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Anoop Singh · Dheeraj Rathore Editors
Biohydrogen Production:
Sustainability of Current
Technology and Future
Perspective
Biohydrogen Production: Sustainability
of Current Technology and Future
Perspective
Anoop Singh • Dheeraj Rathore
Editors
Biohydrogen
Production:
Sustainability of Current
Technology and Future
Perspective
Editors
Anoop Singh Dheeraj Rathore
Department of Scientific and Industrial School of Environment and Sustainable
Research, Ministry of Science & Development
Technology, Government of India Central University of Gujarat
Technology Bhawan Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
New Delhi, India
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, there are two important and
interrelated global problems facing the humankind. They are the depletion of
fossil fuels (coal, petroleum and natural gas) and the environmental problems
caused by their utilisation. According to the best estimates, most of the fossil
fuels, which can be extracted at a reasonable cost, will be depleted by the end
of this century. The utilisation of fossil fuels is resulting into huge environ-
mental problems, such as climate change, global warming, ozone layer deple-
tion, acid rains, pollution, oxygen depletion and others. Carcinogens produced
by the combustion of fossil fuels are many times more than those produced
by cigarettes. Radioactivity produced by coal burning is many times greater
than those produced by nuclear power plants. We are observing more fre-
quent and stronger hurricanes, typhoons and tornadoes. We are also observ-
ing more and more droughts and floods. As global warming grows, they will
also grow in size and frequency. Oceans are rising due to melting glaciers and
ice caps. It is estimated that the cost of worldwide environmental and health
damages caused by fossil fuels is presently 8 trillion US dollars per year and
is growing.
There is an elegant solution to the above-described global problems. It is
replacing the fossil fuels by hydrogen produced from clean and renewable
energies. Hydrogen is the most efficient, the cleanest and the lightest fuel. It
is also renewable. Once we convert to the hydrogen energy system, we shall
never have to convert to another energy system, as we shall never run out of
hydrogen. So long as we have the sun and renewable energy sources, we shall
be able to produce clean and abundant hydrogen.
v
vi Foreword
Presently most of the energy demand is fulfilled by the fossil fuel. Global
petroleum demand has increased steadily from 57 million barrels day−1 in
1973 to 90 million barrels day−1 in 2013 and will continue to increase in line
with the world’s economy. The increasing energy demands will speed up the
exhaustion of the finite fossil fuel. United Arab Emirates, one of the major oil
export countries, would fail to meet the share in the oil and natural gas
demands by 2015 and 2042, respectively. The fossil fuel resources in Egypt
would be exhausted within two decades.
Using petroleum-based fuels creates atmospheric pollution during com-
bustion. Apart from emission of the greenhouse gas (GHG) CO2, air contami-
nants like NOX, SOX, CO, particulate matter and volatile organic compounds
are also emitted which leads not only to climate change but also to deteriora-
tion of environmental and human health. Continued use of fossil fuel is now
widely recognised as unsustainable. A renewable, carbon-neutral energy
resource is necessary for environmental and economic sustainability. Concern
for exhausting the availability of fossil fuel for fulfilling future energy demand
and considering changes in global climate by conventional energy resource
has diverted researchers towards exploring a way to environmentally safe and
sustainable energy resources. Finding sufficient supplies of clean energy for
the future is one of the most daunting challenges for humanity and is inti-
mately linked to global stability, economic prosperity and quality of life. A
rapid surge in research activities with intensive focus on alternative fuels has
been seen in the past decades in order to reduce the dependency on fossil
fuels, mainly by providing local energetic resources.
Biofuels are considered as the most environment friendly alternative
energy source because they are renewable and also sequester carbon.
