Germany. a Optical image from Google Earth. b BiSAR image (cf. [12])
The Center for Sensor Systems started the HITCHHIKER project in 2009. The
goal was to develop a passive high-resolution receiver system to perform a series of
bistatic experiments using the German TerraSAR-X system as illuminator to
demonstrate the feasibility of high-resolution bistatic imaging with a stationary
receiver [13–15].
The receiver system was augmented in 2010 to make it a fully functional bistatic
one-pass interferometer to acquire high-resolution DEMs. It was further upgraded
in 2011 with the integration of a modular and flexible high-bandwidth transmitter
component, making it a fully operational active bistatic or monostatic radar sensor.
The results are shown in Fig. 1.12, with the image in radar coordinates at the top
and the ground coordinates at the bottom. The horizontal coordinate in the radar
coordinate image is the bistatic range to the targets, which is approximately twice
the ground distance. The vertical scaling was chosen to match the ground
Fig. 1.12 Top image shows the focused bistatic SAR image in radar coordinates. The bottom
image shows the focused bistatic SAR image in Cartesian ground coordinates. The interferometric
phase present in this image represents differences of the target height to the SRTM-3 DEM, which
is used during processing. The QR code leads to a map of the target area (cf. [13])
coordinate image, which is presented isometrically. The color represents the

interferometric phase in both datasets, but as the ground coordinate result was
focused using a height model for the scene, the phase difference is compensated for,
except for a residual phase resulting from the difference between the height of the
model and the actual height of the targets. A grid of ellipsoidal coordinates is
overlaid on the ground coordinate image.
B. Spanish
In 2006, the Remote Sensing Laboratory of the Universitat Politècnica de
Catalunya (UPC) developed a C-band receiver for a ground-based bistatic-SAR
system called the SAR bistatic receiver for interferometric applications
(SABRINA), using the European Space Agency’s (ESA) ERS-2 and ENVISAT as
transmitters of opportunity [16, 17]. Results obtained using SABRINA from two
data sets with different bistatic geometries, backscattering and forward scattering,
are presented to exploit the interferometric performance of the system and
demonstrate particular features of the scene that the bistatic radar is sensitive. The
data were acquired in Barcelona, Spain, over two different areas. The backscattering
data were obtained using ERS-2 as the transmitter of opportunity, while the
forward-scattering dataset was obtained using ENVISAT. The passes were
descending in both cases.
Figure 1.13a shows the geocoded power of both SAR images superposed on a
rotated orthophoto of the area. The backscattered and forward-scattered power are
on the left and right sides of the image, respectively. The resulting DEM combining
both acquisitions is shown in Fig. 1.13b, which clearly matches the underlying
topography. From Fig. 1.13c, comparing with a reference DTM, it can be con-
cluded that the height differences are mainly due to the buildings. The experimental
data have allowed the validation of the interferometric processing chain and have
highlighted the particularities of bistatic geometries. More detailed information can
be seen in [16].
(6) Development of BiSAR in China
In the last ten years, many research organizations, such as the Institute of
Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (IECAS) [18–23], University of
Electronic Science and Technology of China (UESTC) [24], Xidian University
[25], Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics (BUAA) and Beijing
Institute of Technology (BIT) [26, 27], have focused their attention on the bistatic
SAR technique, and several research projects are proceeding at a brisk pace. They
have made great contributions to the development of BiSAR theory and applica-
tions in China.
Since 2009, IECAS has conducted a series of multi-baseline interferometric
experiments with TerraSAR-X as an illuminator [18–23]. In 2013, IECAS con-
structed the experimental system and performed the experiments in Mangshan,
Beijing. Further experiments have been conducted with TerraSAR-X operating in
staring-spotlight mode in 2014 and 2015. The fixed receiver platform is mounted on
a hill inside the illuminated zone with an altitude of 341 m. From the XML file, the
Fig. 1.13 a Bistatic reflectivity of the scene. b Obtained DEM using the bistatic backscattering
and forward-scattering interferometric data. c Height difference between the DEM produced using
the bistatic data and the DTM
instant transient velocity was about 7600 m/s and the antenna was steered in ST
mode with a steering span of 4.4°. By adapting the beam pointing of the receiver
antenna, a maximum composite footprint was obtained. Due to the effect of the
curved satellite orbit, the estimated equivalent velocity in monostatic midrange is
7.361 km/s. The SS-BiSAR imagery was collected in a backscatter geometry. The
focused BiSAR image is shown in Fig. 1.14.
Benefiting from the very high-resolution (VHR) of TerraSAR-X in
staring-spotlight (ST) mode, more details and a better interferometric phase error
can be expected from the multichannel bistatic InSAR experiment. However,
challenges also arise due to the specific geometry and limited device performance.
First, the synchronization errors introduced by multiple channels cause a serious
impact on the interferometric application. Second, the methods in traditional
interferometric flow are not suitable for the bistatic InSAR configuration. Hence, a
complete approach is proposed, which includes the multichannel synchronization
Fig. 1.14 Staring spotlight BiSAR image. Copyright by IECAS
strategy and modified interferometric steps. In this study, the DEM reconstruction
for urban and mountain areas and the analysis was carried out, based on the use of
the complete approach. The multichannel results agree well with GPS observations,
which demonstrates that the experimental configuration and the approach have
satisfactory potential. The height profile reconstruction of the build in the scene is
shown in Fig. 1.15b.
1.1.1 History of Theoretical Research
Due to the separation of the transmitter and the receiver, the imaging process of
bistatic SAR is quite different from that of monostatic SAR. With the development
of bistatic SAR systems and the implementation of a variety of bistatic SAR
experiments, bistatic SAR imaging algorithms have made great progress in recent
years.
In 1991, Soumekh first proposed a range migration algorithm (RMA) for the
bistatic SAR configuration with a parallel track and equal velocity of the transmitter
and receiver [1]. The geometry model used in this algorithm is relatively simple. In
this geometry, the targets are supposed to be placed in the same plane with the
transmitter and receiver. The signal expression of each target in the central line of
the scene in the Doppler domain can be attained under the assumption that the wave
beam angle is small. This algorithm is proposed by extending the RMA algorithm
in monostatic SAR.
A back-projection algorithm (BPA) is a common imaging algorithm using a
match filtering method to process a signal in the time domain [28]. It not only can
have good imaging quality without any approximation but also can be applied to all
kinds of bistatic SAR configurations. In the imaging process, it just needs to utilize
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1.15 The DEM reconstruction results for the urban area. The buildings are marked by the
black boxes
the response function of the target point to match the signal. However, this algo-
rithm has poor processing efficiency. It takes too much time and is usually
impracticable. Several fast BP algorithms have recently been proposed. Ding [29],
proposed an algorithm whose complexity can be reduced from OðN 3 Þ to
OðN 2 log2 N Þ. Though the speed has been increased, computation is still
time-consuming.
Rigling et al. [30] developed the polar formation algorithm (PFA) in a monos-
tatic SAR to apply to the bistatic SAR in 2004. It can focus well, especially in
spotlight mode, in all kinds of bistatic SAR configurations. This algorithm can
focus well by performing a coordinate rotation and accomplishing two-dimensional
interpolations. It has the characteristics of simplification and minimal calculation.