Currently, biofuels are commercially produced from the food crops, develop-
ing serious ecological and socio-economical anxiety such as land use changes
and food-fuel competition issue. About 1 % (14 million hectares) of the
world’s arable land is able to produce current biofuels, to supply 1 % of global
transport fuel demand. Between 1980 and 2005, worldwide production of
biofuels increased by an order of magnitude from 4.4 billion litres to 50.1
billion litres. Clearly, increasing the share, it will be impractical due to the
severe impact on the world’s food supply and the large areas of production
land required. This is manifested by the recent increase in grain prices due to
utilisation of maize at large scale as a feedstock for production of fuel ethanol
in the USA. This caused riots in Mexico due to the increase in the price of
vii
viii Preface
tortillas, a staple food. Further, GHG saving is another constraint for develop-
ing a sustainable biofuel. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
has calculated that reductions of 25–40 % of CO2 emissions by 2020 and up
to 80 % by 2050 are required to stay within temperature range, i.e. less than
2 °C, to avoid dangerous climate changes worldwide. The production of sus-
tainable bioenergy is a challenging task in the promotion of biofuels for
replacing the fossil-based fuels to get a cleaner environment and also to
reduce the dependency on other countries and uncertainty of fuel price.
Among the various renewable energy sources, biohydrogen is a strong
candidate for future energy source by virtue of the fact that it is renewable,
does not evolve GHG and ozone layer-depleting chemicals in combustion,
liberates large amount of energy per unit weight in combution and is easily
converted into electricity by fuel cell. Hydrogen is also harmless to mammals
and the environment. Hydrogen can be produced safely and considered as the
ultimate cleanest energy carrier to be generated from renewable sources.
Progress in the late 1990s contributed to a breakthrough in terms of sustain-
able hydrogen production. There are various technologies (direct biophotoly-
sis, indirect biophotolysis, photo-fermentations and dark fermentation)
available for the production of biohydrogen from biomass/organic wastes,
and many of these technologies have some drawbacks (e.g. low yield, low
production rate, etc.), which limit the practical application. Studies on the
biohydrogen production have been focused on photo-decomposition of
organic compounds by photosynthetic bacteria, dark fermentation from
organic compounds with anaerobes and biophotolysis of water using algae
and cyanobacteria. Among these technologies, metabolic engineering is pres-
ently the most promising for the production of biohydrogen as it overcomes
most of the limitations in other technologies. The biohydrogen production
from biomass is particularly suitable for a relatively small and decentralised
system, and it can be considered as an important key for a sustainable renew-
able energy source.
The present book is an effort to provide an up-to-date information and
knowledge on the state of the art of biohydrogen production technology by
the internationally recognised experts and subject peers in different areas of
biohydrogen. It is a comprehensive collection of chapters related to choices
of feedstock, microbiology, biochemistry, molecular biology, enzymes and
metabolic pathways involved, bioprocess engineering, waste utilisation, eco-
nomics, life cycle assessment and perspectives of the biohydrogen production
in different countries and regions of the world and also include scale-up and
commercialisation issues. The introductory chapter (Chap. 1) gives a general
background for global energy statistics, available sources for energy supply,
options of renewable energy sources, benefits of adoption of biohydrogen and
its sustainability and future perspectives. The following chapter (Chap. 2)
reviews the potentiality of different biomass that can be utilised for biohydro-
gen production and also discusses various technologies for production of bio-
hydrogen and sums up with the required further research. Chapters (3 and 4)
focused on biohydrogen production from agricultural biomass and wastes to
analyse their suitability for biohydrogen production and also point out the
challenges for biohydrogen production from agricultural biomass and wastes.
Preface ix
There are several people behind the successful completion of this book. We,
the editors of this book, jointly express our gratitude towards our teacher
Professor S.B. Agrawal (Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India) for his inspiration and continuous support. We are thankful
to Surabhi Shukla from Springer who first approached us with the proposal
for the book and helped us crystallise our ideas on the topic. Afterwards
Raman Shukla, Dr. Mamata Kapila and Hemalatha Gunasekaran took over
and provided excellent support with all the administrative work. We also
thank all the authors who kindly agreed to contribute the chapters and worked
with us throughout the process. We are also grateful to the reviewers who
took time out of their busy schedule and critically reviewed the chapters of
this book and provided very valuable suggestions for their improvements.