Also, it is easy to combine this method with phase gradient algorithm (PGA) to
complete motion compensation. However, the algorithm only works well in
effective scenarios which have limited size, and under the assumption of a plane
wave. One must implement wavefront correction after implementing this algorithm
to obtain a well-focused image in the large-scale scene.
Fresnel approximation is used to implement a second-order Taylor expansion of
the slant range between the target and the transmitter and the receiver. Based on
that, a chirp scaling algorithm (CS) is proposed for airborne bistatic SAR imaging
[31], which could work well when the slant angle is zero or nearly zero.
Neo and Wong extended the non-linear chirp scaling algorithm (NCS) [32] in a
monostatic SAR to a bistatic SAR in 2004 [33]. It first implements the range
compression and performs linear range cell migration (RCM) correction using
linear interpolation. Targets in the same range gate will then have different azimuth
frequency modulation, since the slant range from these targets to the transmitter and
the receiver are different. A perturbation function in the azimuth is then utilized in
order to align the azimuth frequency modulation of the targets in the same range
gate to be the same. Finally, targets in the same range gate can be compressed with
the same matched filter. However, the perturbation function will introduce position
displacement and spectrum shift. In any event, this algorithm only works well in the
case of a small bistatic angle. When the bistatic angle becomes large, the imaging
quality will deteriorate. Based on this algorithm, the researchers present several
methods to solve the above problems.
Loffeld et al. [34] presented an imaging algorithm based on the new calculation
method of the two-dimensional spectrum, namely Loffeld Bistatic Form (LBF). It
first performs the Taylor expansion at the stationary phase points for the phase
introduced by the transmitter and receiver, respectively. A public stationary phase
point is then calculated to obtain the signal expression in the Doppler domain.
The LBF model can image well with small slant angles, but performs quite poorly
when the slant angle increases. To handle that problem, Robert Wang et al. pro-
posed an extended LBF (ELBF) model [35]. The public stationary phase point is
calculated by changing the ratio of each stationary phase point based on the slant
angle. Based on LBF and ELBF, several algorithms have been proposed to improve
imaging quality [36].
Ender et al. [37] proposed a wave domain algorithm for bistatic SAR. It first uses
the numerical computation method to build two-dimensional match filtering kernel
functions in the situation of different azimuth frequencies, range frequencies and
slant ranges. A linear approximating method is then used to obtain an approxi-
mation expression of the kernel function. Finally, the range cell migration can be
corrected by interpolation. This algorithm is suitable for most bistatic SAR con-
figurations with parallel tracks. However, it requires extensive computation because
the kernel function must be built at each frequency point. The two-dimensional
interpolation also increases the computational complexity. A monostatic equivalent
method is another kind of imaging algorithm for a bistatic SAR [38–40]. It looks for
a way to make the signal suitable for the monostatic SAR case, avoiding complex
formula derivations. A monostatic SAR algorithm is then fine for the compensated
signal. On this basis, several algorithms have been proposed. In [38], the bistatic
SAR is considered as a monostatic SAR that transmits and receives the signal in the
middle point of the baseline of the bistatic SAR. In [39] and [40], the bistatic SAR
is considered as a monostatic SAR, which transmits and receives the signal at the
intersection point of the bistatic angle bisecting line and the bistatic base line. These
methods work well when the bistatic base line is short, the slant angle is small and
the scene is not large. Otherwise, a serious two-dimensional spatial-variant will be
introduced to the imaging process, making it more difficult for imaging by these
monostatic equivalent methods.
Hence, we are still a long way from finding a more adaptive and effective
imaging algorithm for the bistatic SAR.
1.1.2 Advantages and Application Prospects
(1) Interferometry
In general, it is necessary to record two coherent signals with two separate
antennas for interferometry. For monostatic SAR, there are usually two methods for
interference measurement. One is to fly twice along the same flight path. However,
the difficulty of this method increases due to problems such as achieving the same
flight path and achieving timing coherence. Another one can also install two
antennas on the same SAR system. During one flight, two groups of coherent
signals can be gotten. However, the size of the platform limits the length of the
interferometric baseline, which can influence the resolution in the height mea-
surement. However, for bistatic SAR, the above restrictions can be circumvented
due to the flexible configurations of the two antennas. Figure 1.16 shows the high
resolution and accuracy DEM acquired by TanDEM-X.
(2) Surface Feature Recognition
Bistatic SAR can obtain the RCS of the target in different directions by adjusting
the beam pointing of the transmitter and receiver. This will not only help to acquire
the surface roughness and dielectric constant, but will also contribute to studying
the scattering mechanism of the surface clutter. Figure 1.17 shows the RCS of a
fighter aircraft at different bistatic angles. Since the RCS changes with the bistatic
angle, bistatic SAR helps to enhance the capability of image classification and
recognition. In addition, bistatic SAR can avoid strong backward scattering on the
tops of buildings in urban areas, lower the image dynamic range and improve the
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the moving target.
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PERITONITIS IN BIRDS.
From caponizing, accidental traumas, ruptured oviduct, perforations of bowels

by foreign bodies or worms, pyogenic susceptibility slight. Symptoms: inappetence,
drooping head, wings, tail, erect plumage, stiffness, straining, tense, tender,
pendent belly. Treatment: unload cloaca, puncture and irrigate abdomen,
laxatives. Prophylaxis, by laxative food, expulsion of worms, antisepsis in
operations, unloading cloaca, etc.
Causes. Male birds contract peritonitis from caponizing, and other

penetrating wounds of the abdomen, from rupture of the oviduct
impacted with egg matter, from perforations of the intestines by
foreign bodies, and from perforations by worms.
The danger from ordinary pyogenic germs is, however, at its
minimum, since birds stand at the opposite extreme from the horse,
and their wounds rarely suppurate.
Symptoms. The bird loses appetite, droops head, wings and tail,
ruffles its feathers, walks stiffly and heavily, and expels fæces with
much effort and even with cries. When caught the abdomen is found
to be full, tense and pendent and very tender to the touch. There is
more or less hyperthermia (108° and upward), and the subject
becomes more and more dull, stupid and feeble until death.
Treatment. In certain cases relief may be had by the unloading of
the cloaca, or the evacuation of peritoneal fluid, followed by
antiseptic, irrigation of the cavity. Laxatives may also be resorted to.
The most important measures are however prophylactic, and run in
the direction of careful manipulation and antisepsis in caponizing,
the unloading of impacted cloaca, before it has developed serious
disease, the maintenance of a suitably laxative diet, and the
prevention and treatment of worms. In case of tumors causing
chronic peritonitis, laparotomy can be resorted to with great
confidence.
ASCITES IN SOLIPEDS.
Causes: follows peritonitis, obstruction of portal vein, tumors, hepatic diseases,

pressure on posterior cava, dilated right heart, heaves, ovarian disease, nephritis or
kidney degeneration, hydroæmia. Symptoms: slow advance, pot-bellied, with
fluctuation, hollow above, dropsy in limbs, sheath and under belly, percussion
sound flat below, weakness, debility, no fever. Diagnosis: Absence of fever, and of
fibrine, cells and granules in effusion. Lesions: those of primary disease, amount
and composition of effusion. Treatment: treat primary disease glandular swelling
or actinomycosis, iodide of potassium, remove diseased ovary or tumor, draw off
fluid, compress abdomen, saline laxatives, diuretics, iodides, pilocarpin, electricity,
bitters.
Causes. Ascites may be a remnant of a pre-existing chronic

peritonitis, or it may occur from any obstruction of the portal vein,
such as compression by organized false membranes, thrombus, in
the vessel, or pressure by lympadenoma in the portal fissure,
melanosis, sarcoma and other tumors. It results from cirrhosis and
other diseases of the liver which retard its circulation, from pressure
on the posterior vena cava, from insufficiency of the right auriculo-
ventricular valves, from dilatation of the right heart, and from heaves
or other obstruction in the pulmonic circulation. Other causes are
cystic or other disease of the ovary, diseases of the kidney and
hydroæmia, the latter two tending to general œdema as well as
ascites.
Symptoms. The disease comes on slowly and insidiously and at
first it usually passes unnoticed. When more fully developed the
abdomen is distended but somewhat pendent (pot-bellied),
fluctuating below, with falling in beneath the lumbar transverse
processes. Later the whole abdomen may be full, rounded, smooth
and tense, and the hind limbs œdematous to above the fetlocks or
hocks. There may be œdema of the sheath or lower wall of the
abdomen. Fluctuation can still be felt as a shock when an assistant
makes sudden concussion with the fist on the opposite side from that
on which the hand is pressed. This may be felt even more distinctly
by the hand introduced into the rectum. Percussion gives a flat sound
below and more or less resonant above. The pulse is small, weak, and
accelerated, heart beats irritable (sometimes palpitating), and
respiration labored and with lifting of the flank. From first to last
there is no hyperthermia.
If the cause is irremediable the issue is necessarily fatal sooner or
later.
Diagnosis from peritonitis depends largely on the absence of
hyperthermia, and of abdominal tenderness, and on the nature of the
ascitic fluid which is incoagulable, and comparatively destitute of
leucocytes cells and granules.
Lesions. The quantity of effused liquid is often enormous (50 qts.
Reynal, 80 qts. Woodger, 150 qts. Friedberger and Fröhner). It is
very watery and poor in salts and albuminoids, of a density near
1012, neutral or slightly alkaline, does not coagulate spontaneously,
and is not associated with false membranes. The peritoneum shows
no congestion, but is pale, and, like the abdominal walls, infiltrated.
Tumors, cysts and venous obstructions referred to under causes may
be found.
Treatment. When ascites depends on actinomycosis or glandular
enlargement a course of iodide of potassium may remove the cause.
In other cases an operation may remove the offending tumor or
ovary. Too often, however, the cause is beyond remedy and palliative
treatment only is available. The most urgent indication is the
removal of the accumulated fluid, and paracentesis under proper
antiseptic precautions is the readiest means to this end. Compression
by a tight bandage is necessary to prevent the sensation of vacuity
and tendency to fainting which come from the removal of the fluid
and to counteract the disposition to the instant effusion of more.
Even with the compress it is judicious not to draw off all of the fluid
at once in bad cases, but to make two or three operations and allow
the patient to become accustomed to the change in the intervals.
These may be repeated as circumstances demand. Saline purgatives,
or diuretics (saltpetre 1 oz., digitalis 25 grs., squill 3 ozs., iodide of
potassium 2 drs.), are useful, and pilocarpin is the most efficient
agent of this kind, but also dangerous by reason of the extreme
depletion which it causes. Electricity has been employed with alleged
advantage, also poultices of digitalis applied over the loins.
Cholagogues are also recommended especially in cases of liver
disease. Bitters may prove useful.
ASCITES IN RUMINANTS.
Causes: as in horse, tuberculosis, in sheep distomatosis, chills when heated and