This book is a labour of love for us since we spent a lot of our weekends and
free time on working on it. For this reason alone, our families deserved to be
thanked for bearing with us all this while. Anoop Singh likes to thank the
administration of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
(DSIR), Ministry of Science and Technology, government of India, for their
support. Dheeraj Rathore would like to thank the vice-chancellor of the
Central University of Gujarat, India, and dean of the School of Environment
and Sustainable Development, Central University of Gujarat, India, for their
unflinching support and encouragement towards this endeavour.
xi
Contents
xiii
xiv Contents
xv
xvi List of Editors and Contributors
Contributors
Abstract
Concern over sustainability of fossil fuel use is raised due to depleting fuel
resources and emitting greenhouse gases (GHGs) from it. Among many
alternative energy sources, biofuels, natural gas, hydrogen, and synthesis
gas (syngas) emerge as four strategically important sustainable energy
sources. As hydrogen gas is renewable, it does not evolve GHGs, and
releases large amount of energy in combustion of unit weight and hydro-
gen can also be easily converted into electricity by fuel cell. It could be a
strong candidate for future alternate energy resource. Biological H2 pro-
duction delivers clean H2 in sustainable manner with simple technology
and more attractive potential than the current chemical production of H2.
Although present industrial hydrogen production system is based on
chemical processing units, research trend on biohydrogen promises a
deafening potential of industrial biohydrogen production in the near
future.
1.1 Introduction
(Gullison et al. 2007). The researchers had sustainable energy sources in the foreseeable
pointed out the three basic assumptions in current future (Nigam and Singh 2011). Currently, most
policy debates on climate, energy, and GHGs of the biofuel production at commercial scale are
emissions, viz., (a) strong requirement for cleaner made using the food crops as raw material, devel-
energy production and conservation technologies oping serious ecological and socioeconomical
on a global scale, (b) the need for future man- concern, e.g., land-use changes and food vs. fuel
dates on emission reduction to be aligned with competition (Rathore et al. 2015).Most of the
the production of clean energy and energy- issues related to energy security, production, and
conservation policies, and (c) the need to act with consumption can be solved by utilization of bio-
urgency (Subhadra and Edwards 2010). hydrogen as fuel, as biohydrogen is renewable
Traditional fuels like wood, charcoal, agricul- and can be utilized as fuel for electricity, heat,
tural residues, and animal wastes are major con- and transportation purposes, with some modifica-
tributors to household energy supply in many of the tions to existing technologies and have potential
developing countries having agrarian economies to improve sustainability and reduce GHG emis-
(FAO 2005; Dhanya et al. 2013). The current dis- sions significantly (Rathore and Singh 2013).
posal practices for agricultural residues have This chapter is an attempt to bring out the sus-
caused widespread environmental concern as they tainability and future prospectus of utilization of
represent hindrance to sustainable development in biohydrogen as an energy source.
rural areas as well as to national economies
(Dhanya et al. 2013; Sheehan 2009). Environmental
contaminations due to faulty disposal of waste have 1.1.1 Global Energy Demand,
also necessitated identification of environmentally Supply, and CO2 Emission
sound and economically feasible technologies for
waste management (Prasad et al. 2007a, b). Energy is the backbone for civilization.
The concerns related to energy security, envi- Development of a nation is fueled by its energy
ronmental safety, and sustainability have encour- availability because one of the major inputs for
aged researchers toward alternative, renewable, economic development of every country is
sustainable, efficient, and cost-effective energy energy. The energy sector assumes a crucial
sources with lesser emissions (Singh and Olsen emphasis in view of the ever-increasing energy
2012). Renewable energy can play a decisive role demands necessitating big investments to meet
at global and national levels in dealing with the them. According to the recently published
concerns related to energy security, climate International Energy Agency (IEA) 2015 Key
change, eco-friendliness, and sustainability World Energy Statistics (IEA 2015a), the pri-
(Singh et al. 2010a, b, 2011). Hence, renewable mary energy supply of the world has grown by
energy sources as an alternative to conventional 122 % in 40 years, from approximately 6.10 bil-
fossil fuels have been depicted as the main energy lion tonne of oil equivalent (TOE) in 1973 to
supplier in the future that could increase the about 13.54 billion TOE in 2013. During this
energy-supply security and emission reduction period, a shift of fuel source is noticed as the
and render a stabilized income for farmers (Singh share of natural gas has enhanced from 16 % to
and Olsen 2012). The production of sustainable 24.1 %, while coal share increased only 4.4 %
renewable energy is a challenging task to replace and oil share is decreased by 15 %. The other/
the conventional fossil fuels to get cleaner envi- alternate sources of energy were also explored
ronment, to reduce the dependency on foreign and added about 5 % additional share during this
countries, and to cope up with the fuel price period (Fig. 1.1a). It is expected in the future that
uncertainty (Singh and Olsen 2012). the increase in the energy demand will depend
Among many alternative energy sources, bio- upon economic growth of emerging market coun-
fuels, natural gas, hydrogen, and synthesis gas tries, e.g., India, China, and the Middle East
(syngas) emerge as four strategically important (IEA, 2007, 2008, 2015b). An estimation has
1 Biohydrogen: Next Generation Fuel 3
been reported that there is an expected increase driven by China, India, Africa, Southeast Asia,
of 48 % over 25 years from about 11.43 billion and the Middle East. Non-OECD (Organisation
TOE during 2005 to about 17 billion TOE in for Economic Co-operation and Development)
2030 (Benchmarking of Biodiesel Fuel countries account for all the increase in global
Standardization in East Asia Working Group energy use because demographic and structural
2010). IEA raised its forecast of global oil economic trends, allied with greater efficiency,
demand to 93.6 million barrels per day in 2015 (a reduce collective consumption in OECD coun-
gain of 1.1 million barrels a day on the year) due tries from the peak reached in 2007 (IEA 2015b).
to increasing energy demand in India, China, and As projected by IEA (2007), the average annual
Europe and a spate of colder temperatures in the rate of energy consumption is to grow by 3 %
first quarter for heating purposes at homes and from 2004 to 2020 in developing countries.
factories. The IEA named this hike a “notable Energy demand in industrialized nations with
acceleration” from 2014 growth levels of 0.7 mil- mature economies and relatively low population
lion barrels per day (mb d−1) (Gallucci 2015). growth is expected to be at the lower rate of 0.9 %
Energy production and consumption are per year, admitted from a much higher starting
affected by disruptions, from wars to extreme point. About half of the increase in global energy
weather (BP 2015). The worldwide energy use in demand by 2030 will be for power generation
the central scenario of IEA is set to grow by one- and one-fifth for transport needs, mostly in the
third to 2040. The energy use growth is primarily form of petroleum fuels.
4 A. Singh and D. Rathore
IEA’s Factsheet proclaimed that “rising crude Presently most of the energy supply is based
oil-import needs of China and India, from the on fossil fuel with a minor portion coming from
Middle East and other regions, increase their renewable resources. Renewables Global Status
vulnerability to the implications of a possible Report published in 2014 accounted that about
shortfall in investment or a disruption to oil sup- 19 % of global final energy consumption in 2012
ply” (IEA 2014). Statistics of the factsheet dem- rendered by renewable and continued to grow in
onstrated that natural gas share in total 2013 (REN21’s Renewables Global Status
inter-regional fossil fuel trade rises by one quar- Report 2014). Among this 19 %, about 10 % is
ter to more than 20 % by 2040; the increasing furnished by modern renewables and the remain-
availability of liquefied natural gas (LNG) eased ing 9 % is accounted for traditional biomass. The
the gas security concerns. The increase in coal share of heat energy from modern renewable
trade is driven by strong Asian demand and sources in the total final energy use is about
likely to grow to 40 % by 2040. The rise in world 4.2 %, while hydropower contributed about 3.8 %
oil supply trend from 14 to 104 mb d−1 in 2040 and about 2 % is coming from solar, wind, bio-
hinges critically on timely investments in the mass, biofuels, and geothermal (REN21’s
Middle East. The rise in the production of natu- Renewables Global Status Report 2014).