fatigued. Symptoms: pot-belly, fluctuating on percussion, gives flat sound, debility,
pallid mucosæ, sunken eyes, superficial dropsies on belly, in limbs, and under jaw,
in distomatosis, great emaciation, weakness, paperskin, ova of distoma in fæces.
Diagnosis: from ruptured bladder by passage of urine, and perhaps by sex, and
absence of urinous odor in liquid, from hydrometra by fluctuation over whole
belly. Lesions: those of solipeds, also tubercles or enlarged gall ducts with
distomata. Treatment: as for solipeds. Tuberculosis demands separation or
destruction, distomatosis, prevention.
Causes. These are in the main those which operate in the horse
and need not be repeated. In cattle, however, the affection is to a
large extent the result of abdominal tuberculosis, while in sheep it is
a constant result of advanced distomatosis. Gellé says it is common
in working oxen, which are turned out, hot and perspiring, to pass
the night in cold and wet.
Symptoms. The belly is enlarged and pendent, bulging out back of
the ribs, with fluctuation and dullness on percussion. The animal is
in very low condition, the mucosæ pale or yellowish white, the eyes
dull and sunken, panting and palpitations may be roused on the least
exertion, and swellings often appear along the lower aspect of the
body and between the branches of the lower jaw. In distomatosis it is
common to find dropsy of the chest, pallor and attenuation of the
skin, complete absence of the subcutaneous fat (paperskin), and
great emaciation and weakness. Ova of the distoma can be found in
the fæces. (See distomatosis). By turning the sheep on its back or
setting it up on its croup the percussion dullness will be made to
shift, always to the dependent part of the abdomen.
Diagnosis. From rupture of the bladder it is distinguished, by its
occurrence in females as well as males, by the absence of fever, and
of the complete suppression of urine and emptiness and tenderness
of the bladder which characterize the latter. Liquid drawn from the
abdomen has no urinous odor. From hydrometra, pyometra, and
hydramnios it is distinguished by the fact that the water accumulates
in the lower part of the abdomen, and is not confined to the womb.
On rectal exploration the outline of the empty womb is made out.
Lesions. Besides the lesions described for solipeds, one finds in
cattle, tuberculosis of the liver, spleen, and lymph glands, and
extensive clusters of tubercles on the peritoneum. In sheep the white
branching lines on the back of the liver may indicate the distension
of gall ducts infested by distomata.
Treatment does not differ from that recommended for solipeds. In
tuberculous cases, sanitary considerations demand the destruction of
the animal and disinfection of the carcass. In distomatosis treatment
must be preventive, as the distomata are difficult to reach with
vermifuges.
ASCITES IN CARNIVORA.
Causes: obstructed flow of blood in hepatic, portal or renal veins, or in vena
cava, renal, heart, liver or splenic diseases, pulmonary congestion, asthma,
tuberculosis. Symptoms: pot-belly, hollow above, drooping back and loins, flat
percussion sound and fluctuation, change of position changes area of flatness,
anæmia, debility, scanty urine, diarrhœa, no fever. Diagnosis: absence of fever,
general fluctuation changing its seat by turning the patient, not confined to a given
organ like the bladder or womb. Lesions: quantity and composition of liquid,
lesions of primary diseases. Treatment: Correct if possible the primary disease,
evacuate the liquid, compress on abdomen, iodine solution for irrigation, saline
purgatives, diuretics, pilocarpine, bitters, iron, sunshine.
Causes. Ascites is generally the result of some obstruction to the
return of blood from some abdominal organ, but may also come from
renal disease, or hydroæmia in which general dropsy is likely to
occur. The dog is specially subject to heart disease, and disease of the
right heart (tricuspid insufficiency, dilatation, hydro-pericarditis,
fatty degeneration, etc.) throws the blood back on the whole venous
system and the extensive and dilatable portal veins are especially
liable to suffer. Diseases of the liver, so common in pampered house
dogs, still more directly block the portal circulation and induce
ascites. Tumors in the liver or spleen or in the lymph glands of the
porta act in this way, also cirrhosis, tuberculosis, cancer, hepatic
congestion, and degeneration. Constrictions of the vena portæ by
false membranes the result of former peritonitis must also be
recognized. As more distant causes, must be named obstruction to
the pulmonary circulation, as in congestion, asthma, tuberculosis
and diseases of the left heart. Seventy-eight cases were traced as
follows: to diseases of the heart and pericardium, 10; to tuberculosis,
8; to pleurisy, 4; to malignant tumors of the liver and lung, 2; to
hepatic disease without heart lesion, 3; to cancer of the liver, 1;
(Cadiot).
Symptoms. Enlargement of the belly is marked and peculiar, the
liquid accumulating below, pushing outward the lower ends of the
ribs, and making the lower part of the abdomen baggy while the
upper part, under the lumbar transverse processes, is flattened or
hollow. The back and loins droop forming a concavity superiorly, so
that the belly may almost drag on the ground. On palpation this
pendent abdominal sac gives the sensation of a mobile fluid without
the usual firm outlines of the intestinal masses, and when percussed
it gives out a flat, dull sound and produces a fluctuation or shock at
the opposite side of the abdomen. In the upper part of the abdomen
over the hollow flank more or less resonance is found. If the animal
is made to stand on his hind limbs the saccular dilatation and
flatness on percussion are in the region adjoining the pelvis; if held
up by its hind limbs they are transferred to the epigastric and
hypochondriac regions and the respiration is seriously interfered
with; if turned upon his back, the resonance is obtained on the linea
alba and at each side, while the percussion dullness is next to the
vertebræ. The clearness of the fluctuation is in ratio with the amount
of liquid present.
As in other animals, there are anæmia, pale mucosæ, poor
condition, thin, dry, unhealthy skin, weak pulse, irritable heart and
interference with respiration proportionate to the amount of liquid.
The urine is scanty, and there may be diarrhœa.
Diagnosis. From advanced or chronic peritonitis it is distinguished
by the history or evidence of diseased liver, heart, or kidney, the
absence of hyperthermia or abdominal tenderness, and the absence
in the ascitic fluid, extracted with a hypodermic needle, of blood
globules, or leucocytes in numbers, of false membranes, of excess of
salts, or of a tendency to coagulate firmly.
From overdistended bladder it is diagnosed by its slow, and
gradual development, and the change of fluctuation to the most
dependent part no matter what position is given to the patient,
whereas the tense bladder can be felt through the abdominal walls,
extending forward from the pelvis under all circumstances.
From ruptured bladder there is the same distinguishing feature of
slow development, the absence of symptoms of uræmic poisoning, of
tenderness of the bladder, and of suppression of urine, and also of
the urinous odor in the ascitic liquid obtained with the hypodermic
needle.
From advanced gestation the differentiation is found in the general
diffusion of the swelling and fluctuation, which is not confined as in
gestation to the mobile uterine horns, with a series of enlargements
each containing a solid nodular fœtus.
From hydrometra and pyometra there are the same
pathognomonic differential features of the general diffusion of the
swelling among the intestines, and its accumulation in one
fluctuating mass at the most dependent part of the abdomen.
Tympany of the bowels causes uniform drumlike resonance, and
the swelling does not sag and fluctuate in the lower part of the
abdomen.
Abdominal obesity in old dogs gives the rounded swollen
abdomen, but there is an entire absence of the pendulous and
fluctuating features, and when punctured with the hypodermic
needle it furnishes no fluid.
From tuberculosis it is distinguished by the absence of nasal
discharge, or of tubercle bacilli in such discharge, or in the ascitic
fluid, and the latter inoculated on guinea pigs or rabbits does not
cause tuberculosis. The tuberculin test may also be resorted to.
Lesions. The liquid exudate has been found to amount to 30 or 40
quarts in large dogs (Hordt). It is often clear and translucent, of
amber tint, though in some cases it is slightly opaque, or reddish
yellow. It may remain fluid after extraction or again it may form a
loose jelly. It may be red in case of soft tumors or other neoplasms.
The liquid is very watery but may contain a considerable amount of
fatty globules or granules, and a few epithelial cells and leucocytes.
The peritoneum is pale or in advanced cases dull white from fatty
degeneration of the epithelium.
Treatment. The first consideration is the removal of the cause. If
this is a mere vicious action of the peritoneum, or the presence of a
thrombus, or of operable tumor, or even of curable disease of the
liver or kidneys, success may be hoped for, while in dilatation of the
heart, insufficiency of the cardiac valves, irremediable disease of the
lungs, liver or kidney, or malignant or inoperable tumor no such
result can be hoped for.
Apart from the removal of the cause the first indication is to
evacuate the liquid and this may be done with a large hypodermic
needle or small cannula and trochar inserted by preference on or
near the linea alba while the animal is in a standing position. Skin
and instrument should be rendered thoroughly aseptic, and a
bandage should be wrapped round the abdomen and gradually
tightened as the liquid escapes. This to a large extent obviates the
tendency to faint, or to cerebral anæmia which has caused sudden
death in a number of cases. It also to some extent counteracts the
sudden effusion of blood in the abdomen, which is at times
determined by the sense of vacuity.
Injection of a solution of iodine (tincture of iodine 1 pt., iodide of
potassium 1 pt., boiled water 20 pts.) has been employed sometimes
with success, but in other cases it has roused a fatal inflammation. It
is best adapted to a simple morbid, relaxed state of the peritoneum.
Saline purgatives (sulphate of soda or magnesia) are especially
useful in constipated cases and should be pushed in continuous
action, as far as the strength of the animal will warrant. By depletion
from the portal system they oppose the tendency to mechanical
transudation, while by rendering the portal blood more dense they
strongly solicit endosmosis from the adjacent peritoneum.
Diuretics have been used extensively and with benefit. They may
prove injurious in a kidney that is already the seat of irritation and
yet after all be the least of two evils. In some cases instead, the
resulting dilution of a dense and irritating urine is directly soothing
to the tender kidney. Saltpeter (10 to 15 grs.), acetate of soda (15 to
30 grs.), squills (1 to 2 scr.), may be repeated so as to keep up a free
action. Pilocarpine (subcutem) (¹⁄₁₀₆ to ¹⁄₃₀ gr. daily), has removed
the ascitic fluid in 14 days (Zahn), but its action is always to be
dreaded in a weak system, or with a diseased heart, or lungs.
A supporting bandage on the abdomen is always useful as
counteracting the tendency to vacuity and further transudation.
A course of bitters and iron, and a supporting diet, and out door
life (sunshine) are important elements in treatment.
DISEASES OF THE LIVER.
In veterinary and medical works the diseases of the liver have been
accorded a minor place, ill in keeping with the great physiological
importance of the organ. If the function of the liver were
circumscribed by the mere secretion of bile there would be some
excuse for the apparent neglect, as the gland is so deeply situated and
so much enveloped in surrounding organs that physical exploration
is difficult and somewhat unsatisfactory, and the one symptom of
jaundice was long relied on as indicating hepatic disorder.
Taking into account all the varied functions of the liver we realize
the wide-reaching nature of its physiological influence and the
extensive and varied effect of its disorders. We can also deduce, with
greater or lesser certainty, the existence of hepatic disorders from the
morbid conditions of the blood or of organs, the functions of which
are inter-dependent with those of the liver. To elucidate the subject it
is well to trace some of the most prominent functions of the liver; the
following considerations are submitted.
SANGUIFICATION IN THE LIVER.
Glycogenic function. Glycogen derived through glucose and laevulose from