ral gas at global level is in a near-linear fashion
to 5,400 bcm (billion cubic meter) in 2040, with
a major role for unconventional gas which 1.2 Renewable Energy Sources
increases its contribution in output from 17 % to
31 %. The coal demand at global level rises to Global dependence on fossil fuels has led to the
6,350 Mtoe in 2040 at a much lower rate (0.5 % release of over 1,100 GtCO2 into the atmosphere
per year) than over the last 30 years. The coal since the mid-nineteenth century. Currently,
demand growth is restricted by new air pollution energy-related GHG emissions, mainly from fos-
and climate policies in the main markets of the sil fuel combustion for heat supply, electricity
United States, China, and Europe. The acceler- generation, and transport, account for around
ated growth in coal use continues in India. Four 70 % of total emissions including carbon dioxide,
countries, viz., India, China, Australia, and methane, and some traces of nitrous oxide (Sims
Indonesia, alone account for more than 70 % of et al. 2007). With the situation of increasing
global coal output by 2040 that underscore energy demand and energy prices and implemen-
Asia’s importance in global coal trade and tation of policies for global warming reduction,
pricing. the sources of renewable energy have popular-
The carbon dioxide emissions by the con- ized. Renewable energy is not only providing the
sumption of fuels have increased by 107 % dur- energy but also a tool to solve several other prob-
ing the period from 1973 (15,515 Mt of CO2) to lems associated with the fossil energy, viz.,
2013 (32,190 Mt of CO2). The emission share of improving the energy security, resolving the
natural gas increased with the similar magnitude health and environmental anxiety, decreasing
of, while increase in the emission share of coal greenhouse gas emissions, and reducing poverty
consumption (~10 %) more than doubled to the by increasing the employment.
increase in the supply of coal (4.4 %) (Fig. 1.1b).
The emission share of other fuels is very less
(0.6 %) while it contributed about 18 % of global 1.2.1 Classification
energy supply. The share of energy supply by
other sources is majorly contributed by biofuels The inexhaustible renewable energy sources
and wastes (about 10 % of global energy supply include solar, wind, ocean, hydroelectric, bio-
during 2013). The remaining energy supply is mass, and geothermal energy. These renewable
contributed by nuclear energy, geothermal power, energy sources offer many environmental bene-
hydropower, wind energy, solar energy, etc. (IEA fits over to conventional energy sources. The dif-
2015a). ferent types of renewable energy sources have
1 Biohydrogen: Next Generation Fuel 5
on throughout the globe to make hydrogen as a et al. 2012; Basak et al. 2014). Several research-
carbon neutral fuel by producing it via biological ers favor dark fermentation or heterotrophic fer-
process (biohydrogen) and making it as a strong mentation under anaerobic conditions since it is
candidate to replace fossil fuel. Several technolo- low cost, high rate, and high hydrogen-yielding
gies, feedstocks, and pathways have been demon- process which can utilize various organic sub-
strated by researchers to produce biohydrogen, strates and carbohydrate-rich wastewater
and some laboratory and pilot-scale studies for (Hallenbeck and Ghosh 2009; Ghimire et al.
biohydrogen production by fermentations have 2015; Marone et al. 2015). In the dark fermenta-
come up with the promising results for industrial tion, hydrogen is produced as an intermediate
biohydrogen production (Show et al. 2011a, b). metabolite at the first stage and used as an elec-
Biohydrogen can be produced in three broad tron donor at the second stage by many methano-
ways: by biophotolysis (using microalgae), dark gens. It might be viable to harvest hydrogen
fermentation, and photo fermentation (Melis and produced in the first stage, leaving the remaining
Melnicki 2006; Manish and Banerjee 2008; acidification products for further methanogenic
Sinha and Pandey 2011; Show et al. 2011a, b; process (Show et al. 2012).