starch, glycerine, milk and cane sugars. Less from proteids. Peptones as a source.
Its use in cell growth and heat production, in white blood cells, in contracting
muscle, becoming lactic acid. Excess dissolves red globules, setting free
hæmoglobin. Ammonia carbonate and asparagin increases it. Arsenic, phosphorus
or antimony arrests glycogenesis. Liver increases leucocytes, and reduces size of
red globules. Reduction of proteids. Fibrine formers reduced, urea formed; liver
inactivity means less of soluble urea, and more of less soluble and more dangerous
products. Urea increases with hepatic circulation. Hepatic disorder and
suppression of urine dangerous. Red globules probably destroyed. Bile: Amount,
uses, oil solvent, helps endosmosis, deodorant, stimulates glycogenesis, excretory.
Source of bile pigments, tests. Bile acids, dissolve blood globules, antiseptic, tests.
Bile increased by; bile absorbed from bowel, olive oil, salol, salicylates, benzoic
acid and benzoates, turpentine, terpene, terpinol, euonymus, alkalies, arsenic,
ether. Agents lessening biliary secretion, starvation, excess of fat, alkaline iodides,
atropia, strychnia, hepatic diseases, septic duodenal fermentation. Arrest in liver of
copper, iron, iodides, bromides, nicotine, quinine, morphia, curare, toxic bile
products, ptomaines, toxins. Reduces toxicity of peptones, casein, ammonia salts,
indol, phenol.
The liver is the goal to which most of the products of gastric and
intestinal digestion are carried by the portal vein. In the hepatic cells
large quantities of glycogen, 6 (C6H10O5) + H2O, are stored up after
each meal. This is believed to be derived largely from the
transformation of glucose, (C6H12O6) and laevulose (C6H12O6) which
have been produced from starch in the alimentary canal and
conveyed by the portal vein to the liver. By the liberal use of starch,
glycerine, or the sugars of milk, fruit or cane, (but not mannite, or
glycol, or inosite) the glycogen is very greatly increased (to 12 per
cent. in the fowl), but it is diminished on a purely albuminous diet.
Yet it can be produced from albuminous food, as it is always
increased in the dog after a meal of flesh, and is largely present in the
livers of carnivorous animals that have been fed for a month on flesh
only (Landois). The peptones are therefore decomposed in the liver
with the production of glycogen and such waste products as leucin
and tyrosin, which are finally resolved into urea. A purely fatty diet
diminishes it enormously and during prolonged abstinence it
practically disappears. It passes, not into the bile, but into the
hepatic veins, and the general circulation, where it serves in its
decomposition to generate heat, and probably to hasten cell growth.
In the vegetable and animal world, in the germinating seed, and in
cartilage, muscle and epidermis of the fœtus and in the amnios,
glycogen and glucose are found in abundance. The liver, too, the
great center for the production of glycogen, is relatively much larger
in the young and growing animal, and also in the adult animal which
has great power of assimilation.
Glycogen is always present in the white blood globules so long as
they maintain their vitality and amœboid movements, but when they
die, it is replaced by sugar (Hoppe-Seyler). The red blood globules
give up a ferment which rapidly transforms glycogen into sugar.
Glycogen and sugar are evidently of use in muscular contraction as
they are always diminished in the vessels of contracting muscles
(Sanderson), being converted into lactic acid (Bernard).
Forced muscular movements soon expel glycogen from the dog’s
liver, passing it into the blood, and there the excess of glycogen
dissolves the red blood globules. If glycogen is injected into the
blood, achrodextrin and hæmaglobin appear in the urine (Landois).
Ammonia carbonate and asparagin, or glycin, with a carbhydrate
diet produced in rabbits a considerable increase of glycogen
(Rohmann).
Poisoning by arsenic, phosphorus or antimony destroys the
glycogenic function of the liver, which then fails to respond even to
diabetic puncture of the medulla.
There are important changes effected in the blood globules in
passing through the liver. The leucocytes are increased, the hepatic
veins containing 5 or even 10 times as many as the portal vein
(Bernard, Lehmann, McDonald). Their ratio to the red globules is in
the portal vein 1:524 and in the hepatic veins 1:136 (Hirt). The red
globules undergo marked changes, having, in the hepatic veins, a
smaller size, sharper outlines, less flattening in the disc, a habit of
massing together irregularly in place of adhering in rouleaux, and
they dissolve less readily in water.
REDUCTION OF ALBUMINOIDS.
A large proportion of the fibrine formers are changed in passing

through the liver (Lehmann, Bernard), in man as much as 2,690
grammes daily (Brown Sequard), a fact which goes to account for the
increase of fibrine in inflammation when the liver is inactive. The
change consists mainly in deoxidation and reduction into simpler
compounds which can be more readily dissolved and eliminated.
Arrest of the liver functions in fever is therefore liable to throw into
the blood, products that are little soluble and often poisonous. The
end product is largely urea, and this Cyon always found in excess in
the hepatic veins of dogs (in the portal veins 0.08 grammes, and in
the hepatic veins 0.14 to 0.17 grammes). In man hepatic disorder is
at once marked by the lessening or disappearance of urea from the
urine, and the increase of the less oxidized uric acid (Parkes). In
acute atrophy of the liver, urea disappears from the urine, being
replaced by the less oxidized leucin and tyrosin (Frerichs,
Murchison). In birds urea is replaced by uric acid and this is always
found in the liver.
The increase of urea and allied products bears a direct relation to
the activity of the hepatic circulation. Stimulation of the liver by
electric current sent through the abdominal walls largely increased
the secretion of urea (Sigrist, Stolnikow, Schröder and Salomon).
Murchison, Perrin and Bruardel had a great increase of urea by
stimulating the circulation in the liver. Certain agents ingested are
transformed into urea, among which may be named glycocolle,
brucin, asparagin, sarcine, alanine, and ammonia muriate.
Any degeneration of the hepatic cells which impairs or arrests their
functions lessens the production of urea. In fevers therefore and in
hepatic degenerations the extent of the functional or structural
derangement may be to a large extent gauged by the diminution of
urea. A simple hyperæmia, without as yet any serious impairment of
structure or function, may be attended by a marked increase of urea,
whereas any destruction of the liver cells, or any serious modification
which interferes with the normal function, brings about a decided
decrease. A hepatic disorder accompanied by suppression of urine is
always a grave disorder. On the contrary a free secretion of urine
during liver disease is a favorable symptom.
There is reason to believe that red blood globules are destroyed in
the healthy liver, producing bilirubin and urea (Landois). In diseased
states this becomes excessive, and the resulting coloring matter is
often modified, giving the strong tints, seen in the urine in fever and
certain hepatic disorders.
SECRETION OF BILE.
The secretion of bile is but a small part of the function of the liver,
and that is by no means a purely eliminating process. Man secretes
in twenty-four hours about 10 parts per 1,000 of body weight, the
dog 14 to 15, the cat 15 to 20, the sheep 25, the rabbit 130, the
Guinea-pig 170, the goose 12 (Cadeac), the horse 12 (Colin). But the
amount varies largely; Scott found that a dog yielded 21, and Kölliker
that another yielded 36 per 1,000 of the body weight.
Only about one-fourth of the biliary acids (Bischoff, Voigt), and
one-eighth of the sulphur (Bidder and Schmidt) of the bile can be
found in the fæces. Most of the bile is re-absorbed from the intestine
and secreted anew, so that, in the course of twenty-four hours, the
material secreted serves the same purpose again and again. During
this repetition of secretion and absorption, it becomes little by little
metamorphosed into other products, which are eliminated by the
lungs and kidneys (Parkes, Murchison).
The functions of the bile so far as known are:
a. The solution of alimentary matters, and especially of fat, in the
intestine, and the hastening of endosmosis, of fats and peptones;
b. The stimulation of peristalsis in the bowel;
c. Antisepsis and deodorization of the contents of the bowels;
d. The determination of the formation of glycogen;
e. The excretion of bile coloring matter, bile acids and cholesterine.
In regard to the glycogenic action it may be said that in cats, the
bile ducts of which have been tied, no glycogen was formed, even
when the diabetic puncture of the brain was made (Legg). Clinical
observation seems to throw some doubt on the formation of bile
coloring matter apart from the liver. In diseased liver with
suspended secretion of bile (waxy and fatty degeneration, cancer,
cirrhosis) the bile pigment was found in neither blood nor urine
(Frerichs, Murchison, Haspell, Budd). Even after extirpation of the
liver in frogs, neither biliary acid nor pigment could be found in the
blood (Müller, Lehmann, Moleschott). These results must, however,
be qualified by the observations of Hammersten who found bilirubin
as a normal constituent of blood serum in the horse, and by
Virchow’s discovery that hæmatoidin (now held to be identical with
bilirubin) is constantly found in old blood extravasations into the
tissues.
The origin of the bile coloring matters may be traced in part to
destruction of red globules in the liver. Quincke has shown that in
the hepatic capillaries in post-embryonic life the leucocytes englobe
and destroy the old and worn out red blood corpuscles which thus
become a source of bile coloring matter. Such destruction is specially
likely to occur in badly maintained conditions of the blood, and in
hepatitis or other liver disease in which the white cells accumulate in
the hepatic capillaries, and when the blood current is retarded.
Hence the liability to jaundice in such conditions. The formation of
new red blood corpuscles has been observed in the protoplasmic cells
of the liver in the embryo, but this has not been established for post-
embryonic life (Neumann, Lowit).
The two common coloring matters of the bile are bilirubin which
colors the yellow bile of man, omnivora, and carnivora and
biliverdin which tints the dark green bile of herbivora. Bilirubin
(C32H36N4O6) forms transparent fox red clinorhombic prisms. It is
insoluble in water but soluble in chloroform, and may thus be
separated from the biliverdin which is insoluble in chloroform.
United as a second basic acid with alkalies it is soluble in water. It is
easily obtained from the red gall-stones of man or ox, and is
chemically identical with hæmatoidin. Biliverdin (C32H36N4O8) is
an oxidized derivative of bilirubin and is insoluble in chloroform,
slightly soluble in ether and freely soluble in water. In addition to its
presence in bile it has been found in the placenta of the bitch. The
test for bile coloring matter is made by placing a drop of the
suspected liquid on a white porcelain plate and adding a drop of
impure, brown, nitric acid (nitric and nitrous acids). If bile is present
there is produced a beautiful play of colors passing from the green of
biliverdin, through blue, violet, red, and ending in yellow.
With regard to the formation of bile pigments in morbid
conditions it may be noted, that agents which dissolve the red blood
globules (such as bile acids or water), when injected into the veins
determine the appearance of bile pigment in the urine (Frerichs,
Kuhne). When we consider that an animal (dog) secretes ¹⁄₅₀ of its
body weight daily of bile, and that nearly all of this is re-absorbed
from the intestines, we can realize this as an important source of bile
and urinary pigments.
Of the bile acids, taurocholic is the most abundant in the bile of
man, birds, and of many mammals and amphibians, while
glycocholic acid is the more plentiful in the ox and pig. It is absent
in sucklings. The taurocholic acid has been found to prove most
destructive to red blood corpuscles, and in strong solution is
distinctly antiseptic, checking the development of bacteria, of the
alcoholic and lactic fermentations and of the tryptic and diastatic
action of pancreatic juice.
These are conjugate acids, formed by the union of cholic acid with
taurin and glycin respectively, and they are found almost exclusively,
in combination with soda in the bile. They are found in the liver and
do not accumulate in the blood when the liver has been removed.
They increase under an albuminous diet.
The test for bile acid, is to take the suspected liquid from which
all albumen has been precipitated, add a few drops of solution of
cane sugar, shake into a froth, and pour sulphuric acid, drop by drop,
down the side of the test tube. A reddish purple color appears in the
froth, and shows two absorption bands at E and F. Any albumen left
in the liquid will give the same color, but only one absorption band.
The secretion of bile is more abundant on animal than on
vegetable food, and on albuminous than fatty. It ceases during
hunger, but is increased by ingestion of water. Its solids are most
abundant one hour after feeding. It increases under a copious and
rapid blood supply, but is arrested by diminished blood flow, even
under increased pressure (in ligature of the vena cava in front of the
diaphragm). Vigorous exertion, drawing off blood to the muscles of
the trunk, diminishes the secretion of bile, while transfusion of
blood, up to a given grade of blood pressure increases it. Nervous
conditions, which cause contraction of the portal vessels, increase
the secretion by forcing more blood through the liver. Such are
strychnia or other stimulation of the valve of Vieussens, of the
inferior cervical ganglion, of the hepatic or splanchnic nerves, or of
the spinal cord. Fever causes its arrest.
The secretion of bile is further stimulated by the following :