Rathore and Singh 2013; Basak et al. 2014). Bioreactor design to improve process effi-
Primarily the slow production rate and low ciency is another major aspect for the industrial
hydrogen yield are two common challenges for biohydrogen production. The yield and conver-
the biological hydrogen-producing systems. sion rates of biohydrogen bacteria in dark fer-
Results from the last two decades suggested an mentation are highly dependent on the reactor
encouraging scenario of biohydrogen production. type, reactor operating parameters, and media
There has been a significant improvement in the conditions. A good reactor design for biohydro-
yield and volumetric production rate of hydrogen gen dark fermentation should be able to operate
production and sanguine development in biologi- at very low hydraulic retention time (HRT) at the
cal hydrogen production routes. However, for same time avoiding the associated biomass wash-
industrial approach that makes a sense in hydro- out (Arimi et al. 2015).
gen economy, present production rate and hydro-
gen yield necessarily surpass the present
achievements (Show et al. 2011a, b, 2012). 1.5 Conclusion
By an estimate 80 kg of hydrogen per acre per
day could be produced by diverting the entire Continues increase in energy demand from the
photosynthetic efficiency of the algae toward individual to the national level keeping an extra
hydrogen production. In a realistic efficiency of burden on exhaustible fossil fuel. The use of fos-
50 %, hydrogen production cost comes close to a sil fuel not only causes threat to the environment
$2.80 a kilogram (Melis and Happe 2001). but also influences development of the country.
Though in the current scenario, below 10 % of the The use of renewable resources could be an alter-
algae photosynthetic capacity was utilized for native approach to resolve the problem of energy
biohydrogen production (Show et al. 2012). resource. Biohydrogen could be a next genera-
Researches on biotechnological approach to tion biofuel by eliminating constraints of first-
improve algal photosynthetic biohydrogen pro- and second-generation biofuels and able to
duction are underway and demonstrating promis- provide a sustainable option to replace current
ing result (Lay 2001; Oncel et al. 2015). energy carrier mix. Biohydrogen is a carbon
Choosing suitable process parameters such as neutral process, which can be obtained from a
illumination intensity, carbon to nitrogen ratio, variety of feedstocks. Nevertheless, biohydrogen
age of inoculums, and bioreactor configuration is a potential candidate for future energy source,
can significantly improve the overall yield for which could largely contribute to the energy
biological hydrogen production by photo fermen- security, improve air quality, and provide eco-
tation of purple non-sulfur bacteria (PNS) (Show nomic stability and social equitability.
8 A. Singh and D. Rathore
Ma T, Chen M, Wang C, Mao Z, Jiang M (2013) Study on Sekoai PT, Daramola MO (2015) Biohydrogen produc-
the environment-resource economy comprehensive tion as a potential energy fuel in South Africa. Biofuel
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hydrogen. IEA, Paris. 3 Mar 2003 drogen: current perspectives and future prospects. In:
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FOOTNOTES
[1] Fox, Journal, I, 53.
[2] Now called Fenny Drayton (see Friends Library, I, 28).
[3] Fox, Journal, I, 49.
[4] Sewell, Hist., I, 11.
[5] Fox, Journal, I, 49.
[6] Ibid., 50.
[7] Sewell, Hist., I, 12.
[8] Fox, Journal, I, 51.
[9] Ibid., 52.
[10] Ibid., 53.
[11] Myers, A. C., Immigration of Irish Quakers into Pa., 5.
[12] Brown, in Traill, H. D., Social England, IV, 258.
[13] Ibid.
[14] Barclay, R., Inner life of Religious Societies of the
Commonwealth, 77.
[15] Wicks, B. L., The Amish Mennonites, 13-18.
[16] Sewell, Hist., I, 284.
[17] Pa. Ger. Soc., IX, 166.
[18] Chalkley, Journal, Friends Library, VI, 27.
[19] Ibid.
[20] Besse, Sufferings of the Quakers, II, 450f.
[21] Pa. Ger. Soc., IX, 401.
[22] Pa. Mag. of Hist., II, 250; Seidensticker, Erste deutsche
Einwanderung in Amerika, 29-33.
[23] Brown, J. in Traill, Soc. England, IV, 259.
[24] Ibid.
[25] Besse, J., Sufferings, II, 539-638.
[26] Fox, G., Journal, I, 73; also 264-265.
[27] Ibid., 71.
[28] Friends Lib., I, 129.
[29] Fox, G., Journal, II, 76f.
[30] Min. Middletown Mo. Mtg., 9-2-1699.
[31] Fox, Journal, II, 57.
[32] Friends Lib., I, 72.
[33] Fox, Journal, I, 53.
[34] Ibid., 72.
[35] Ibid., 69.
[36] Ibid., 327.
[37] Ibid., II, 105.
[38] Letters, London Yearly Meeting, 4-10, 14-1717.
[39] Friends Lib., I, 68.
[40] Ibid.
[41] Fox, Journal, I, 179.
[42] Ibid., 362.
[43] Ibid., 363.
[44] Fox, Journal, 11, 52f.
[45] Ibid.
[46] Ibid., 67.
[47] Friends Lib., I, 69.
[48] Friends Lib., 117.
[49] Ibid., 125.
[50] Min. Horsham Mo. Mtg., 3-1-1797.
Min. Horsham Preparative Mtg., 12-20-1757.
[51] Friends Yearbook, 1917, 16f.
[52] Friends Yearbook, 1917, 16f.
[53] Min. Phila. Q. Mtg., 9-4-1728.
[54] Ibid., 6-30-1689.
[55] Many of the local preparative meetings are now closed.
[56] Min. Horsham Prep. Mtg., 1-27-1783.
[57] Min. Horsham School Com., 1792-1816, one vol.
[58] Min. London Yearly Mtg., 4-9, 11-1690.
[59] Min. London Yearly Mtg., 4-1, 4-1691.
[60] Ibid., 3-13, 17-1695.
[61] Ibid., 4-7-1745.
[62] See first chapter.
[63] Min. London Yearly Mtg., 4-10-1718.
[64] Fox, Journal, II, 57.
[65] Bib. of Ackworth School (Eng.), p. VII.
[66] History of Ayton School, 1f.
[67] Min. Middletown Mo. Mtg., 11-6-1750.
[68] Min. Middletown Mo. Mtg., 6-1-1751.
[69] Min. Darby Mo. Mtg., 1-28-1790.
[70] Min. Phila. Yearly Mtg., 7-24-1798.
[71] Min. Richland Mo. Mtg., 3-21-1793.
[72] Extracts Buckingham Mo. Mtg., 12-2-1776.
[73] The two localities at the first establishment constituted but
one yearly meeting, which met at each place in alternate years.
[74] Cox, S. H., Quakerism, 56-57; for similar criticism, see
Bugg, Francis, The Quakers Detected, etc.; also Bowden, History,
II, 35, recognizes the criticisms made.
[75] Cox, S. H., Quakerism, 142-3.
[76] This point was further explained in Chapter I.
[77] pp. 7ff.
[78] Penn, Advice to his Children in vol. of tracts, II, 20.
[79] Ibid.
[80] Penn, Letters to Wife and Children; Tracts on Moral and
Religious subjects, pub. 1822, 6f.
[81] Penn, Letters to Wife and Children; Tracts on Moral and
Religious subjects, pub. 1822, 6f.
[82] Friends Library, V, 208.
[83] Minutes Philadelphia Mo. Mtg., 7-30-1779, 151.
[84] Extracts London Yearly Meeting Minutes and Advices, pub.
1802, 124.
[85] Necessary for use of missionaries in foreign fields.
[86] Schools established in England.
[87] Barclay, Apology, II.
[88] Vaux, Memoirs of Benezet, 10-11.
[89] Vaux, Memoirs of Benezet, 13.
[90] Chapter on Negro Education, pp. 235f.
[91] Letter to Samuel Fothergill. Friends Library, IX, 220.
[92] Ibid., 221.
[93] Ibid.
[94] Ibid.
[95] Vaux, Memoirs of Benezet, 15-16.
[96] Friends Library, IX, 221.
[97] Vaux, Memoirs, 105.
[98] See chapter on negro education, pp. 234f.
[99] Woolman’s Works, 305-6.
[100] Ibid.
[101] Tuke, Works, III, 95ff.
[102] Corinthians, Chap. 2:1-5.
[103] Tuke, Works, III, 95ff.
[104] Ibid.
[105] The Christian Quaker, 181.
[106] Crouch, W., Collection of Papers of, 183.
[107] Wister, Sally, Journal, 13-14.
[108] Established 1754 (M. P. C. S., I, 117.)