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Bistatic SAR System and Signal

Processing Technology 1st Edition

Sweet Potato Processing Technology 1st Edition Cheng

Communications, Signal Processing, and Systems:

Peanuts Processing Technology and Product Development

Signal and Information Processing Networking and

Fundamentals of Signal Enhancement and Array Signal

Signal processing for neuroscientists Drongelen

Photonic signal processing Second Edition Binh

Random Signal Processing 1st Edition Shaila Dinkar Apte

Bistatic SAR System

ISBN 978-981-10-3077-2 ISBN 978-981-10-3078-9 (eBook)

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

Beijing, China Robert Wang

1 Fundamentals of Bistatic SAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Appendix A: The Principle of Stationary Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

6.3 Time-Domain Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

8.4 Multi-static Multi-baseline Interferometric Experiment . . . . . . . . . . 260

W a ðf s Þ Envelope of Doppler spectrum of antenna beam pattern

1.1 Introduction to BiSAR Development

A bistatic SAR system is characterized by the different locations of the transmitter

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 1

Fig. 1.1 Schematic of ESR/ADAS system (cf. [2])

Fig. 1.2 Image obtained by ESR/ADAS system (cf. [2])

Fig. 1.3 Schematic of E-SAR/RAMSES system

Fig. 1.4 Image obtained by E-SAR/RAMSES system (cf. [5])

Multifunctional Imaging Radar (PAMIR) was mounted on a Transall C-160 as a

Fig. 1.5 Schematic of AER-II/PAMIR system (cf. [7])

Fig. 1.7 Schematic of TerraSAR-X/PAMIR system (cf. [9])

and develop high-quality bistatic SAR imaging algorithms. The technique of

Fig. 1.9 Bistatic SAR image of double sliding mode

(5) Moving/Stationary Bistatic Experiments

coordinate image, which is presented isometrically. The color represents the

Fig. 1.14 Staring spotlight BiSAR image. Copyright by IECAS

1.1.1 History of Theoretical Research

interpolations. It has the characteristics of simpliﬁcation and minimal calculation.

1.1.2 Advantages and Application Prospects

From caponizing, accidental traumas, ruptured oviduct, perforations of bowels

Causes. Male birds contract peritonitis from caponizing, and other

Causes: follows peritonitis, obstruction of portal vein, tumors, hepatic diseases,

Causes. Ascites may be a remnant of a pre-existing chronic

Causes: as in horse, tuberculosis, in sheep distomatosis, chills when heated and

Glycogenic function. Glycogen derived through glucose and laevulose from

A large proportion of the fibrine formers are changed in passing

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