[109] Ibid.
[110] Phipps, Original and Present State of Man, 90.
[111] Phipps, Original and Present State of Man, 65.
[112] Ibid., 90.
[113] Ibid.
[114] Budd, Good Order Established, p. 9.
[115] Budd, Good Order Established, p. 43ff.
[116] Budd, Good Order Established, p. 43ff.
[117] Ibid.
[118] Ibid.
[119] Ibid. Friends Library, I, 435.
[120] Summary of Doctrines of Friends, 23-24.
[121] Friends Library, I, 135; Accounts of expenditures from the
J. Walton Fund, II, p. 1. (Richland Monthly Meeting.)
[122] Ibid.
[123] Religious Instructions in Our Schools. No. 9 of a vol. of
pamphlets.
[124] In this chapter a chronological organization is followed.
[125] Quoted from Watson, Annals, I, 15. (From New Castle
Records.) (Proud’s statement of the 24th is said by some to be a
typographical error.) The writer has, however, examined Proud’s
MS. notes on the Rise and Progress of the City of Philadelphia in
which he writes: “The Honorable Proprietary and Governor of
Pennsylvania, William Penn, first arrived at New Castle, on
Delaware, in October 24th, 1682.” He also states “after the 11th
month (January) with the assistance of his surveyor general,
Thomas Holmes, he first began to lay out the plan of the City of
Philadelphia.” (MS. No. 10, p. 1.) (These two statements point the
difference of opinion among scholars, which is still unsettled.)
[126] Jenkins, Memorial Hist., I, 39.
[127] Ibid.
[128] Ibid., 30.
[129] Ibid., 37.
[130] Col. Rec., I, XXVI.
[131] Pub. Sch. established by law, 1834.
[132] Col. Rec., I, XXVI.
[133] Ibid., I, XXXVI.
[134] Ibid., LXVI.
[135] Ibid., XXXVI.
[136] For example, E. Flower’s School; Friends’ petition.
[137] Col. Rec., I, 36.
[138] Ibid., I, 93.
[139] See Charter of 1701, Col. Rec., II, 54.
[140] Ibid.
[141] G. S. P. P., II, 154 (Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 5-26-1689.)
[142] Stat. at Large of Pa., III, 37-38.
[143] Ibid., IV, 208-210.
[144] Ibid., I, 252. (Phila. Min.)
[145] When they established the school with Keith as teacher.
[146] Michener, Retrospect of Quakerism, 243.
[147] G. S. P. P., II, 154 (Phila. Min.); Proud MS. No. 3, p. 115.
[148] Ibid., I, 252. (Phila. Min.)
[149] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 5-26-1689.
[150] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 1-28-1690.
[151] Ibid., 3-29-1691.
[152] Ibid., 2-26-1690.
[153] Ibid.
[154] Ibid., 3-29-1691.
[155] Jenkins, Memorial Hist., I, 99.
[156] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 3-29-1691.
[157] Ibid., 11-29-1691.
[158] Ibid.
[159] Ibid., 3-29-1691; 9-27-1691; 11-29-1691; 7-29-1692.
[160] Ibid., 4-30-1693.
[161] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 8-30-1696; 7-25-1696.
[162] Janney, Life of Penn, 347; Clarkson’s Penn, II, 53;
although biographers and historians mention this letter written to
Lloyd, no student has yet been able to produce it or tell where it
is. It is hoped that their search will be rewarded.
[163] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 10-31-1697.
[164] Ibid., 11-28-1697.
[165] Ibid.
[166] Col. Rec., I, 499.
[167] Col. Rec., I, 499.
[168] Ibid.; Janney, Life of Penn, 347.
[169] William Penn’s Charters for the Public School, pp. 1-8.
(A certified copy from charter in Patent Book two (2) page 202,
in dept. of internal affairs, Pa.)
[170] Ibid., pp. 11-19.
[171] William Penn’s Charters for the Public School, pp. 21-31.
(See also Robert Proud’s MS. papers, No. 175, p. 57.)
[172] In 1757 more extended privileges were desired and the
following petition was sent to the Representative Assembly: